2006 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium
Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://hdl.handle.net/2152/80069
Proceedings for the 2006 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium. For more information about the symposium, please see the Solid Freeform Fabrication website.
The Seventeenth Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF) Symposium, held at The University of Texas in Austin on August 14-16, 2006, was attended by 101 national and international researchers from ten countries. Papers addressed SFF issues in computer software, machine design, materials synthesis and processing, and integrated manufacturing. The diverse domestic and foreign attendees included industrial users, SFF machine manufacturers, university researchers and representatives from the government. The Symposium organizers look forward to its being a continuing forum for technical exchange among the expanding body of researchers involved in SFF.
The Symposium was again organized in a manner to allow the multi-disciplinary nature of the SFF research to be presented coherently, with various sessions emphasizing process development, design tools, modeling and control, process parameter optimization, applications and materials. We believe that documenting the changing state of SFF art as represented by these Proceedings will serve both those presently involved in this fruitful technical area as well as new researchers and users entering the field.
This year’s best oral presentation, “Repeatability Analysis of 304L Deposition by the LENS® Process”, was given by David Gill from Sandia National Laboratories-New Mexico, (co-authors John Smugeresky and Clinton J. Atwood). Selection was based on the overall quality of the paper, the presentation and discussion at the meeting, the significance of the work and the manuscript submitted to the proceedings. Selected from over 60 oral presentations, his presentation appears on Page 770 of this Proceedings. The best poster presentation selected from 14 posters was given by Hongyi Yang of the University of London (co-authors Xiaopeng Chi, Shoufeng Yang and Julian R. G. Evans). The paper title was, “Direct Extrusion Freeforming of Ceramic Pastes”. The article appears on Page 304.
The editors would like to extend a warm “Thank You” to Rosalie Foster for her detailed handling of the logistics of the meeting and the Proceedings, as well as her excellent performance as registrar and problem solver during the meeting. We are grateful to Bryan Blackmur and Cindy Pflughoft who helped with Proceedings production. We would like to thank the Organizing Committee, the session chairs, the attendees for their enthusiastic contributions, and the speakers both for their significant contribution to the meeting and for the relatively prompt delivery of the manuscripts comprising this volume. We look forward to the continued close cooperation of the SFF community in organizing the Symposium. We also want to thank the Naval Research Laboratory and the National Science Foundation (DMI- 0621169s) for supporting this meeting financially. The meeting was co-organized by the University of Connecticut at Storrs, and the Mechanical Engineering Department, Laboratory for Freeform Fabrication and the Texas Materials Institute at The University of Texas at Austin.
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Item Development of an Automated Multiple Material Stereolithography Machine(2006) Inamdar, Asim; Magana, Marco; Medina, Frank; Grajeda, Yinko; Wicker, RyanAn automated Multiple Material Stereolithography (MMSL) machine was developed by integrating components of a 3D Systems 250/50 stereolithography (SL) machine in a separate stand-alone system and adapting them to function with additional components required for MMSL operation. We previously reported retrofitting a 250/50 SL machine with multiple vats to accommodate multiple material fabrication for building a wide variety of multi-material models (Wicker et al., 2004). In the MMSL retrofit, spatial constraints limited the multiple vats located circumferentially on a vertical rotating vat carousel to cross-sectional areas of approximately 4.5-inches by 4.5-inches. The limited build size of the retrofitted 250/50 motivated the full development of a new system with multiple material build capabilities comparable to the build envelope of the original 250/50 machine. The new MMSL machine required fabrication of a large system frame, incorporating various 250/50 components and software, and adding a variety of new components and software. By using many existing components and software, the previous engineering development of 3D Systems could be directly applied to this new technology. Components that were transferred from an existing 250/50 to the MMSL machine included the complete optical system (including the optics plate with laser, mirrors, beam expander, scanning mirrors, and focusing lens), the rim assembly (including the laser beam profilers), the associated controllers (computer system, scanning mirror controller, power supply-vat controller) and the wiring harness. In addition to the new frame, the MMSL machine required the development of a new rotating vat carousel system, platform assembly, multi-pump filling/leveling system, and a custom LabVIEW® control system to provide automated control over the MMSL process. The overall operation of the MMSL system was managed using the LabVIEW® program, which also included controlling a new vat leveling system and new linear and rotational stages, while the 3D Systems software (Buildstation 4.0) was retained for controlling the laser scanning process. As a demonstration of MMSL technology, simple multi material parts were fabricated with vertically and horizontally oriented interfaces. The fully functional MMSL system offers enormous potential for fabricating a wide variety of multiple material functional devices.Item Repeatability Analysis of 304L Deposition by the LENS® Process(2006) Gill, David; Smugeresky, John; Atwood, Clinton J.Sandia National Laboratories is currently engaging in an effort to qualify Laser Engineered Net Shaping™ (LENS®) as a repair and modification process for high rigor metal components. As part of that effort, the LENS team has conducted a process repeatability test to help identify variation within the system. This test utilized 304L stainless steel which is a commonly used material at Sandia. Over the course of 12 weeks, 3/8”x3/8”x2” towers were built in sets of 3 with a total of 30 towers completed. A random sampling of 10 of these towers (1 from each set of 3) had been identified before depositing the towers, and these towers were used for tensile testing and metallographic testing. The testing showed the ultimate and yield strengths of all samples to be well above those of annealed 304L. This is expected because of the rapid melt pool solidification present in the LENS process and the resulting grain refinement. The ductility, which usually remains on par with annealed 304L, was found to be lower. The final cause of this loss of ductility was determined to be inter-layer separation due to loose wires in the closed loop melt pool control system.Item High Speed Sintering – Continuing Research into a New Rapid Manufacturing Process(2006) Thomas, Helen R.; Hopkinson, Neil; Erasenthiran, PoonjolaiHigh Speed Sintering (HSS) is an emerging layer manufacturing technique aiming to break into the lucrative field of Rapid Manufacturing (RM). The process is likened to Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), however, instead of a laser dictating the sintered cross sectional area of each layer, the desired area is first printed using a Radiation Absorbing Material (RAM) and then sintered using an inexpensive infrared lamp. This paper begins by describing the sintering process in more detail and then outlining the overall manufacturing cycle. It then continues by describing the experiments performed to investigate the current problem concerning the hardness of excess powder within the powder bed. This problem arose due to the continual exposure of the whole bed to infrared radiation from the lamp. The experiments showed that as the power of the IR lamp increased, the hardness of the bed also increased. Furthermore, at higher IR power levels it was found the excess powder produced a solid tile which could only be broken down by a glass bead blaster.Item Layer Formation Studies in Selective Laser Melting of Steel Powders(2006) Badrossamay, M.; Childs, T. H. C.This paper advances the findings of the selective laser melting (SLM) of tool steel and stainless steel powders. The distinguishing feature is the melting of single layers in deep powder beds by a continuous CO2 laser. First, effect of process parameters on the surface roughness for each material is investigated. Based on these results combined with visual observation of the solidified tracks, the question is then discussed as how the processability of various type of steels is changed. The results show that surface morphology of layers is affected strongly by scan spacing, thereby giving a lower average roughness at reduced scan spacing. The effect of scan speed is also remarkable. In addition, other roughness parameters such as the peak height and skewness are found to be useful tools for evaluation of laser melted surfaces.Item Structurally Embedded Electrical Systems Using Ultrasonic Consolidation (UC)(2006) Siggard, Erik J.; Madhusoodanan, Anand S.; Stucker, Brent; Eames, BrandonCurrent research has demonstrated the use of Ultrasonic Consolidation (UC) to embed several USB-based sensors into aluminum, and is working toward embedding suites of sensors, heaters and other devices, connected via USB hubs, which can be monitored and controlled using an embedded USB capable processor. Additionally, the research has shown that electronics can be embedded at room temperature, but