The University of Texas Bulletin No. 3634: September 8, 1936 PICTURE STUDY IN ELEMENT ARY GRADES Designed Especially for Assistance of Teachers who ar.e Training for Interscholastic League ture Memory Contests Pupils Pic- By Florence Lowe Head of Art Department Sam Houston State Teachers Colleire Bureau of Public School Interests Division of Extension PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AUSTIN The University of Texas Bulletin No. 3634: September 8, 1936 PICTURE STUDY IN ELEMENT ARY GRADES Designed Especially for Assistance of Teachers who are Training for Interscholastic League ture Memory Contests Pupils Pic- By Florence Lowe Hea.d of Art Department Sam Houston State Teachers Colleee Bureau of Public School Interests Division of Extension Published by the University four times a month and entered as second-class matter at the postoffice at Austin, Texas, under the act of August 24, 1912 The benefits of education and of useful knowledge, generally diffused through a community, are essential to the preservation of a free govern­ment. Sam Houston Cultivated mind is the guardian genius of Democracy, and while guided and controlled by virtue, the noblest attribute of man. It is the only dictator that freemen acknowledge, and the only security which freemen desire. Mirabeau B. Lamar COPYRIGHT, 1936 BY THE UN IVERS I TY OF TEXAS I. THE ARTIST'S TOOL CHEST THERE are four important items in an artist's tool chest -line, form, notan, and color. Of course, he uses pencils, brushes, paints, and many other things, but these are only the material means of providing his real tools. These four elements are used in building the composition just as sound is used by the mu­sician as the tool for producing a beautiful sonata. Using the Tools In pen and ink sketching, etching, lithograph and similar types of art expression, line is the only tool used, although lines may be grouped to­gether to give the effect of notan-i.e., dark and light. Colors have dark and light qualities in themselves; so when an artist works in color he is using all four of his tools. Pictures can be reproduced effectively in sepia or black and white so that nothing but the color is lost. We can even reduce them to a line analysis and they still retain their identity. This makes it possible to understand the fact that every picture in color has an underlying scheme of dark and light and that within the dark and light pattern is a line plan. Although the artist often uses light and shade as a means of developing the dark and light plan of his picture, the two terms must not be confused. Light and shade is simply the grada­tion of light to dark or dark to light used by the artist to suggest solidity in objects, while dark and light refers to the pattern or design made by the contrast of one mass against another. The art of the sculptor and the architect depend largely upon the ele­ment of form as expressed in solid materials. The painter suggests form by means of light and shade and perspective. Interesting arrangements of line, form, notan, and color cause an emo­tional reaction in the sensitive ob­server as intense as that provoked by subject matter. These arrangements affect us through the eye just as sound stimulates us through the ear. The observer may be unconscious of this effect and may think that it is the subject matter alone which he enjoys. Many modern artists try to produce various emotional effects by means of line, form, notan, and color in abstract arrangements. The problem of the artist, then, is to use his tools in a way that will produce an emotional or intellectual response which is consistent with his theme. Without it the picture lacks that true harmony which lifts it out of the field of mere picture making into the realm of the fine arts. Understanding the Artist The cultivation of art appreciation means the developing of ability to understand and enjoy the manner in which the artist portrays his idea. Pictures are rich in literary con­tent and sentimental associations of various kinds. These are so closely related to aesthetic feeling that peo­ple often fail to make a distinction between them. A visitor to a museum was heard to state her preference for a certain picture because the trees in it looked like those on her grandfath­er's farm. If this happened to be her only reason for choosing the picture, it is probable that she was appreciat­ing the trees on her grandfather's farm rather than the picture as a unit of beauty, complete in itself. Hers was appreciation of nature rather than art. If she could have sensed the careful adjustment of one mass to another, the rhythm of line formed by the objects in the picture and the richness of the color, she would have had a basis for the enjoyment of pic­tures not limited to the field of her own experiences. When we lead children to feel pleasure upon seeing the elements of art used in a fine way we are laying the foundation for their understand­ing and enjoyment of not one picture alone but all the art of the ages. II. BUILDING A PICTURE p!CTURES ARE built upon structural principles just as definitely as a house is con­structed according to a plan which was first conceived and drawn by an architect. Great pictures are seldom, if ever, the result of merely copying things as they appear in nature. There is always a selection of material and careful consideration of the arrangement of that material. Many artists make a large number of trial sketches before the final plan is chosen. Pictures which have won the admiration of art lovers have been found to conform to certain fundamental principles of arrange­ment. Sometimes these have been given conscious consideration by the artist in the planning of the picture, or they may be the result of his sensi­tiveness to line, dark and light, ana color. The Dominant Idea Our first glance at a picture should impress us with one dominant idea. This may be a central object or group of objects which seem more important than the rest of the picture. Fre­ quently this is accomplished by means of contrasting color and tone or the lines of the composition may be related in a way that will lead the eye to a central area. In Gains­ borough's Blue Boy the cold blue of the boy's suit against the warm brown of the backgr0und holds the eye strongly to the central figure. A more frequently used device is that of making the central figures or objects in warm or light colors while the surrounding parts are kept cool and soft in color. Mauve, in "Spring," di­ rects the attention of the observer to a point near the head of the shepherd by means of allowing all the impor­ tant lines to centralize there. Hob­ bema's "Middleharnais Avenue" is constructed like a spider's web with all lines leading in toward the center. This directing of attention to the central objects is designated as the principle of subordination because all parts of the picture must contribute something to the dominant idea and . yet remain subordinate to it. Repetition Border designs are pleasing be­cause of the principle of rhythm. The regular repetition of the same or similar things awakens in us a re­sponse not unlike the pleasure we feel as we watch the waves in a large body of water break upon the shore in rhythmic order. In all well planned pictures there is a certain amount of r h y th m through repetition. In Raphaels' Madonna of the Chair it is interesting to note the rhythmic lines of the circular motive. These are carefully adjusted to each other and to the shape of the picture which is itself a circle. Opposition While some repetition is essential to the success of any composition, too much of it without variation may produce monotony. To avoid this there must be a note of contrast. This may be found in lines which