Browsing by Subject "ADHD"
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Item An adapted summer treatment program for children with ADHD : investigating program effectiveness and moderators of treatment outcome(2022-07-29) Chahal, Zohra; Stark, Kevin Douglas; Carlson, Cindy I., 1949-; Gray, Jane; Bond, Mark; Tannenbaum, SarahAttention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a chronic neurodevelopmental disorder. Clinical practice guidelines established by the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend behavioral treatments as a first-line intervention for preschool and elementary-aged children with ADHD. The Summer Treatment Program (STP) is one such treatment, providing intensive intervention to children with ADHD in the form of an 8-week summer day treatment program. Despite promising outcomes, the STP model remains largely cost-prohibitive for mental health teams and for families. Camp Baker, developed by Judge Baker Children’s Center, is a 6-week adaptation of the STP model intended to be more feasible and accessible to children and families in need than the traditional 8-week program. Despite the preliminary evidence and support for the implementation of this adapted STP, further investigation is needed to understand the overall effectiveness of this treatment model in terms of clinically meaningful and interpretable outcomes and to identify subpopulations of children with particularly strong or poor response to this specific intervention. This is the first study to investigate both program effectiveness and moderators of treatment outcome for participants of a 6-week adaptation of the STP delivered in a community setting.Item An experimental assessment of visual attention and sign language comprehension in ADHD and neurotypical second language learners of American Sign Language(2023-04-21) Joyce, Taylor Renee; Quinto-Pozos, DavidSign language requires the perceiver’s visual attention, whether accessed in the foveal or peripheral vision; managing visual attention in real-world conversation is a skill second language (L2) sign learners may need practice to master. This task may be a challenge for an individuals with differences in visual attentional processing, such as those with ADHD, but little research on atypical signed L2 learners exists to date. This report introduces a novel online experiment to investigate visuo-attentional differences in hearing, L2 signers of American Sign Language while undergoing signed language comprehension. Participants attempt to rapidly perceive both linguistic and non-linguistic visual stimuli in their immediate and periphery vision while attending to a visual anchor. A small analysis of L2 signers finds a robust effect of the attentional manipulation (distance from stimulus to anchor), but conflicting evidence for sensitivity to linguistic factors such as sign complexity, sign frequency, and the difference between signed language and non-linguistic gestural stimuli. Importantly, this task is demonstrated to be successful at probing visuo-attentional mechanisms in a sign language processing context, and will be suitable for a test population between neurotypical and ADHD L2 ASL learners. Further, the results suggest that even somewhat experienced L2 signers may be relying on general perceptual, rather than specific linguistic, processes for sign and sign-like stimulus processing, which serves important implications for L2 signed language learners of all neurotypes.Item Boundary disturbances in marriage : links with triadic family interactions(2006-05) Loch, Lisa, 1973-; Jacobovitz, DeborahIn the present study, role disturbances in the marriage, that is, partners treating one another as a parent or child, predicted triadic enmeshment and triadic controlling behavior, the triadic boundary disturbances found to forecast ADHD and depressive symptoms in middle childhood above and beyond the emotional climate of the marriage. The ratio of positive to negative affectivity was negatively related to triadic disengagement, indicating that positive affectivity in the marriage predicted engagement, or generationally and developmentally appropriate levels of closeness between family members, two years later. Dyadic flexibility was negatively associated with triadic enmeshment, or the extent to which one parent turned to the child or the other parent to meet his or her unmet needs in a way that violated generational boundaries or appropriate family roles.Item Developmental antecedents of ADHD symptoms in middle childhood : the role of fathers’ emotionally disengaged parenting and children’s emotional underregulation(2021-07-09) Aquino Aguilar, Gabriela Alejandra; Jacobvitz, DeborahApproximately 6.1 million children in the United States are diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Although most studies that examine the etiology of ADHD focus on genetic aspects of disorder, research suggests that it is the interaction between biological and environmental factors that plays a key role in the development of ADHD. As the prevalence of ADHD continues to increase, it is imperative to understand the family antecedents of this disorder. Three path analysis models were conducted to examine the longitudinal influence of prenatal marital hostility and emotional disengagement on mothers and fathers’ hostile and emotionally