with some inter-layer delamination between the ultrasonically bonded aluminum layers. Embedding sensors and electronics at 300o F to overcome the delamination issues resulted in optimal bonding, and the sensors used thus far have functioned normally. Future investigation will explore other UC parameter combinations to ascertain the quality of embedding at lower temperatures.Item Effect of a Distributed Heat Source on Melt Pool Geometry and Microstructure in Beam-Based Solid Freeform Fabrication(2006) Bontha, Srikanth; Klingbeil, Nathan W.The ability to control geometric and mechanical properties of parts fabricated using laser-based manufacturing processes requires an understanding and control of melt pool geometry and microstructure. With the development of electron beam manufacturing or future beam-based deposition processes, the user may have more control over the distribution of incident energy, so that beam width becomes a potential process variable. As such, the focus of this work is the effect of a distributed heat source on melt pool geometry (length and depth) and the thermal conditions controlling microstructure (cooling rates and thermal gradients) in beam-based solid freeform fabrication. Previous work by the authors has employed the Rosenthal solution for a moving point heat source to determine the effects of process variables (laser power and velocity) on solidification cooling rates and thermal gradients controlling microstructure (grain size and morphology) in laser-deposited materials. Through numerical superposition of the Rosenthal solution, the current work extends the approach to include the effects of a distributed heat source for both 2-D thinwall and bulky 3-D geometries. Results suggest that intentional variations in beam width could potentially enable significant changes in melt pool geometry without affecting microstructure.Item Freeform Bioprinting of Liver Encapsulated in Alginate Hydrogels Tissue Constructs for Pharmacokinetic Study(2006) Chang, R.; Starly, B.; Sun, W.; Culbertson, C.; Holtorf, H.; Gonda, S.An in vitro model that can be realistically and inexpensively used to predict human response to various drug administration and toxic chemical exposure is needed. By fabricating a microscale 3D physiological tissue construct consisting of an array of channels and tissue-embedded chambers, one can selectively develop various biomimicking mammalian tissues for a number of pharmaceutical applications, for example, experimental pharmaceutical screening for drug efficacy and toxicity along with apprehending the disposition and metabolic profile of a candidate drug. This paper addresses issues relating to the development and implementation of a bioprinting process for freeform fabrication of a 3D cell-encapsulated hydrogel-based tissue construct, the direct integration onto a microfluidic device for pharmacokinetic study, and the underlying engineering science for the fabrication of a 3D microscale tissue chamber as well as its application in pharmacokinetic study. To this end, a prototype 3D microfluidic tissue chamber embedded with liver cells encapsulated within a hydrogel matrix construct is bioprinted as a physiological in vitro model for pharmacokinetic study. The developed fabrication processes are further validated and parameters optimized by assessing cell viability and liver cell phenotype, in which metabolic and synthetic liver functions are quantitated.Item An Evaluation of Non-Stochastic Lattice Structures Fabricated Via Electron Beam Melting(2006) Cansizoglu, O.; Cormier, D.; Harryson, O.; West, H.; Mahale, T.Metal foam structures have many applications and can be used as structural supports, heat exchangers, shock absorbers, and implant materials. Stochastic metal foams having different cell sizes and densities have been commercially available for a number of years. This paper addresses a different type of foams which are known as non-stochastic foams, or lattice structures. These foams have a well defined repeating unit cell structure rather than the random cell structure in commercially available stochastic foams. The paper reports on preliminary research on the fabrication of non-stochastic Ti-6Al-4V alloy foams using the Electron Beam Melting process. Behavior of the structures in compression, bending, and low cycle repeating load tests are discussed, and recommendations about cell geometry and processing conditions are made.Item Practical Issues in the Application of Direct Metal Laser Sintering(2006) Jacobson, D. M.; Bennett, G.Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) was introduced to meet the objective of producing metal parts directly from CAD data. CRDM has accumulated six years of experience in applying this technique, mostly to prototyping parts for evaluation. For some applications, such as blow moulds, porosity generated in DMLS has proved to be beneficial, but for others a concession on tolerances or finish are necessary and/or complementary operations are required, which add to manufacturing time and cost. This paper examines such issues through some well chosen examples of parts to demonstrate both the strengths and weaknesses of the DMLS process.Item Selective Laser Sintering of Passive Dynamic Ankle-Foot Orthoses(2006) Faustini, Mario C.; Neptune, Richard R.; Crawford, Richard H.; Stanhope, Steven J.Passive dynamic ankle-foot orthoses (AFO’s) are used to improve gait performance in those with various neuromuscular disorders. An important design characteristic of passive dynamic AFOs is the storage and release of elastic energy within its structure to help satisfy the energetic demands of walking. Thus, minimizing energy dissipation through internal friction is a fundamental criterion for selecting the appropriate AFO material. This study compared the mechanical damping of a carbon-fiber AFO to three geometrically identical AFO’s fabricated using selective laser sintering with different materials. Mechanical damping characteristics ranked the materials as Nylon 11 (best), followed by DuraformTM PA and DuraformTM GF (worst).Item Computer Generation of Metal Components by Simultaneous Deposition of Mould, Cores and Part(2006) Mohebi, Masoud M.; Yang, Shoufeng; Evans, Julian R. G.A new solid freeforming method based on co-delivery of mould powder materials and part powder materials using vibration-controlled, dry powder valves is presented in this paper. Thin layers of stainless steel powder are delivered to the forming area according to the cross-section of the CAD file to produce the component. Mould powder which has low sinterability is delivered to the non-forming areas of the same layer. All powders are delivered by computer-controlled, acoustic powder valves. The flow rate and switching of the valves provides the composition and shape control during fabrication. The stacked layers of loose powder are then sintered in a conventional furnace. The mould materials are removed after sintering. This method avoids the high thermal stress problem in selective laser sintering, avoids high capitalisation, makes use of conventional furnaces and allows for the incorporation of three dimensional function gradients. Test pieces including step wedge and Spierpinski’s cube were fabricated. Advantages, limitations and problems are discussed.Item UV-Photolithography Fabrication of Poly-Ethylene Glycol Hydrogels Encapsulated with Hepatocytes(2006) Starly, B.; Chang, R.; Sun, W.The development of biomanufacturing technologies particularly, layered manufacturing has advanced cell encapsulation processes in an effort to mimic the cellular microenvironment for invitro studies. This paper illustrates an inexpensive UV-photolithographic method for encapsulation of human hepatocytes in three dimensional structures using poly-ethylene diacrylate (PEGDA) hydrogels as candidate substrates. In order to further develop this technology for layered fabrication, we have quantified the long-term effects of the photo-initiator concentration and UV light exposure on the metabolic rates of encapsulated human hepatocytes under a 21 day study. The photoinitator toxicity was observed immediately after polymerization with no significant cytotoxicity on a long term basis. A cellular viability is examined and reported for the UV photopolymerization process. Cell phenotype maintenance was observed by measuring the amount of urea produced over a 1 week time period. This photo encapsulation process may find use in the fabrication of spatially complex 3D scaffolds for tissue engineering applications, elucidation of the 3D structure-pharmacokinetic response relationship and the fabrication of complex multi-compartment liver tissue analog devices for drug screening applications.Item Freeze-Spray Processing of Layered Ceramic Composites(2006) Fu, Q.; Jongprateep, O.; Abbott, A.; Dogan, F.Thermal gradients and associated stresses are critical in designing with ceramic composites having low thermal conductivity. In order to reduce the stresses from thermal gradients, compositional gradients are employed in designing of composite structures. This study addresses development of freeze-spray process to fabricate layered ceramic structures with controlled layer thickness and microstructural development. The composites were processed by spraying of ceramic slurries with low binder content and relatively high solids loadings (up to 40 vol%) on a cooled substrate. The frozen parts were freeze-dried and sintered at elevated temperatures. The relationship between microstructural development and thermal expansion behavior of Al2O3 and Y2O3-stabilized ZrO2 functionally graded ceramic composites is discussed.Item ME Design and Freeform Fabrication of Compliant Cellular Materials with Graded Stiffness(2006) Gupta, Guarav; Tan, JunJay; Seepersad, Carolyn ConnerTypically, cellular materials are designed for structural applications to provide stiffness or absorb impact via permanent