introduce a change of direction or in contrast of color and tone. Thus opposition be­comes a third principle of composi­tion. Transition Too many opposing elements in a picture may cause a crudity of rela­tionship which is undesirable. In landscape composition the artist often harmonizes the strong perpendicular lines of tree trunks with an equally dominant horizon line, by placing hills in the distance. The slanting lines of the hillsides tend to form a transitional line between these two directions. In "End of Day," by Adan, the position in which the tools are carried helps to tie the perpendicular lines of the tree trunk and the figure to, the horizontal line of the ground. Nature observes this principle of transition in the soft curves of tree branches where they grow out from the trunk, and in the human hand there is a web-like structure between the fingers which does away with sharp angles. This is true of many other nature forms. Balance All people are somewhat sensitive to balance. When we look at a pic­ture we unconsciously estimate the weight of the objects we see there. If one part of the picture seems to contain too much weight for the other parts we sense the lack of bal­ance. The Japanese are fond of balancing a small object with a large one in the same way that a little child on a teeter board must be given more board when he teeters with a larger child. The trees in Corot's "Spring" exemplify this in that the small tree is given more space in the picture according to its size than the larger group. Also the figures are grouped near the small tree, giving it added weight. Principles of Composition The principles of composition may be listed as follows: Subordination, rhythm, opposition, transition (some­times called unity), and balance. These have been discussed mainly from the standpoint of pictorial composition but they apply equally well to all forms of the space arts which include architecture, interior decoration, sculpture, costume design and others. Finding these principles in pictures helps to develop a power of appreciation which is independent of subject matter or interest in mere surface qualities. References: Composition, A. W. Dow; Art in the School, Belle Boas. III. SECURING THE CENTER OF INTEREST ONE of the first art ideas to be grasped by the child is that each picture contains one dominating center of interest; that is, one point of attraction around which the rest of the composition seems to be built. In some pictures this center is represented by a single object and in others by a group of objects. Occasionally we find a picture in which no specific object appears at the center of interest but the same effect is achieved by developing a cer­tain area of the composition in some unique way. In the test on unfamiliar pictures the students are asked to de­cide which of several devices the artist has chosen as a means of di­recting attention to the center of interest. Contrast of Value, Color or Size One of the simplest ways of secur­ing a center of interest is to make one object larger than anything else in the picture. This may be done by choosing, for the central object, some­thing which is naturally larger than anything else in the composition, and keeping all objects in proportion; or by placing the central object so near the observer that all other objects must be smaller because of the effect of perspective. (See "Blue Vase" by Cezanne and "Near the River Seine" by Seurat.) In many pictures still greater va­riety is secured by using contrast of value and color. Even though the cen­tral object remains similar to other objects on size, it can be given a suffi­cient amount of importance by mak­ing the value and color different from that of surrounding areas. The white dress in "Age of Innocence," and the white robe of the Boy in "Boy Christ in the Temple" are examples of con­trast of tone. The red dress in "Children of Charles I" provides con­trast of color. In the last mentioned picture the group of children may be considered the center of interest, but of these, the one in the red dress is the most outstanding figure. Action, Pose and Interesting Design Although the subject-matter of the picture offers no opportunity for se­curing a center of interest through contrast of size, value or color, the artist still has at hand a means of obtaining a good result. He can make his figures so unique in design or pose them in such an interesting way that the eye is attracted to them. In "ln­fanta Margarita Theresia" the elab­orate design of the child's dress helps to establish the center of interest. In "The Storage Room" and in "Return of the Fishermen" the action expressed by the poses of the figures holds the interest of the observer. How many other pictures can you find which se­cure the center of interest in this way? Lines Leading to a Central Point Lines usually form the most im­portant basis of any composition. The eye follows line. For this reason line arrangements offer a valuable device for directing attention to any desired point. The places where lines meet or cross attract the attention irresist­ibly. Even the natural convergence of the vanishing-lines in perspec­tive achieves this result. Study "Avenue of Trees," and "Battersea Bridge" in order to discover the play of line direction. In "Boy Christ in the Temple" the pronounced direction of gaze of the old men provides a substitute for definite lines. Framing of Central Area The artist always encounters a problem in "getting around the cor­ners" of his picture. Corners must be kept subdued in order that atten­tion shall not be directed away from the center of interest. Too much in­terest in the corners leads the eye out of the picture. A device frequently used, to avoid attention at corners, is that of placing objects so that their edges form transitional lines between the perpendicular and horizontal boundaries of the picture. This helps the eye to move around a central area. Sometimes the same effect is secured by having the observer see the im­portant things through an arch or ar­cade of trees, branches, columns or other similar forms which serve as a "frame" around the central area. In "Storage Room" the doorways frame the rooms beyond, in "Dance of the Nymphs" the trees frame the area in which some of the figures dance, and in "Age of Innocence" the child's head is placed against a light blue area which is framed by the dark brown of the corners and foreground of the picture. Many Devices Used in Each Picture Seldom does an artist limit himself to one device for establishing the cen­ter of interest, but, having once estab­lished it he uses every available means of strengthening it, at the same time retaining the harmony of the composition. Ordinarily one or more of the devices used is evident upon examination of the picture. In the contest the child is given oppor­tunity to select two devices which he thinks are outstanding. This plan should avoid confusion in cases where there is doubt as to which means is of greater importance in securing the result. The child should always choose the ones which he believes are the most important. IV. SUBJECT MATTER IN PICTURES A GREAT theme does not in­ sure a great masterpiece in painting any more than it does in literature, yet the artist's choice of subject matter is an important part of his problem. Artists become noted for their manner of handling certain sub­jects, just as writers do. To find and develop those subjects which best suit his own person­ality and manner of expression is the desire of every artist. Thus the study of the artist's selection of subject matter be­comes interesting to every pic­ture lover. Still-Life Any object, no matter how insig­nificant it may appear, can be made attractive when used as a