PUBLIC EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA DURING THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD, 1866-1876 Approved: Approved: Bean of jfhe School PUBLIC EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA DURING THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD, 1866-1876 THESIS Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By Edgar Otto Wood, 8.A., M.A. (Alexandria, Louisiana) Austin, Texas June, 1931 330876 PREFACE In making this study, I desire to acknowledge my perennial indebtedness and to express my deepest gratitude to Doctor Frederick Eby, under whose direction this study was prepared, for his untiring patience, encouraging attitude, and constructive criticisms; to Doctor Charles Flinn Arrowood for his unfeigned interest in my problem, his careful perusal of the production, and many very helpful and timely suggestions. I wish also to express my sincere thanks to State superintendent of education, Tnomas H. Harris of Louisiana for his splendid cooperation in gathering materials; to Rapides parish superintendent W. J. Avery and. Orleans parish superintendent Nicholas Bauer for their aid in assisting me in locating pictures of old school buildings; to the New Orleans librarians, the Louisiana State University librarians, and to Mr. Ernest William Winkler of The University of Texas for their incalcuable assistance in securing data, and to a host of others too numerous to mention for whatever assistance they may have rendered, without which this study could not have been made. Edgar Otto Wood Austin, Texas CONTENTS PUBLIC EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA DURING THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD, 1866-1876 Chapter page I. The Problem and Related Materials 1 A. The Problem Stated 6 B. Sources and Materials 6 C. The Method Employed 8 D. The Values of the Study 9 11. Education in Louisiana Immediately Prior to and During the Civil War Between the States and Under the Presidential Plan of Reconstruction. 11 A. Public Education Immediately Preceding the Civil War, 1845-1860 11 1. Administration of Superintendent Alexander Dimitry 14 2. Administration of Superintendent J. N. Cardigan 19 B. Education During the War, 1861-1865 24 1. Superintendent Henry Avery 24 2. State Constitution of 1864 35 3. Superintendent John McNair 40 4. The Freedmen’s Bureau 42 111 Social, Political, and Economic and Financial Conditions in Louisiana, 1868-1876 52 A. Social Conditions 52 B. Political Conditions 53 1. The Military in Charge C. Economic and Financial Conditions 61 IV. Legal Basis for Establishment of Public Schools in Louisiana During the Reconstruction Period 64 A. The Constitution of 1868 64 B. Public School Legislation of 1869 67 C. Other Legislative Acts, 1870-1876 69 V. Public Education in Louisiana, 1868-1876 77 A. Administration of Superintendent Thomas W. Conway, 1868-1872 77 1. A New Era in Education in Louisiana 78 2. Condition of Public Schools, 1867-1868 82 3. Mixed Schools 3$ 4. Division Reports of Superintendents 89 5. The Peabody Education Fund 98 6. General School Funds, 1868-1869 107 7. A Cross-Section of School Conditions, 1870 110 B. Administration of Superintendent William G. Brown, 1872-1876. 118 1. Reorganization of State Department 119 2. Supervision of Instruction 121 3. General School Conditions, 1873 123 4. Exploitation of School Funds 134 5. Political Corruption 138 6. The Coushatta Riot 145 7. School Lands 8. Educational Journal 14? 9. Teachers’ Institutes 148 10. Public School Work in the Parishes, 1875 150 VI. The Public School Situation in New Orleans, 1864-1876 170 A. Organization and Early Development of a System of Public Schools in New Orleans 171 1. Excitement in New Orleans 173 2. The John McDonogh School Fund 175 B. General Ben Butler’s Administration in New Orleans 183 1. A Strong Arm of the Military 137 C. Educational Conditions in New Orleans, 1864 189 1. The New Orleans Riot 192 D. New Orleans Public Schools in 1867-68 195 1. Schools for Colored Children 200 2. Mixing the Schools in New Orleans 202 E. Teachers 1 Convention. 1872 211 F. Division Superintendent Carter’s Report, 1872 213 G. Public Schools in New Orleans, 1873 215 H. Condition of New Orleans Schools, 1875 226 1. Another Disturbance in New Orleans Schools 231 2. The John McDonogh School Buildings, 1875 233 VII. Public School Teachers in Louisiana During the Reconstruction Period 257 A. Facilities for Training Teachers 239 B. Certification of Teachers 242 C. Supervision of Instruction 249 D. General Status of Public School Teachers 252 1. Number 258 2. Training 258 3. Salary 2 58 VIII. Curricula and Textbooks Used in Public Schools of Louisiana During the Reconstruction Period 267 A, Importance of Curricula Organization 267 B. Public School Curricula During the Civil War 268 1. Primary Schools 273 2. Intermediate Schools 273 3. High Schools 271 C. Public School Curricula During Reconstruction 275 1. Primary Schools 275 2..lntermediate Schools 276 3. High Schools 277 D. Public School Textbooks Used 280 1. Primary Schools 282 2. Intermediate Schools 282 3. High Schools 283 IX. Summary and Conclusions 292 A. Summary 292 B. Conclusions 296 Bibliography Appendix Index TABLES 1. Sources and Amount of School Funds 16 2. Growth of New Orleans