disengaged parenting and, subsequently, children’s emotional underregulation in predicting later ADHD symptoms. The findings revealed that fathers’ emotional disengagement predicts children’s emotional underregulation and, subsequently, children’s later ADHD symptoms. Implications of this study and directions for future research are discussedItem Dichotomizing spelling errors to examine language and executive function abilities in children at risk of reading failure(2011-08) Kayser, Kimberly Anne; Nussbaum, Nancy; Carlson, Cindy I., 1949-; Allen, Greg; Beretvas, Tasha; Lasater, LisaSubstantial evidence emphasizing the importance of linguistic systems in reading acquisition, as well as emerging literature identifying the contribution of executive function to linguistic-based difficulties, underscores the importance of clarifying the neurocognitive mechanisms affecting reading performance. Research demonstrating the interrelationship between reading and spelling, coupled with neurocognitive theories of spelling, suggests that analysis of children’s spelling attempts may capture more subtle differences in their understanding of how to decode text. This study aimed to determine the utility of applying a spelling error analysis system as a method for differentiating between reading difficulties resulting from executive dysfunction or language deficits in a sample of children at risk for reading failure. The present study examined the relationship between executive function, language, and spelling achievement in a sample of 82 children aged 6-15 years identified as having a reading deficit and/or diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Hierarchical regression analyses indicated language-based skills, particularly word reading, and age significantly predicted the phonemic equivalency of misspellings. Tasks of executive functioning were not found to significantly contribute to performance on phonological spelling; however, analysis of group differences suggest that ADHD and Reading Deficit groups demonstrated unique cognitive profiles, including distinct performances on executive functioning tasks. Exploratory analyses also revealed that ADHD and Reading Deficit groups differed significantly in phonological spelling performance. Results from the current study provide evidence for the presence of two distinct underlying cognitive processes affecting spelling and, in effect, reading. Current findings have implications for the need to further examine characteristic deficits in language and executive functioning affecting children at risk for reading failure. Findings also provide support for the validity of further investigating the potential to infer differential diagnostic categories using a phonological spelling analysis. The use of an analysis of spelling errors as a diagnostic data source holds promise for a better understanding of reading failure and, ultimately, may contribute to more effective intervention practices.Item Differentiation in the foreign language classroom : including students with disabilities in secondary foreign language classes(2015-05) Trawick, Jessie Elisabeth; Horwitz, Elaine Kolker, 1950-; Tackett, Kathryn KlinglerForeign language teachers are not generally given information about how to work with students with disabilities. However, it is important for these students to have access to FL classes, both for the cognitive benefits that they offer and for path to higher education. This report offers my reflections on how to differentiate instruction in foreign language reading and writing to students with disabilities as well as typically developing students. I believe that both groups will benefit from the practices I describe here.Item Disclosure Concerns: The Stigma of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Writing Centers(2016) Stark, Savannah; Wilson, JulieItem Does time perception underlie delay discounting?(2013-08) Berman, Rachel Elisabeth; Tucker, David M., 1953-; Carlson, Caryn L.Delay discounting, the belief that rewards decline in value over time, is a phenomenon observed in several clinical disorders, including Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), substance abuse disorders, and other impulse control disorders. Delay discounting behavior is characterized by a tendency to choose smaller, more immediate rewards over larger, more delayed rewards. This tendency has been associated with behavioral impulsivity and inability to delay gratification observed in the aforementioned clinical disorders. It has been suggested that time perception may be a salient feature of delay discounting. If the larger, longer-term reward is perceived as being more temporally remote, its relative value decreases and is associated with greater cost, and one becomes more likely to choose the more immediate reward over the longer-term (though optimal) choice. Time perception has been studied in clinical populations, with increased variability of responses as well as both under-production and overestimation of time intervals observed in those with ADHD and other disorders associated with impulsivity. The present study used informational feedback via a metronome to change belief regarding duration of a second--either increasing or decreasing it by approximately 20%. Participants were 132 college-aged students with and without a diagnosis