motif for composition in the hands of certain artists. Ordinary objects of every­day use become marvels of beauty and harmony when arranged in the proper setting and painted in an in­teresting way. Cezanne was espe­cially gifted in ability to create at­tractive arrangements of still-life objects. Flowers, fruit, vases, and bowls were his favorite themes. Any object which does not possess the power of voluntary movement is usually classified as "still-life" in painting. Although landscapes and interiors might, in a certain sense, be considered still-life, the term is usually not applied to these themes but generally refers to groups of •maller objects. "Blue Vase," "Blue Window," and "Sunflowers" are still­life subjects included in the picture contests. Portrait All pictures of people are not por­traits but only those in which the interpretation of the character of the sitter has been the artists's prime purpose. It is possible to have more than one portrait in a composition as in "Children of Charles I" by Van Dyck. In this picture the artist ap­pears to have made a definite study of the individuality of each child rather than merely painting three children. "Laughing Cavalier," "The Merchant Gisze," and "George Wash­ington" are compositions which con­tain only one portrait. Portraits are painted to endure. For this reason, we find in them lit­tle of the violent action and casual treatment characteristic of the ordi­nary illustration. Genre Genre painting differs from por­trait in that the former emphasizes setting and action rather than the individuality of the characters. Fig­ures are used as a means of present­ing an idea rather than for their own sake. In "Storage Room" the figures have no particular interest aside from the part they play in de­picting an everyday incident of life in a Dutch home. Religious Most of our religious painting has been contributed by the Italians. Their work has so influenced the world that one sometimes experi­ences difficulty in identifying a re­ligious painting as such unless it bears definite marks of the Italian influence. Generally speaking, we 14 The University of Texas Bulletin may consider as religious painting any picture in which Scriptural char­acters have been used, Christianity being the chief religion of the coun­tries whose pictures we are studying. Ordinarily, pictures of saints alone are considered portraits rather than religious compositions, unless they are "saints" of Bible times. It is entirely possible that certain pictures might be considered relig­ious among special groups of indi­viduals and not among others, but within the limits of our contest ma­terial the rule of "Scriptural sub­ject" is a safe guide. Landscape Few people have difficulty in rec­ognizing an outdoor scene as land­scape but some are hesitant regard­ing what to do with a scene that shows water and no land. In the contests the bracketed term "sea­scape" helps to explain this. In this modern day we might find a picture whose entire setting is in the clouds. Such might be called an "airscape," but in order to avoid foolish and un­necessary differentiations let us con­sider any out-of-door scene a land­scape unless the landscape serves only as a background for other material. Animal Animals are often used as part of the subject matter in pictures. In "Children of Charles I" we find a large dog, "Near the River Seine" contains a variety of animals, yet these could not be considered animal compositions because the animals play only a minor part. In "Shoe­ing the Mare," the case is different. Here the animals are the chief in­terest and the figure is secondary, Picture Study in Elementary Grades 15 as evidenced by the prominent posi­tion of the animals. In determining which classification of subject matter to choose for an individual picture, one should con­sider only the most important fac­tors and ignore the minor ones. Try to decide what the artist really in­tended to paint. Confusion is possi­ble but ordinarily teachers will ex­perience little difficulty in helping children to classify subject matter if the above suggestions are followed. V. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION IN PAINTING JN ORDER to be convinced of the possibility of identifying an artist by the style of his work we have only to make a brief study of painting. Each artist's work s h o w s characteristics which are as distinctly indi­vidual as is his personality. En­tire schools and periods of paint­ing are classified in the same manner, varying according to the amount of emphasis placed upon certain phases of art ex­pression. Today the terms real­istic, decorative, and impression­istic reveal the layman's attempt to define these styles. Realistic Painting The term "realistic painting" usual­ly means the type of work wherein the artist shows a passion for facts. His manner of thinking is more scientific than artistic in that each object is carefully analyzed as to its form and structure so that all possible infor­mation about it is presented. Among inferior artists, realism is sometimes expressed in a tendency toward too much literary interest. Careful por­trayal of texture, material, form and weight is often in evidence when the artist makes realism his chief con­cern. Zeuxis, the Greek artist who is said to have painted grapes so realistic­ally that the birds came to peck at his canvas, seems fairly representa­tive of the ideal of this class of paint­ers, although even these artists con­ceive of their problem as being some­thing more than mere photographic accuracy. Albert C. Barnes says: "The artist must open our eyes to what unaided we could not see." The realistic artist tries to show us the important facts. Rosa Bonheur's chief interest was realism. Her pains to achieve an­atomical accuracy led her to use rare devices in order to obtain informa­tion, even that of donning man's ap­parel that she might attend the horse fair, where no woman was allowed. Decorative and Symbolic Painting "The world of art is a world which has been made by human beings for the direct satisfaction of their wishes. It is the real world stripped of what is meaningless and alien and remod­eled nearer to the heart's desire," says Albert C. Barnes. This appears to be in direct opposition to the atti­tude of the realistic painter who is primarily concerned with the world as it is. Painters of the early Italian schools were concerned with the de­velopment of pictures which would inspire the emotions of adoration and reverence. In order to do this, reali­ties were often disregarded. Symbols were used to express ideas. These symbols were arranged to form an attractive design which could be used to decorate a space in a church or other building. The work of the early Italian artists was "decorative" or "symbolic" rather than representative. Artists of a modern day use sym­bolism to express emotions and ideas. Some of them feel that unless this is done the observer loses himself in the process of identifying objects and misses the spirit of the expression. Other artists retain the natural shapes of objects in so far as they can be made to fit into the plan of the composition but the representation is always subordinate to the arrange­ment. Mural painting offers many examples of objects painted in a decorative manner. The general flat­ness of the tones, the subtle relation­ship of colors and the studied ar­rangement of spaces in Whistler's paintings suggest the artist's interest in the decorative handling of his subject. Impressionistic Painting Nearly everyone is familiar with the rather loose texture characteristic of some impressionistic painting. Al­though this is one of the outstanding qualities of the work, it does not provide a complete description. Im­pressionism