Schools, 1841-1850 20 3. Amount of Appropriations for Public Schools, 1847-60 24 4. Treasurer’s Report —Bossier Parish Schools 27 5. Treasurer’s Report—lberville Parish Schools 28 6. Treasurer’s Report--Carroll Parish Schools 29 7. Treasurer’s Report--Catahoula Parish Schools 29 8. Treasurer’s Report--Calcasieu Parish Schools 30 9. Treasurer’s Report—Caddo Parish Schools 31 10. Curricula of Public Schools in Louisiana, 1861 32 111 State Apportionment of School Funds, 1868 84 12. Number of Pupils and Teachers in Jefferson City 90 Schools, 1869 13. Summary of Second Division Report, 1869 92 14. Summary of Third Division Report, 1869 94 15. Summary of Fourth Division Report, 1869 96 16. Summary of Fifth Division Report, 1869 97 17. Summary of Sixth Division Report, 1869 98 18. Distribution of Peabody Fund in Louisiana, 1867-68 101 19. Amounts Given to Louisiana N o rmal Schools, 1867-68 99 20. Schools Receiving Donations from. Peabody Fund,lB7l 102 21. Division Superintendent Richardson’s Report, 1870 110 22. Second Division Superintendent Stoddard’s Report 110 1870 23. Third Division Superintendent Doissy’s Report, 1870 111 24. Fourth Division Superintendent McCleary’s Report, 111 1870 25. Fifth Division Superintendent Wyly 1 s Report, 1870 112 26. Public School Situation in Louisiana, 1870 114 27. Comparison of Educable Enumerations, 1870 115 28. Administrative Expense of Public Education in 116 Louisiana, 1870 29. Status of Public Education in Louisiana, 1871 117 30. A Resume of the Public School Situation in 1873 131 31. Illiteracy in Louisiana, 1873 132 31.1-/2. School Fund, 1873 32. Embezzlement of School Funds, 1871-73 133 33. School Situation in Caddo Parish, 1875 136 34. School Situation in DeSoto Parish, 1875 155 35. School Situation in Iberville Parish, 1875 154 36. School Situation in Ouachita Parish, 1875 156 37. School Situation in Rapides Parish, 1875 157 38. School Situation in St. Charles Parish, 1875 151 39. School Situation in Webster Parish, 1875 155 40. Financial Statement of Schools of State, 1875 41. State Appropriations for Public Schools, 1847-1876 155 42. Annual Report of Treasurer of First District, 1861 181 43. Statistics Relative to New Orleans Schools, 1864 190 44. Distribution of Teachers and Pupils in New Orleans Schools, 1867 197 44 1/2. Comparison of Schools of Large Cities of U.S., 1871 ' 198 45. Distribution of Teachers and Pupils in New Orleans 199 Schools, IS6B 46. Distribution of Teachers and Pupils in Nev/ Orleans Schools, 1869 205 47. Classification of Disbursements of Pay Roll, 1869 206 48. New Orleans Public School Expenditures, 1870 210 48 1/2. Salaries of New Orleans School Employees, 1871 211 49. Recapitulation of Statistics of Public Schools in New Orleans, 1872 214 50. Statistics of Public Schools in Nev/ Orleans, 1872-73. 217 51. Punils of Different Ages in New Orleans Schools, 1872-73 218 52. Expenditures for Public Schools from September 1, 259 1862 to September 1, 1864 53. Number and Salaries of Teachers in 1870 261 54. Recapitulation of general statistics relative to the Status of Public School Teachers in Louisiana at the Close of the School Session, 1875 265 TABLE OF PLATES Plate Facing Page 1. The Hahnville Public School, St. Charles 162 Parish, 1875 2. Original High School, Alexandria, Louisiana, 1873 159 3. Alexandria High School, Rapides Parish, 1903 159 4. Bolton Hjgh School, Alexandria, Louisiana, 1914 160 5. Bolton H s gh School, Alexandria, Louisiana, 1926 160 6. Wharton Union School, Iberville Parish, 1875 155 7. McDonogh Public School Number Two, Orleans Parish, 1874 8. McDonogh Public School Number Six, Orleans 18’5 236 9. State Superintendent of Public Education, Alexander Dimitry, 1847 15 10. State Secretary of the Peabody Education Fund, and State Superintendent of Public Education, Robert M. Lusher CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND RELATED MATERIALS INTRODUCTION From early territorial days, Louisiana manifested a decided interest in, and an unyielding desire for universal education. In his message to the legislature in 1805, Governor William C. Claiborne called the attention of the legislature to the overwhelming need of public school education. He went so far as to recommend that a system of schools be set up, with at least one academy and lower school in each of the twelve parishes (counties), and a 1 college in Orleans, all to be supported out of State funds. In an address before the legislature in 1833, Governor Roman made an urgent appeal that the State should do more for the educational welfare of the youth of the commonwealth. He observed that the system of publicly controlled academies had failed, and recommended that State support be withdrawn from the few parish academies which had been set up, and given to the stronger private academies throughout the State. In other words, if parents refused to send their children to public institutions, largely perhaps on account of a deep-seated prejudice, he was willing that the State should assist private institutions in giving the youth the very best educational advantages possible. It was not until 184 b however, that a State system of public, free education, sanctioned by constitutional authority was devised. At this time, it appears that people, by and large, were