of ADHD. Measures of impulsivity and ADHD symptomatology were collected as well, and participants completed several cognitive tasks measuring working memory and processing speed to explore the impacts of these measures on delay discounting and time perception. While participants were able to reliably incorporate the altered second belief into short estimations of time (i.e., less than a minute), the manipulation failed to generalize to longer-duration temporal estimations, and it did not affect delay discounting. Neither ADHD symptomatology, impulsivity, nor performance on the cognitive tasks were related to delay discounting behaviors, though a working memory measure was correlated with baseline (pre-manipulation) time and one longer duration estimation. This lends support to a relationship between working memory and temporal perception, though the relationship between temporal perception and delay discounting remains elusive. Directions for future studies to clarify the role of temporal processing and ADHD in delay discounting are discussed.Item The effect of internalizing symptomatology on executive functioning performance and processing speed in children with ADHD(2010-08) Christopher, Gina B.; Nussbaum, Nancy; Carlson, Cindy I., 1949-; Keith, Timothy Z.; Sander, Janay B.; Bunner, MelissaAttention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common childhood psychological disorders with prevalence estimates ranging from 3%-7% (APA, 2000) and one of the most thoroughly studied child neurocognitive disorders. Children with ADHD have consistently shown executive functioning and processing speed deficits on a variety of measures (Berlin, Bohlin, Nyberg, & Janols, 2004; Geurts, Verté, Oosterlaan, Roeyers & Sergeant, 2004; Nigg, 1999; Nigg, Blaskey, Huang-Pollock & Rappley, 2002). The research on executive functioning deficits in other childhood disorders has been comparatively lacking. There is some research that suggests that internalizing disorders, such as anxiety and depression, can also have a detrimental effect on certain executive functioning domains (Airaksinen, Larsson, & Forsell, 2005; Christopher, & MacDonald, 2005; Emerson, Mollet, & Harrison, 2005). It is unclear how these internalizing symptoms will impact executive functioning, processing speed and fine motor control in children with ADHD. The purpose of this study is to determine whether the presence of internalizing symptoms impacts the ability of children with ADHD to perform executive functioning, processing speed, and fine motor control tasks. In order to assess this, the predictive ability of gender, ADHD subtype, parent ratings of anxiety, and parent ratings of depression were examined for processing speed, working memory, response inhibition, vigilance and fine motor control tasks. Gender was found to predict differences in working memory, response inhibition and fine motor control. ADHD subtype was found to predict differences in response inhibition. Parent ratings of anxiety were found to interact with ADHD subtype to predict some aspects of vigilance. Parent ratings of anxiety and of depression were found to predict differences in other aspects of vigilance looking across gender and subtype. Finally, teacher ratings of anxiety were found to predict differences in working memory.Item The effect of semantic features on gist and verbatim memory in young adults with language-learning disabilities(2013-05) Blau, Megan Johanna; Sheng, Li, Ph. D.This thesis is an expansion of an ongoing examination of gist and verbatim memory in young adults with language-learning disabilities (LLD) using the DRM paradigm (Deese, 1959; Roediger & McDermott, 1995). This study uses lists based on situation semantic features in addition to DRM lists based on backwards associative strength (BAS), which were categorized as strong-, mid-, and low-BAS (Stadler, Roediger, & McDermott, 1999). Items in each list (e.g., bacon, toast, cereal, muffin) related to a non-presented word (e.g., breakfast): the critical lure (CL). BAS is a measure of the likelihood that a list item will elicit the CL. Thirty young adults participated in this study and were divided into three groups: true LLD, compensated LLD, and typically developing (TD). Participants listened to word lists and verbally recalled the words they remembered hearing. Accurate recall was an indicator of verbatim memory; CL recall was an indicator of gist memory. The true LLD group recalled CL at a significantly higher rate than the other groups in the case of the situation lists; additionally, the compensated LLD group recalled CL for the low-BAS lists at a significantly higher rate than the other groups. These findings suggest that the LLD participants may process semantic information differently or may rely on gist memory to a greater extent than the TD controls. Results also indicated list type differences for both verbatim and gist recalls, supporting the effects of both semantic features and BAS together with other factors.Item Examining Working Memory and Forgetfulness Through Serial Position Curves(2023-12-10) Whitmarsh, Caroline E.Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Inattentive Presentation (ADHD-Inattentive) is broadly thought to involve deficits in executive functioning. Difficulties maintaining a mastery of one’s physical environment (e.g., frequently losing personal items in public spaces or one’s home) and struggles with daily mental orientation (e.g., remembering one’s schedule or maintaining a mental checklist) are common symptoms of ADHD-Inattentiveness. Taken together, these symptoms describe the general concept of forgetfulness. However, minimal research examining the specific etiology of this forgetfulness exists. The present study sought to examine the relationship between working memory and experiences of inattentive forgetfulness through serial position curves. To accomplish this, participants completed a working memory task modeled after the Baddeley et al. (1984) articulatory loop study, followed by a continuous performance task adapted from the Conners CPT 3 for ADHD assessment. Finally, participants completed a self-report survey regarding their personal experiences with forgetfulness and inattention. Participant performance on the working memory task was used to create serial position curves. Ultimately, negligible differences between the serial position curves of attentive and inattentive groups emerged. As such, the present study suggests that isolated working memory cannot solely account for experiences with inattentive forgetfulness.Item Executive Functions In Children With ADHD Or Internalizing Symptoms(2018-05) Barnes, EmilyChildren with disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, or depression often struggle academically and face poorer life outcomes. Impaired cognition in children with disorders could be the result of deficits in executive functions (EFs). EFs are attentional processes that coordinate and control other cognitive processes, and support goal directed behaviors. Large behavioral studies have reported four main factors of EF: inhibitory control, switching, working memory, and updating. Literature is mixed as to whether ADHD and internalizing disorders such as anxiety or depression are related to consistent EF difficulties. The strongest evidence is that ADHD may be linked with inhibitory control and working memory deficits, while anxiety and depression may be linked with switching and working memory deficits. This study examined the relationships between three tests of EF ability and symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, and internalizing problems in children, using continuous measures of symptom burdens and EF abilities. Response times on the switching task related most strongly to disorder symptom burdens, with faster responses correlated with lower parent rated ADHD symptom burdens and higher self-rated internalizing symptom burdens. However, these scores were not significantly different based on presence or absence of a diagnosis. Our results indicate that continuous measures of symptom burdens across a large sample of children were more sensitive than diagnostic information in identifying relationships between EF abilities and symptoms of ADHD and internalizing disorders. Results are discussed in the context of diagnosis, EF variability, and child-parent scoring consistency.Item How nurses talk about ADHD in preschool-age children : a discourse analysis(2017-05-05) Morris, Marian, Ph. D.; Rew, Lynn; Becker, Heather; Johnson, Karen E.; Rolin, Donna; Palmer, DeborahMental disorder (MD) diagnoses such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are occurring in U.S. children under the age of 5. Frequency of medication treatment is increasing for preschool-age children beyond what guidelines direct. There is debate among health care professionals (and specifically nurses) about whether MD rates such as those of ADHD constitute an epidemic of disease or a sociological trend toward diagnosing MD as a response to managing behavioral and emotional problems (BEP) of children, or both. How the problem is discussed changes how the problem is perceived and addressed. The purpose of this exploratory descriptive study was to investigate how the discourse of nurses about ADHD and related BEP in children under age six culminates in a child’s receiving an ADHD diagnosis and treatment. The aim was to describe how nurses talk about diagnosing and treating BEP in children under age six (preschool-age) in various settings (clinic, school, and psychiatric). This study’s design was based in a critical realist (CR) epistemology (i.e., reality is socially constructed with discourse and a material/physical dimension). The methodology was discourse analysis (DA, close examination of text) and the method critical DA (CDA) in order to identify discursive and extra-discursive elements related to how nurses talk about ADHD and related BEP in preschool-age children in the interests of considering improvements in nursing care. Thirteen semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed using critical discourse analysis. Findings were a variety of discourse stances and relationships to their immediate and wider social environments, demonstrating how nurse practices are determined by their discursive patterns but also producing them. A school-to-clinic-topsychiatry “pipeline” of situational momentum surfaced in the analytic process for preschool-age children being considered for an ADHD diagnosis. Nurses demonstrated in their discourse how children came to be diverted or directed along that diagnosis and treatment pipeline. Almost all participants demonstrated conflicted language – discourse patterns that affirmed psychiatric and DSM-style language and representations, but also alternative language and representations that undermined, replaced, or openly critiqued psychiatric and DSM characterizations of ADHD. Recommendations are made regarding nursing education, theory, practice, research, and policy.Item Is exercise the better alternative for stimulant medication in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder?(2022-05-06) Altman, Gonie; Lalande, Sophie; Kaur, JaseepAttention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) affects 3–7% of the child and adolescent population, and more recent studies show out of this population the disorder progresses into adulthood in 10–60%. A clear imbalance in the literature on ADHD has shown itself and the majority of studies focus on male diagnoses and symptoms (mADHD) over female diagnoses and symptoms (fADHD). Reasons as to why this gap exists is speculated to be due to differing symptom expression and/or misconception of sex impacts. Nevertheless, we know ADHD stems from a disruption of DA release within the frontal lobe which effects one’s cognitive processing and behavioral characteristics. The origin of this disruption is still unclear, but stimulant medications are the current gold standard in mitigating the low levels of DA found in individuals diagnosed with ADHD. Unfortunately, some individuals experience severe side effects and are intolerant to such medications, therefore, researchers are interested in finding more non-stimulant alternatives. A potential option is exercise due to its ability to augment the release of insulin growth factor (IGF) and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). These neurotrophic factors improve cognitive function and are linked to estrogen levels, therefore BDNF can potentially explain the sex differences in symptomology and promote neurogenesis improved cognitive function.Item Listening comprehension difficulties in children with co-occurring language impairment and ADHD(2011-05) Shaw, Whitney Nicole; Bedore, Lisa M.; Pena, ElizabethThe purpose of this report is to explore whether listening comprehension difficulties are due to receptive language impairment or attention deficits in school-age children. This evidence-based practice brief analyzes research within this population and gives suggestions on clinical implications for practicing speech-language pathologists related to intervention. Results show that listening comprehension is impaired in children whether or not they have co-occurring language impairment. However, ADHD does not further impair a child with a language disorder. Intervention for this population should focus on increasing the child’s understanding of causal connections, making inferences, and effective ways to study.Item The mediating effects of rapid automatized naming on children's inattention symptoms and word-reading ability(2011-05) Smith, Stephen William, 1981-; Keith, Timothy, 1952-; Carlson, Cindy; Nussbaum, Nancy; Sander, Janay; Tucker, DavidAttention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Reading Disability (RD) are among the most common childhood disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) and co-occur significantly more frequently than expected by chance (Dykman & Ackerman, 1991; Semrud-Clikeman et al., 1992). Similar processing deficits are seen in children with ADHD and children with RD, one of which is rapid automatized naming (RAN) (Denckla & Cutting, 1999). These continuous performance tasks require quick naming of visually represented stimuli. Uncertainty about what RAN actually measures, however, makes drawing conclusions about relations to ADHD and RD difficult (Tannock, 1998). By better understanding the cognitive processes involved in RAN, and how those processes relate to ADHD and RD symptoms, the relations among RAN, ADHD, and RD might be better understood. The current study sought to identify variables that would help explain ADHD and RD children’s difficulty with RAN. Five fundamental, neurocognitive skills were hypothesized to be related to RAN performance, ADHD, and reading disability. The effect of children’s phonological awareness, processing speed, working memory, fine-motor speed, and reaction time on their RAN performances was measured. The extent to which these same variables were related to inattention symptoms severity and word-reading ability was also assessed. Finally, the extent to which RAN mediated the effects of neurocognitive skills on inattention symptoms and word-reading ability was measured. By simultaneously measuring the hypothesized relations among variables, the processing deficits responsible for ADHD and RD children’s problems on RAN may be revealed. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze assessment data (i.e., neurocognitive, RAN, and word-reading performance scores; parent-report of inattention symptoms) of 183 children who received neuropsychological evaluations. Results indicated the following significant direct effects: phonological awareness and working memory on word-reading ability, processing speed and working memory on RAN, and RAN on word-reading ability. A possible significant mediation effect of processing speed on word-reading ability through RAN was also shown. Significant effects of study variables on inattention symptoms were not shown, which limited conclusions about RAN’s relation to ADHD. Results are of practical importance in RD assessment because the relation between RAN and word-reading ability was shown to involve processes beyond phonology.Item Observing relationships between hyperactivity and impulsivity and language performance in typically developing 5-year-olds(2016-05) Reeves, Alison Margaret; Booth, James R.; Sheng, LiThis study seeks to observe connections between hyperactivity/impulsivity or inattention with expressive or receptive language performance in typically developing five year olds. The hypothesis of the study is that higher hyperactivity/impulsivity is related to lower scores in expressive language and higher inattention is related to lower scores in receptive language. The study was performed by comparing results of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals - Fifth Edition (CELF-5) with the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Rating Scale (ADHD-RS) Parent Report. No significant correlations were observed between hyperactivity/impulsivity or inattention with the expressive or receptive composite scores of the CELF-5. However, two CELF-5 subtests, Following Directions and Recalling Sentences, were significantly correlated with inattention, suggesting a relationship with working memory. Future studies may include children who have been diagnosed with ADHD or Specific Language Impairment (SLI) to observe whether or not more salient differences in hyperactivity/impulsivity, inattention, receptive language, or expressive language produce significant correlations between these measures.Item The relationship between social skills and academic achievement for individuals with ADHD : a literature review and research proposal(2013-05) Lide, Bradley Lanneau; Schallert, Diane L.The following report draws on previous research as a rationale for a proposed study investigating the link between social skills and academic achievement for individuals with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The literature lends basis to the hypothesis that social skills may ameliorate the negative outcomes associated with ADHD. ADHD is related to negative outcomes in academic and social domains, including underachievement and exclusion. This is of particular importance because of the prevalence of ADHD and the frequency of social demands. In this report, the literature on academic achievement of individuals with ADHA is reviewed and a study is proposed that would contribute to establishing social skills as a moderator of the relationship between ADHD and academic achievement. Suggestions for other areas of research are also considered.Item Social functioning, social cognition, and executive functioning differences associated with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder subtypes(2012-08) Kerne, Valerie Van Horn; Nussbaum, Nancy; Sherry, Alissa René; McCarthy, Christopher J.; Keith, Timothy Z.; Bunner, Melissa R.ADHD is a well researched disorder in children and is associated with impairments in social functioning (Barkley, 2006). However, little is known about the etiology of social difficulties. An emerging body of literature is beginning to address the possible role social cognition may share in the social functioning outcomes in children with ADHD (Buitelaar et al., 1999; Corbett & Glidden, 2000; DaFonseca et al., 2009; Rapport et al., 2002; Sibley et al., 2010; Yuill & Lyon, 2007). Yet, research focusing on social cognition deficits in ADHD that accounts for subtype differences is limited. Some studies evaluated social cognition in CT children only (Corbett & Glidden, 2000; DaFonseca et al., 2009; Rapport et al., 2002) while other research utilized behavior ratings or sociometric studies (Matthys et al., 1999; Zentall et al., 2001). Another body of literature has examined the impact executive functioning deficits may have on social functioning (Barkley, 1997; Charman et al., 2001; Chhabildas et al., 2001). The purpose of the current study was to identify factors that predict social functioning impairments in children with ADHD as well as differentiate between ADHD subtypes. Participants included 89 youth with ages ranging from 6 to 16 years (M = 10.19, SD = 2.76). Forty-nine children met the diagnostic criteria for ADHD, Predominantly Inattentive Subtype (PI) and 40 for ADHD, Combined Type (CT). Results indicated CT youth demonstrated more aggressive and rule-breaking behavior than PI youth. Measures of social cognition did not predict ADHD subtype, and when compared to a normative sample, participants performed in the average range on affect recognition and theory of mind tasks. Performance-based measures of executive functioning largely associated with inattention (i.e., vigilance, processing speed, and working memory) best predicted subtype differences with CT youth being more impaired. Executive functioning, not social cognition, was predictive of social maladjustment in CT and PI youth. For CT youth, deficits in emotion control, shift, and initiate were related to anxiety, aggressive behavior, and depressed mood. Similarly, emotion control and shift were predictors of aggressive behavior, anxiety, and depressed mood in PI youth with deficits in self-monitoring, initiate, and inhibit as secondary predictors.