deals with the effect of light. One of the many interesting ways in which light may be handled is the use of contrasting colors in juxtaposition. The blurred edges of objects in the distance is also a device of the impressionists, who are con­cerned with atmospheric effects. Barnes names the following chief characteristics of impressionistic tech­nique: " ( 1) Application of spots of pure color side by side in all parts of the canvas; (2) Obvious brush work in the application of color; (3) Varia­tion of the sizes of the spots of color and of the sizes and perceptibility of the brush strokes; (4) Use of light in connection with color in three ways : first, as a sort of focus upon which the light is concentrated in order to bring out the glow of the color; second, as a general illumina­tion by which the canvas is flooded with sunlight; third, by such a distri­bution of this colored light all over the canvas that a homogeneous color mass replaces the literal representa­tion of perspective heretofore em­ployed by painters." Turner's "Fight­ing Temeraire" and Monet's "Poplars' are good examples of the painting of light effects. Type of Painting Must Be Considered Before reaching a decision regard­ing the success of a painting, a care­ful consideration of the style is necessary. To judge impressionism by the same standards which are ap­plied to realism is sure to be a dis­appointing experience, but when each style of art is judged by good stand­ards of what that particular type of work should do, we catch a vision of the variety of expression that is pos­sible in the field of painting. Reference: The Art in Painting. Albert C. Barnes. VI. IMPORTANT MEDIUMS IN ART STUDY of the evolution of the arts reveals an interesting variety of materials used in the production of the world's mas­terpieces. The nature of these materials exerts a definite influ­ence upon the final appearance of the work. Each separate me­dium has characteristics with which the artist seeks to har­monize his choice of subject and manner of presenting it. All mediums will not serve the same purpose. An artist who is proficient in the use of water colors seldom possesses the same degree of skill in oil paint­ing, etching or other types of art ex­pression. Naturally, artists prefer to express their ideas in that medium which is best adapted to their par­ticular styles of work, but most of them find more than one congenial material. Whistler excelled in etch­ing as well as in painting; Michel­angelo in sculpture and painting; while Da Vinci holds the record for variety of activity, some of it extend­ing into the scientific field. Rigid Material The stone-cutting and wood-carving of pre-historic days contain fine ex­amples of work executed in harmony with the medium used because early artists were not inclined to imitate one material by means of another. The material controlled the manner of working as well as the design; thus they avoided discrepancies of the kind which occurred during later periods when artisans reproduced in marble the design which the sculptor had modeled in clay. It was difficult for the artist, while working with the plastic clay, to imagine the rigidity of stone. The bronze statue, "The Appeal to the Great Spirit," by Dal­Iin, harmonizes with the metallic qual­ity of the bronze without loss of feel­ 20 The University of Texas Bulletin ing. The Saint-Gaudens statue of Lincoln and the Donatello statue of Saint George are also excellent ex­amples of adaptation to medium. Painting, as well as sculpture, re­.,a.ires careful adjustment to the ma­terials used. Water Color Water color painting is noted for its fresh, fluid-like quality which can­not be achieved successfully with any other medium. In order to be a water-colorist of merit the artist must learn to strive for those effects which are readily adaptable to a flowing treatment. Mo'lt of the charm of wa­ter color lies in its direct, clear-cut and spontaneous handling. Those who do not understand the peculiarities of water color fail to appreciate pictures painted in this medium because the colors seem thin when compared with oil colors. Water color has a charm of its own which we can enjoy to the utmost when we seek delicacy, refine­ment, light and spontaneity. Oil Painting Oil colors are considered the most serious and permanent material for painting. Most well known master pieces are painted in oil, the medium which is most popular with the lay­man. Richness is its outstanding quality. The earlier painters ground and mixed their own colors or had the work done by apprentices under their direction. Although the above methods no longer prevail, the work­er in oil paints must be something of a chemist in order to avoid combina­tions of colors which react unfavor­ably upon each other. Paintings which have darkened or become dis­colored with age are frequently the Picture Study in Elementary Grades 21 result of unfortunte chemical com­binations. The poor condition of Leo­nardo Da Vinci's "Last Supper" is due to an unsatisfactory experiment with the paint. Oil painting is adaptable to numer­ous moods and to great diversity of treatment, ranging from the studied precision of Giotto to the rather loose vigorous handling of the impression­ists. El Greco works with colors in a very dark key. Titian's warmth of color would have been impossible in any other medium. Even Monet's light, airy mood finds perfection in this medium. Wooden panels, canvas, specially prepared boards and metal plates are the most commonly used backgrounds for oil painting. Tradition suggests that the Madonna of the Chair may have been painted upon an old barrel top. Mural Art Fresco painting runs a close second to oil color in richness of effect and in popularity among the early artists. This type of painting was done on a plastered surface while the plaster was wet. The artist completed a small section each day and did not allow the plaster to dry until that part was finished. Fresco painting was used chiefly for wall decoration, but today most murals are painted on canvas and later applied to the walls. Time has brought progress in re­gard to the number of mediums at the disposal of the artist but space does not permit a discussion of many of them. Those mentioned above are the ones most commonly used. Distinguishing Mediums A person cannot determine the medium which was used in a paint­ing by looking at a photograph of that painting. The photograph re­veals only tones without texture or color. The case of statuary is differ­ent. The keen edges and general hardness of appearance as well as the way in which the highlights are dis­tributed suggest the stone or metal of which the statue is made. The presence of a base or other means of support also serves to identify stat­uary. The true artist works always in harmony with and never against his medium. We can add much to our enjoyment of the products of art by experimenting with the different mediums. In doing this we may not produce a beautiful picture, but when we realize our own lack of skill in controlling unruly streaks of color, we at once feel a greater respect for the artist's mastery over his medium. At­tempting to do the thing is, after all, the best means of developing power of appreciation. VII. THE PLACE OF COLOR IN PAINTING WITH the exception of those artists who work in black and white only, the study of color has always been important to every school of painting. The impressionists concern them­selves with color and its associa­tion with light more than they do with any other means of cre­ating beauty. Others, while re­fusing to give this element first rank, acknowledge its impor­tance in every painting. Color a "Flavor" A proper conception of the place of color in painting may be gained from