ready for something better along educational lines, The new constitution of this year directed that the legislature should enact the necessary legislation by which a complete system of public schools would be perfected. Provision was made for a State superintendent of education, a parish superintendent for each of the parishes, sufficient funds with which to promote a system of public elementary and high schools for all children between the ages of six and sixteen, regardless of color or race, and g for a State University. Theoretically at least, tne State never returned to a system of private schools after this date. The system of public schools organized under the leadership of the first State superintendent, Alexander Dimitry, 184 b, was just beginning to function fairly satisfactorily when the war between the States began. During this long, hard struggle however, the people of Louisiana did not lose interest in public education. Although tne man power, which meant tne earning power of the common- wealth, was sent out to war, the legislature appropriated, during the first year of the conflict, $5 per educable in the State which was distributed at $1.25 per educable per quarter for the year. Article 141 of the constitution of 1864 made provision for a system of education very similar in plan to that of 4 1845. The State was in a process of reconstruction with her own citizens in charge of affairs, when the death of President Lincoln occurred. With President Johnson’s unfriendly attitude, there came a real shaking up all over the south, of all political, economic and social institutions. By 1867, it was evident that the breach between Congress and the President would be permanent. For the remainder of President Johnson’s administration, Congress practically ignored the chief executive, end proceeded to deal with the matter of reconstruction of the Southern States in their own way. As a result of Congressional action, these unfortunate commonwealths were declared to be in a state of political anarchy; that they did not have republican governments, and therefore needed to be placed under military control until such time as they might comply with certain specific demands of Congress. As a further result of Congressional action, Louisiana along with other Southern States, was forced to adopt another constitution. In so doing, provision was made for a system of public education, the principal phases of which were almost identical with those in the two previous constitutions. The famous article number 135 however, was entirely different from anything heretofore known by the people of the State. This article provided that the legislature establish at least one free public school in every parish throughout the State, and provide for the support by taxation or otherwise for all children between the ages of six and twenty-one years of age. The objectionable feature of the article was that no separate schools or institutions of learning should be established exclusively 5 for any race by the State. The effect of the legislative enactment providing for mixed schools was that the white children, for the most part, refused to attend public schools at all. It is practically universally held that the colored children did not care to be ushered into schools with white children, but rather chose to be segregated, according to their custom. On a few occasions in the city of New Orleans, children of the more influential colored families were forced into certain schools being used exclusively by white children. Whenver this action was taken, one of two results usually followed, namely, either the colored youngsters were immediately compelled by the white families to withdraw from school or the institution was temporarily discontinued. A general survey of the entire period under consideration has been made, followed by special treatment of particular phases of the problem, such as legislation relative to public schools, the school situtation in New Orleans, public school teachers, and textbooks and curricula employed. It is to be understood that our study has considered only the public schools of the reconstruction period, which include the primary, grammar, high and normal schools. The normal schools herewith mentioned were the normal departments in the high schools in New Orleans. These four types of institutions were supported and controled by the State as free, public institutions. The State University, which also received State support, constitutes another problem; one not dealt with in this study. This brief survey of general educational conditions which obtained in Louisiana during the reconstruction period, presents the major items of interest considered in this, in many respects, the most facinating period of education in the State. The purpose of succeeding chapters is to tell this story in detail. Claiborne, William c., Message to Legislature, 1805. Albert B., Meaaagerto Legislature, 1833. ti tut ion of Louisiana, Title VII. Article 133-137, 184b. , Title XI, Article 140-146, 1864. ' " r C 1 1 ““ Constitution of Louisiana, Title VII, Article 135-143, 1868. The Problem In tracing the development of public education in Louisiana during the reconstruction period, 1866 to 1876, our problem has been to analyze into its various