plastic deformation. Alternatively, it is possible to design compliant cellular materials that absorb energy via recoverable elastic deformation, allowing the material to spring back to its original configuration after the load is released. Potential applications include automotive panels or prosthetic applications that require repeated, low-speed impact absorption without permanent deformation. The key is to arrange solid base material in cellular topologies that permit high levels of elastic deformation. To prevent plastic deformation, the topologies are designed for contact between cell walls at predetermined load levels, resulting in customized, graded stiffness profiles. Design techniques are established for synthesizing cellular topologies with customized compliance for static or quasi-static applications. The design techniques account for cell wall contact, large scale deformations, and material nonlinearities. Resulting cellular material designs are fabricated with selective laser sintering, and their properties are experimentally evaluated.Item Advanced Ceramic Materials and Processes for Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)(2006) Utela, Ben; Anderson, Rhonda L.; Kuhn, HowardThe University of Washington and ExOne, Inc. are collaborating in the development of advanced ceramic materials and processes for three-dimensional printing (3DP). The focus of the research to be presented is work funded by the National Science Foundation to develop a biocompatible alumina-based system for medical and dental applications. Materials design, characterization, and processing considerations will be discussed.Item Exploiting the Design Freedom of RM(2006) Watts, D. M.; Hague, R. J.This paper details how Rapid Manufacturing (RM) can overcome the restrictions imposed by the inherent process limitations of conventional manufacturing techniques and become the enabling technology in fabricating optimal products. A new design methodology capable of exploiting RM’s increased design freedom is therefore needed. Inspired by natural world structures of trees and bones, a multi-objective, genetic algorithm based topology optimisation approach is presented. This combines multiple unit cell structures and varying volume fractions to create a heterogeneous part structure which exhibits a uniform stress distribution.Item Effect of Structured Laser Pulses on Grain Growth in H13 Tool Steel(2006) Sparks, Todd; Ruan, Jianzhong; Fan, Zhiqiang; Bao, Yaxin; Liou, FrankItem A Preliminary Study on Using Multi-Nozzle Polymer Deposition System to Fabricate Composite Alginate/Carbon Nanotube Tissue Scaffolds(2006) Yildirim, E.; Yin, X.; Guceri, S.; Sun, W.Three-dimensional composite alginate/single wall carbon nanotube (SWCNT) scaffolds encapsulated with endothelial cells were fabricated by a multi-nozzle biopolymer freeform deposition system. This system enables the converting of CAD designed scaffold pattern into process toolpaths and the use of computer control program to guide the nozzle deposition at spatial position for layered fabrication of 3D tissue scaffolds. The morphological, mechanical, structural and biological properties of as-fabricated scaffolds were characterized by optical microscope, SEM, Microtensile testing machine, Alamar Blue Assay, and Live-Dead Assay, respectively. The multi-nozzle deposition system demonstrated a highly efficient and effective process to build tissue scaffold or cell embedded constructs. Characterization results showed that the incorporation of SWCNT into alginate not only enhanced the mechanical strength of the scaffolds but also improved the cell affinity and the interaction with substrate. Further cell culture experimental results also showed that the incorporation of SWCNT in alginate enhanced endothelial cell proliferation compared with pure alginate scaffold.Item Determination of Transformation Matrix in a Hybrid Multi-Axis Laser-Aided Manufacturing System and its Practical Implementation(2006) Vijayan, Ajay Panackal Padathu; Sparks, Todd; Ruan, Jianzhong; Liou, FrankItem Hybrid Prototypes to Assist Modeling Automotive Seats(2006) Ferreira, J. C.; Madureira, H.; Beira, R.The development of new modular seats is an important issue in the automotive industry. However, is very time consuming and costly. Virtual models and hybrid prototypes could accelerate the car seats development process. The hybrid prototypes are mainly manufactured by rapid prototyping with multi materials. The objective of this paper is to establish a methodology to develop innovative lightweight multi-functional, modular car seats to be used in Multi-Purpose Vehicles (MPV), by means of FEA simulation and rapid prototyping additive/subtractive technologies utilizing multi materials. A case study is presented to validate the developed methodology. The manufactured hybrid prototype’s reproduces the main functionalities of the MPV modular seat, namely its three key positions: normal, stored and table.