the following statement quoted from "The Art of Seeing," by Wood­bury and Perkins: "We take light as a necessity and color as its flavor, we enjoy our color as we do the taste of our food." In order to enjoy fully the "flavor" of a picture, an opportunity to view the original is essential, but where this contact is impossible, an excellent substitute for it is to be found in the study of good color prints. The variety of expression possible with the use of color is infinite. Some colors are sombre and dark like El Greco's, but others like Van Gogh's appear to "sing" because they are so gay. In Potthast's "The Holiday" the colors seem as airy as sea breezes and as gay as the children in the picture. This harmony of color with theme is an important aid to the creation of the "mood" of the picture. According to W o o d b u r y and Perkins, "There is no physical reason why one color should give us any greater emotion of pleasure than an­other of the same intensity, yet we have definite color preferences both personal and racial." Because of this element of personal choice, certain colors or combinations of color can­not be designated as "the best" in every case. In other words, colors do not stand alone but are affected by every other color associated with them and also by the shape and size of the objects within the composition. Picture Not a Copy Objects in a picture do not have to be the color of the same objects in nature. Reproduction of nature is not essential to beautiful composition. A picture is a created object, complete in itself. Those who enjoy it will rarely, if ever, see the original objects which inspired the painting so com­parison is not likely; neither is it desirable. A slight or definite de­parture from nature's coloring pro­vides an element of design which gives added interest to the picture. A corresponding departure from the natural form of objects usually accom­panies such variation of color. A fifth grade child expressed the idea of nature as inspiration for, rather than master of the composition when he said, "Rabbits are not green but this one I am making is not a real rabbit-it is a design rabbit. Green goes well with the other colors in my design so I shall paint him green." Pictures are like designs in that the artist has free choice as to how he will interpret nature's form and coloring. Therefore our question should not be, "Is it like nature?" Instead of that we should ask, "What beautiful relation­ships are to be found and how were they built up?" Color Symbolism The early Italian artists were fond of using color as symbolism. The white of purity and the blue of truth were used in the drapery of practically every Virgin Mary. Red was used as the symbol of love and sacrifice. Dull yellow, a color associated with cow­ardice and deceit, was often chosen for the robe of Judas. We must look to the modern artists for the use of gay and light colors in painting. Yellow-green, the symbol of youth and the freshness of spring, is appropriately manifest in "After a Summer Shower" by George Inness. Van Gogh chooses brillance and strong contrasts while Manet's colors sparkle with light. All modern artists have not used brilliant color. Chavannes and Whist­ler delighted in a decorative style which made use of subtle relation­ships. Rich Color of Old Mastera The colors used by early painters are remarkable for their richness. This is due in part to the fact that the pictures, being very old, have under­gone the refining process of time. An­other suggested reason is that each artist knew the chemistry of his paints well enough to avoid combina­tions of uncongenial elements. The modern artist is not always well in­formed on this matter because his paint is purchased in prepared form instead of being mixed by himself. The first artists mixed their own paints. In spite of personal preferences for specific colors and color combinations, those who are interested may, through study of good examples, learn to ap­preciate the beauty of color well used and understand why this kind of harmony is essential to all good paint­ing. VIII. SIMPLE THEORIES OF COLOR KNOWLEDGE of color theory is useful as a guide in dis­covering harmonious combina­tions of hue, value, and inten­sity. Those who are fortunate enough to sense good combina­tions of color in the same man­ner that a musician attunes his ear to harmony of sound, need not be dependent upon a me­ chanical means of selection. Others, who do not readily un­ derstand the use of color, will find their feeling for it growing as they learn the nature of the color elements. A detailed dis­cussion is impossible here, but the purpose of the writer is to present such color facts as will make the subject seem less strange to those who have had no opportunity to study color theory. The Basic Colors In order to follow this discussion the reader should have at hand some plain white paper and a box of cray­ons or water colors. A successful elementary theory of color is based upon three primaries, which are red, yellow, and blue. With the crayons or water colors place a spot of each of the above mentioned colors where each color will mark the corner of an equilateral triangle. For convenience in understanding the ex­planation place yellow at the top, red at the left, and blue at the right. By mixing together two of the pri­maries in all of the possible combina­tions, a second group of three is se­cured. Yellow and red mixed together make orange, so place orange in the space between yellow and red; blue and yellow make green, so place this color between the two colors of which it is composed; purple must be placed between blue and red. Orange, green, and purple make the secondary group of three. The chart you are making should now suggest a circle with colors ar­ranged (clockwise) in the following order: Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple. These are the "six standard colors." Color Schemes In mixing any secondary color, two of the primaries are used and one of them is omitted. For example, when blue and red are mixed together to make purple, yellow is the only pri­mary color which is not used. The use of yellow would be necessary in order to complete the primary triad; there­fore yellow is considered the comple­ment (complete-ment) of purple. Aft­er the same manner, red is the com­plement of green and blue the com­plement of orange. When true complements are mixed together in equal quantities they neu­tralize each other and the result is gray. Most pigments are not per­fectly balanced so experimentation with them will show the necessity of adding an extra amount of blue in order to secure a neutral gray. Starting with the six standard col­ors, let us carry this mixing process a step farther, placing additional col­ors in the spaces between the colors we already have. Each one of these "tertiary" colors will be formed by mixing together the two colors on either side of it. Thus another group of six colors will be produced. For example, red and orange mixed to­gether will produce red-orange; or­ange and yellow will be mixed to make orange-yellow and the rest of the tertiaries will be secured in the same manner. When completed the chart will have twelve colors. They should be arranged in the following order: Red, red-orange, orange, yel­low-orange, ye 11 ow, green-yellow, green, blue-green, blue, purple-blue, purple, red-purple. With the color circle before us the three most commonly used types of color schemes can be explained with­out difficulty. L Complementary-Also known as "opposite" colors because of their po­sitions across from each other on the color circle. The following may be considered fundamental complemen­tary combinations: a. Red and green. b. Orange and blue. c. Yellow and purple. 