phases, the entire educational situation as it was discovered, and from the available data assembled to set forth an authentic account of public school development in the State. In producing this account, we have dealt with what we consider the major phases of the general problem to which reference was made in a previous paragraph, page five. Our original purpose was to write a chapter on public school buildings also, but the meagre materials assembled did not seem to be adequate. Sources and Materials In making this study, a careful personal investigation has been made of available materials in the New Orleans Libraries, the library of the Louisiana State University at Baton Rouge, the library of The University of Texas, the files and records of the Louisiana State Superintendent’s office, and many of the offices of parish (county) superintendents. Moreover, a number of interviews and considerable correspondence were had with people who remember something of school conditions in the State during the reconstruction period. An effort has been made to list in the bibliography all materials of major importance bearing directly upon the topic under consideration. In this list may be mentioned the State constitutions of 1845, 1852, 1864 and 1868; the acts and journals of the legislature during this period; acts and journals of the United States Congress; State and division superintendents reports; proceedings of State boards of education; proceedings of the Peabody Education Fund; proceedings of New Orleans boards of directors; Louisiana and New York newspapers and educational periodicals; the Freedmen’s Bureau reports; the United States Bureau of Education and Census reports; and numerous histories and general references dealing with all phases of the reconstruction program. Another possible source from which data bearing on the topic might have been collected is the records in the parish (county) court houses. Although several pari shes were visited and records examined, no effort was made to investigate the records at all of the court houses in the State. It is felt, however, that sufficient materials for our purpose have been found elsewhere, the chief sources of which appear in the bibliography. Moreover, it is the the opinion of the writer, based upon the meager findings in those court houses visited, that had other data been assembled from this suggested source, the educational final results and conclusions would likely not have been materially changed. The Method The nature of this study impels the employment of the universally recognized historical method of discovering, assembling and classifying data, and from these materials prepare an account of educational conditions, as they obtained in Louisiana during the reconstruction period. Data were collected from libraries and newspapers, and public and private offices, and a number of interviews and considerable correspondence were had with individuals who remember something of educational conditions in the State during the period under consideration. More than fifty groups of statistics arranged in various orders, showing State appropriations, pupils enrolled in schools, number of teachers, salary schedules, etc., as well as examples of courses of study used in the various schools, were collected from original sources. Moreover, several photostats were made of old school houses which existed during the reconstruction period for the purpose of showing the types of school buildings in use at that time. Value of This Study In addition to being simply an historical account of educational conditions in Louisiana during the reconstruction period, 1866 to 1876, which in itself we trust may prove of some worth to the literature in this field, the results of this study may be employed in making a comparison of public educational conditions prior to and since the period under consideration. This comparative study of both the general educational conditions and the specific phases of the study, such as superivision of instruction, qualifications of public school teachers, curricula, etc., may serve not only to reveal the strength or weakness of the school systems, but also to indicate certain educational pitfalls which may later be avoided, for instance, mixed schools for the different races, insufficient salary schedules for teachers, narrow classical programs of work, too rapid a change in textbooks, etc. It appears that for Louisianians especially, such a work as this would be of considerable assistance in gaining a clearer understanding of their whole educational development. Moreover, knowledge gained from this historical account cf public education in the State, when properly evaluated, should aid in setting up goals toward which a given institution is moving. Furthermore, this period needed special study because of the manifest opposition of the citizenship to the entire educational pro gram, as indicated in the period which followed. The incalculable pleasure and increased desire to accomplish greater things in the field of research constitute the largest individual benefit in the preparation of this study. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA DURING THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD (1866-1876) CHAPTER II EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA FROM 1845 to 1868 Beginning with the Territorial Legislature of 1806, Louisiana made provision from time to time, for public education throughout the State. However, it was not until 1845 that public, free education was provided for all 1 the children of the State by Constitutional authority. The purpose of this introductory chapter is to indicate the development of public education in Louisiana immediately prior to, and during the Civil War and during the brief period of reconstruction under the Presidential plan. In 1845, a commission was appointed by the Governor to make recommendations for the improvement and the extension of the school system; and the first step was taken when advanced provisions for education were incorporated 2 in the New Constitution adopted in that year. 3 This new document made provision for a State Super- intendent to be appointed by the Governor, for a term of two years; it directed the legislature to enact such laws that would call for the setting up of school machinery for the administration of the public schools, and to raise revenue for their support by taxation on property, or otherwise; it directed that the proceeds derived from sale of school lands should be deposited with the State treasurer and should draw six per cent interest for the benefit of the public schools. Moreover, the constitution prescribed that the proceeds from sales of seminary property should be deposited with the State treasurer, and the six per cent interest to be used for the benefit of the State seminary and college. The constitution further stated that the legislature should provide the necessary machinery for establishing a college in New Orleans, but State support of this latter institution was not compulsory. In 1846, Governor Isaac Johnson recommended to the legislature that a complete system of public, free education be set up without further delay; also, that institutions of higher learning be established, including a seminary of learning, and an university in New Orleans. Largely as a result of Governor Johnson’s hearty and enthusiastic recommendation, the legislature proceeded at once on February 17, 1846 to select a committee whose function it was to work out and present a plan for a public sys tern of education for the entire State. As a result of this action, the legislature adopted on May 3rd, 1847, what is usually referred to as the first general public school act, creating both a State and parish (county) system, and committing the State to the policy of educating the children of all the people in public schools, supported by the State. Although the new school act was far from the goal of perfection, it was a tremendous improvement over all previous efforts along this line. The following are the chief provisions of the general school 5 Act: Provision was made for a full-time State superintendent of public education to be elected by the qualified voters of the State; each parish (county/ was to have a parish superintendent, elected by the voters of the parish, with a maximum salary of $3OO per annum; State school funds were to be distributed to the parishes on the basis of the number of educables from six to sixteen years of age; the State school tax was fixed at one mill on the State assessment; poll taxes and the proceeds of the sale of school lands donated by the Federal government were to be used solely for public school purposes; the parish superintendents and the police juries were required to divide the parishes into school districts, a minimum of forty pupils being essential to a district; each district in mass meeting assembled elected a district school board of three members whose function it was to look after school affairs within their district. Orleans parish and the city of New Orleans operated under a different Act. With this machinery set up by the legislature, we find a rather effective system of public education functioning in the State up to the beginning of the Civil War, at which time not only the school system, but practically every other organization in the State was almost completely prostrate. After 1845 however, the State never returned at 6 least in theory to a system of private schools. 1 Fortier, Alcee, Louisiana Studies, Vol. I, p. 262. 2 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1845, p. 61. 3 Constitution of Louisiana, Article 134, 1845. Legislative Documents, I, 1846. 5 Acts of the Louisiana Legislature, Act No. 225, p. 178, 1847. Superintendent Dimitry With the free public school system, a new official had been added to the general administrative corps of the State This first superintendent of public instruction was Alexander Dimitry who served the State faithfully and well for two terms of two years each, (1847-1851), at a salary of $3,000 per annum. A quotation from Honorable Robert M. Lusher, a later incumbent to the same office, gives us an idea as to the character and work of our first State super 7 intendent of public education in Louisiana; A native son of Louisiana of classic mold; a ripe scholar of national reputation; a man of vast and varied erudition; a linguist of remarkable skill and attainments; a teacher of enlarged experience and familiar with the best methods of instruction observed in the