2. Analogous-Colors which have common elements. For example, yel­low-green, green, and blue-green are all composed of blue and yellow, the difference between them being only in the quantity of the elements. Anal­ogous colors are also known as "neighboring" colors because of their position next to each other on the color circle. 3. Monochromatic-The combining of several tones of a single color. The dark and light tones of any color form a monochromatic color scheme. Other tones of the same color may be added. The widely used Munsell theory of color is more subtle in its relation­ships than the "six color" theory. Be­cause of this fact a better balance of color is secured. In order to under­stand the essential elements of the Munsell theory, go through the same process of arranging colors in a cir­cle but start with five standard colors instead of six as in the first arrange­ment. Orange is the color to omit from the standards. This will bring about a slightly different arrange­ment of complements. The comple­mentary combinations will now be as follows: 1. Red and blue-green. 2. Yellow and blue-purple. 3. Green and red-purple. 4. Blue and yellow-red (orange). 5. Purple and yellow-green. "Split-complementary" schemes are especially interesting. These are composed of a color in combination with the two colors on either side of its complement. Analogous a n d monochromatic schemes remain practically the same in both of the previously discussed theories. Identifying Colors Students often develop considerable interest in identifying the different types of color schemes in pictures, their own clothing and other objects. When making these associations it is well to remember that brown is con­sidered a dark orange or a dark yel­low according to the amount of red that it contains. Black, gray, and white are neutrals rather than colors, so should be left out of consideration when identifying color schemes. In any color scheme that is harmonious some colors must be brighter than others. The combination of blue and red does not occur in any of the schemes mentioned, yet it is often found in costume. This may be ex­plained by the fact that the skin tones supply a certain amount of yel­low to complete the primary triad. Neutrals .:!ombined with colors also serve to establish a transition which helps to relate colors. The selection of color according to the foregoing theories does not guar­antee an harmonious arrangement since much depends upon the quan­tity of color used and its manner of distribution. This brief explanation should merely give a key to probable successful arrangements. IX. TYPES OF COMPOSITION NO absolute rule can be given which will guarantee suc­cessful arrangement in the com­position of a picture, yet certain dominant ideas are prevalent in most of the world's master­pieces. Asfde from the principles of design, which are observed either consciously or intuitively by every artist, definite plans of arrangement can be detected by the careful observer. Vertical and Horizontal Composition The simplest type of line plan is the vertical and horizontal arrange­ment in which the important lines of the composition follow the above men­tioned directions. Whistler's "Batter­sea Bridge" is predominantly vertical and horizontal in design. True, there are in the picture lines which take an angular direction and others which are curved, but these are the shorter and less important ones. Composi­tions of this type are especially adaptable to the expression of great dignity and solemnity. People won­der at the feeling of reverence and awe which they experience as they en­ter a cathedral, but few realize that the long vertical Jines of the gothic columns are responsible, at least in part, for the creation of this mood. The vertical and horizontal ar­rangement is more subject to the dan­ger of becoming standardized and commonplace than are the others. Unless it is skillfully handled, the distant vision can be cut off in a way that will force the eye to engage itself with things in the foreground instead of carrying the vision back into the picture. When this happens, the com­position lacks depth and interest. Teachers, in arranging models from which students are to draw, often thoughtlessly place a curtain or other background directly behind the ob­jects, thus cutting off any opportunity for showing things in their relation to distance. Sometimes it is desir­able, for the purpose of concentration on forms, to isolate objects in this way, but greater variety of composi­tion is possible when greater distance is permitted. The earlier Italian mas­ters did not make extensive use of perspective so the vertical and hori­zontal arrangement is much in evi­dence in their work. Circular Composition The "circular" composition is par­ticularly suitable for the expression of rhythm. Pictures containing roll­ing hills, waves, or billowy clouds ad­just themselves to this type. Ra­phael's "Madonna of the Chair" is one of the best examples of figures used in circular composition. The pic­ture, as well as being circular in shape, is built up entirely of curves. These are seen in the somewhat rounded faces of the children, in the halos above their heads and in parts of the chair. Even the positions of the figures are such that the group suggests a circular shape. Angular Composition The angular type of composition is the most complicated of all and, of the three here discussed, offers the greatest number of possibilities for variation. It is capable of leading the eye into the picture for unlimited distances. Because of their interest in effects of dynamic movement, mod­ern artists use angles extensively. In the architecture of "A Century of Progress" in Chicago the angular scheme was strongly emphasized. Combined Types of Composition Few pictures conform exclusively to any one plan of arrangement. Al­though one idea may predominate, elements of the others enter into each composition. Cimabue's "Madonna Enthroned" is fundamentally perpen­dicular and horizontal but the circular element is also strongly marked. It is a mistake to analyze pictures in too scientific a manner because their beauty lies mainly in the extent to which they depart from any stand­ardized plan and yet retain their unity. However, helping children to classify outstanding examples of com­position often makes them more sen­sitive to order and arrangement in their own work and develops consid­erable appreciative insight. X. TEACHING THE APPRECIA­TION LESSON THE "appreciation lesson," as the name implies, is taught for the purpose of developing the child's capacity for enjoy­ment of good things. The value of such a lesson is unquestioned because of the fact that an indi­vidual's enjoyable experiences tend to furnish occupation for his leisure time and the manner in which leisure moments are used is an important factor in the building of character. Henry Turner Bailey states it thus: Right Use of Leisure All-Important "Our moral excellence and efficiency are dependent largely upon what we do with our leisure. Our character changes but little while we are doing the things we have to do to make a living. How can it change while we are plowing or reaping, doing house­work or attending honestly to cus­tomers? There is little chance to go wrong in a schoolroom with forty pairs of eyes upon us, or in a bank with steel grills left and right, fore and aft, or in a factory with thought­less and relentless machinery to man­age, or while driving a locomotive, an automobile or an airplane. No; our character changes when we stop driv­ing, and have time to do something else; when the day's work is done; when we are off duty and can do as we please. The use we make of our precious moments of leisure is the significant thing, the most potent fac­tor in life." The greater the number of worth­while things that the child enjoys, the more profitable will his leisure time be. If love of beauty is to become an influence in the child's life, the lesson which seeks to bring this about must be in itself an enjoyable experience and one that helps the child to recog­nize the elements of beauty. Making the Lesson Interesting There are few children who are not sensitive to beauty in some form. A bright flower, a colorful butterfly wing, a bird or a tree often furnish the experience necessary for direct­ing interest to an artist's interpreta­tion of a nature theme. The skillful teacher will find numerous ways of establishing a c on ta ct between familiar things and the new material which is to be presented. A procedure which may become irk­some to the child should of course be avoided in any lesson but particularly in the appreciation lesson. Monotony must be avoided for fear that should the cond:tions of the lesson be asso­ciated with what is taught the child may develop a dislike for the entire subject. Planning the Lesson The lesson must be well planned from the standpoint of time. This means that it must not be long unless interest runs high enough to warrant its continuation. In the primary grades ten to fifteen minutes is as long as the child's span of attention permits him to follow a discussion. The length of time may be increased as the child matures. If opportunity is given for variety of reaction, the length of time may be increased. The material must be selected for its relationship to the child's capacity for enjoyment. The teacher should remember, however, that the child often interprets easily certain things which an adult finds difficult to under­stand. Adults are often disturbed. because of incorrect proportion and. perspective while these items offer no problems to the child because he has not yet discovered a need for them. The subject matter must be worthy of study. If it does not have definite artistic merit we simply develop ap-­preciation of the wrong thing and thus lower standards instead of rais­ing them. Poems and stories about the artist or the work of art often add interest, but such devices must not be allowed to direct attention to themselves rather than to the main subject of study. If they are used at all the correlation should be complete so as to avoid possible misconceptions. Developing the Lesson Teachers sometimes find themselves at a loss in teaching the appreciation lesson because they lack knowledge of. the artist and of conditions under which the picture was produced. While such information is desirable, and often adds greatly to the interest of the lesson, the teacher must remember that any product which has art value is worthy of study for its own sake and is capable of carrying its own message. Children may be led to study the picture for the sake of the pleas­ure it gives and not primarily for the information that may be secured in connection with it. Picture study is profitable without knowing even so much as the name of the production just as a poem may be enjoyed be­cause of its own beauty of style without the reader's delving into its origin and the history of the author. Should Develop Art Interest Questions should be thought-pro­voking. Types of questions which are good in other subjects are also good in the appreciation lessons. If the study is to be truly one in art appre­ciation these questions should develop art interest rather than literary inter­est. Questions about the probable customs of the people in a composition and the making of stories inspired by the picture have their value in language work and as such they serve as a valuable supplement to the work in art appreciation, but such work is incapable of developing a high degree of art interest. Even very young children derive much pleasure from finding specific shapes and line directions in a picture. They also like to decide why the artist has presented things in certain ways. Discussions of this type help to pro­vide the basis for good artistic judg­ment and tend to equip the child with power to enjoy beauty for its own sake. XI. STUDYING PICTURES J DO NOT know much about artists and cannot find in­formation about the pictures I wish to teach." This statement in one form or another is fre­quently made by teachers in an attempt to justify the scarcity of art appreciation lessons in their classes. These teachers forget that the picture itself, provided it is one worthy of study, offers sufficient material for a worth while les8on in art appreciation. While knowledge of facts adds interest and supplies a desirable back­ground for study, the securing of in­formation should never become the main issue of the lesson or take the place of first hand study of the art product. When facts are made too important they may, in certain instances, become an actual barrier to the child's complete enjoyment of the picture because attention is given to the acquiring of information instead of being centered upon the beauty of the picture. In attempting to avoid undue em­phasis upon information about pic­tures and artists, teachers are prone to gather abundant literary material. Poems and stories are good devices for arousing interest when they are closely correlated with the picture and not used to the extreme but in these also there is danger of leading inter­est away from the picture instead of to it. Language Lessons Pictures used in connection with language work have a tendency to promote over-emphasis upon subject matter. The child not only discusses all the objects he sees in the picture but also draws upon his imagination to provide material for conversation. Stories are invented and based upon objects or characters in the picture. Any contact whatsoever that the child may have with pictures no doubt adds to his interest in them. Language les­sons which use pictures furnish a valuable supplement to the work in art appreciation but power of enjoy­ment from the truly artistic viewpoint cannot be gained in this way. True teaching of art appreciation should seek to provide the individual with a basis for judgment for all beauty in whatever form it is pre­sented. The child should be led to find beauty in pictures which are un­familiar to him as well as those con­cerning which he has acquired a fund of information. In order to do this he must be made sensitive to fine relationships in elements of the space arts. This can be accomplished only through the observation of fine ex­amples and discussion of their desirable features. Questions should direct attention to the art quality and not entirely to the informational and literary phases of study. Teachers have little difficulty in formulating questions of the last two types men­tioned but questions which deal with art interest are not so easily handled. The following lists of questions which emphasize art qualities in specific pic­tures are presented in the hope that they may be helpful in leading teachers to analyze pictures more easily: Madonna and Angels 1. In most compositions the im­portant lines are circular, angular or vertical and horizontal. Into which classification does this one fit best? 2. In how many places can you find eircles and parts of circles in the architecture? 3. What shape does the arrange­ment of the angels suggest? 4. What has the artist done to the halo of the Christ Child in order to make it more important than any in the picture even though it is the smallest? 5. In how many different ways has the artist led us to look at the Virgin and Child? 6. No two angels are exactly alike. Look at each one and see how many differences you can find. What makes them look so much alike at first glance when they are really so different? 7. What symbolism do you find? 8. Why has the artist selected for the Virgin's dress a color so nearly like that of the Child's skin? 9. Why is the dark blue a better color for the robe of the Virgin than a light color would have been? 10. In how many different places are stars used as a part of the design? Sunflowers 1. Which of the four elements of art is most important to this paint­ing? 2. Colors are sometimes classified as to warm and cold ones. Which are most in evidence? 3. Why has the artist left the surface of the paint so rough? 4. Why is the vase not sym­metrical? 5. Certain part:s of the objects are outlined with contrasting color. Why was this done? Why was not every part outlined? 6. Why has the artist used a green­ish blue background instead of one which is purplish blue? 7. In how many ways are the centers of the flowers different from each other? 8. Why has the white spot been placed on the vase? 9. Find the flower which is lightest in color and the one which is darkest. Try to give each a place in relation to these two, grading from light to dark. 10. In what way is this type of painting so well suited to this par­ticular variety of flower? Saint Genevieve 1. Which type of line arrangement is most in evidence? Find the three most important vertical objects. 2. Why are the colors so soft? 3. What has the artist done to make us see Saint Genevieve first? 4. What has the artist used on the right of the picture to balance the yellow color of the moon on the left'! 5. In how many different ways has the artist given an effect of quiet and repose in the picture? 6. Notice that the picture is broken horizontally i n t o several panels: Which of these have plain surfaces and which have broken surfaces? Why has a plain surface been placed next to a broken surface in each case? 7. Most of the lines in the picture are straight but some of them are circular. Find the circular lines. What is there about the placing of these that makes them balance each other? 8. Why are there few contrasts of color or of dark and light in this picture? 9. There is something near the center of the picture that repeats the color and tone of Saint Genevieve's robe. What is it? 10. What kind of lines give the picture most of its dignity? Golden Windows A well known fairy tale by Laura E. Richards describes a certain child's delight in discovering that a house which stood some distance from his own poor dwelling had golden win­dows. These windows could be seen only at sunset time. Evening after evening the child enjoyed the spec­tacle. One evening he decided to walk to this house in order to see the windows at close range. Upon arriv­ing there he found only a poor shack like his own, but his disappointment was turned into joy when, upon turn­ing homeward, he discovered that the windows of his own ho.me looked like shining gold in the sunset. In this story the child was led to see that ordinary things could look beautiful and yet the fact remained that in the knowledge of what caused the effect some of the pleasure was lost. In studying pictures the teacher should always bear in mind the fact that analysis is only a means of helping the child to enjoy the picture. Pleasure in emotional appeal must not be lost in trying to discover how the effect was gained but if directed in the right way analysis of art qualities adds to the child's enjoyment of all pictures. XII. THE UNFAMILIAR PICTURES JN preparation for the test on "unfamiliar pictures," teach­ers of Texas are in the habit of having children attempt the classification of "memory con­test" pictures. This practice is to be commended because it en­courages study of the picture it­self instead of the consideration of its name only and that of the artist. Because the list of pictures for the "memory contest" is larger than the one for the "unfamiliar pictures," and because the pictures in the former group are less limited as to type than those in the latter group, certain diffi­culties of classification have arisen. The purpose of the writer is to dis­cuss some of the most troublesome questions which have developed, hoping to clarify and unify their answers. Can All Pictures Be Classified? The uniqueness of an art product is the thing which, plus beauty, makes it a "masterpiece"; therefore any attempt at classification must of necessity be general. Pictures are capable of expressing unlimited indi­viduality and for this reason all of them cannot be grouped acr.ording to one set criteria; consequently, teach­ers have experienced difficulty in discovering where to place certain doubtful examples. The most important fact to be kept in mind is that the "unfamiliar pic­ tures" are selected for their fitness of adaptation to definite classification. In cases where any element of doubt exists the test has been so arranged that any of the possible correct an­ swers will be accepted. If pictures in the "memory contest" list were lim­ ited to only those which could be clearly designated, much of the world's finest art would have to be eliminated. Teachers should not hesi­ tate to classify under various head­ ings those pictures which show char­ acteristics of more than one element. Troyan's "Return to the Farm" has been cited as a picture whose charac­teristics are confusing. It has both animal and landscape subject matter with about equal emphasis on both. Choosing between these two interests is not necessary. It may be listed un­der both headings. Of course, this may not be done in the test on "un­familiar pictures" where only one classification is permitted. However, the test has been so arranged that there will be no need for more than one classification. In "Return to the Farm" the animals appear to be a part of the landscape rather than the landscape having been painted merely to serve as a background for the animals. Consequently, "landscape" would be the first choice in classifi­cation but "animals" would not be wrong. Purpose Is to Train Child's Judgment If the teacher will look upon the "memory contest" pictures as a means of developing the child's capacity for appreciation rather than as a list of things to be checked and catalogued properly, she will go a long way to­ward solving the problems of the "un­familiar picture" contest. She should feel that it is not necessary to classify every picture in all points. She should ask for the child's opinions and if he can give a good reason for them, re­spect his choices. Since experts dis­agree on matters of this kind, at­tempting too rigid a classification is a mistake. Attitude Toward the Testa If a teacher feels that a picture has many or possibly all of the char­acteristics mentioned in any division of the test, he should ask himself which of these is most important. Authorities will always disagree on matters involving art judgment. If positive answers were given the test would resolve itself into one of mem­ory only and in this way lose its greatest value. It is our privilege as teachers to help children to realize that the chief value of such competition lies not in the winning of a high score but in the opportunity given to compare our way of thinking with that of others in order to increase our own apprecia­tion and judgment. Editor's Note: Miss Lowe in this chapter suggests a fundamental matter in education, viz., a difference between "Jearningn and "'rote learning." Memorizing the multiplica­tion table is useful; memorizing theorems and proofs in geometry is worse than use­ less. Use the picture study to develop judgment and discrimination; not to mem­orize an8wers to a set of definite questions. Additional copies of this pamphlet may be secured from the University Interscho­lastic League, P. 0 . Box 1930, University Station, Austin, Texas, at 10 cents per copy.