United States and in Europe was naturally the first appointed State superintendent of public education in Louisiana, and being then in his prime (in his 44th year), he at once entered upon the discharge of the multifarious duties of his office, fully conscious of the great dignity of the mission intrusted to his experience and ability. Superintendent Dimitry soon after his election, entered very enthusiastically upon the duties of his office. One of the first acts of his office was to visit different parts of the State, in order that he might have an opportunity to see the school situation as it was, and confer with parish school officials relative to new plans of school operation. He hoped also in this manner to arouse an interest among the people in general, in the education of their children. An examination of his reports indicates that he was not very greatly heartened by his investigations and observations. Superintendent Dimitry found among the people of the State much indifference concerning education of a public sort. He found among the recently elected parish superintendents some very able men who helped to create within their parish a wholesome sentiment for public education. It became evident to him right away, that an efficient parish superintendent was really the "key" man to the entire school situation. This official of the school system was in close touch with the situation, and could either cause to succeed or cause to fail any system that might be 8 set in operation. ns Fortier, Alcee, Louisiana, Vol. I, p. 432. 7 Robert M., State Superintendents Report, 1877, Public School Funds From the State superintendent’s report of 1848, we have the following statistics as to the source and amount 9 of revenue received: Although the superintendent of public education fully realized that with approximately $350,000 all the educables of Louisiana could not be schooled for a very long period, at the same time he did not become discouraged; he fought the battle heroically, and stretched this seemingly meagre amount over a period of from two to ten months school term for those who would attend. The average length of the school session, however, in 1850 was about three months. According to the message of Governor Johnson in an address to the legislature in 1850, there were 692 school districts in the State, and 618 public schools with 22,000 children in attendance. Mr. Dimitry served two terms, and was succeeded in office by Robert Carter Nicholas, 1852. In his report of the first year of his administration, superintendent Nicholas stated that the best qualified parish superintendents were doing very well with their schools; the other parishes were accomplishing but very little. He made reference to the lack of local taxation for school purposes in which he suggested that a large portion of the school burden must be borne by the local community. The school income for the year 1852 was about $250,000* In this same year, the number of schools in rural Louisiana, that is outside New Orleans, was 647, and more than 50 per cent of the educables were in attendance. In Assumption, Claiborne, De Soto, Iberville, Jefferson, Morehouse, St. Landry, and West Baton Rouge parishes there had been es- 10 one or more very good schools of grammar grade. The superintendent recommended that normal training departments be inaugurated in the New Orleans high schools. The following year, the superintendent referred again to the subject of normal training departments in the New Orleans high schools; he was very insistent that some type of teacher-training be started. In 1861, the percentage of attendance in the public schools had fallen to of the 96,522 educables in rural Louisiana, but in New Orleans the percentage was still as high as 8 Dimitry, Alexander, State Superintendent ’s Report, p. 3, 1849. 9 lbid., p. 12, 1950. Source Amount Mill tax in 39 parishes $220,602.45 Poll tax (estimated) 43,112.00 Mill tax, New Orleans 75,555.48 Poll tax, New Orleans 16,951.00 Total 356,230.93 Table 1 Source and Amount of Revenue 1848 Office of Parish Superintendent Abolished By an act of the legislature of 1852, the recently 11 created office of parish superintendent was abolished. The reason given for abolishing this hand of the education system was that too much of the school fund was going into the salaries of these officers (their salaries were $3OO a year). It is entirely possible that the legislature was right, as it seems from the records that most of the money so expended was wasted; that the majority of these superintendents did practically nothing to advance public education. Nicholas, Robert Carter, State Superintendents Report, 1853, p. 14 • —— * 11 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, Act No. 21, 1852. Superintendent J. N. Carrigan From 1855 to 1860 J. N. Carrigan was State Superintendent of public Education in Louisiana. The reports of these early superintendents are very meagre and incomplete, but the few statistics and statements that we have furnish information of a general nature, and to some extent, of a more detailed character. From Superintendent Carrigan’s reports we find that of the 62,682 educables in 1855, probably 36,000 were enrolled in the public schools; 12,000, or one-third, of them, in the New Orleans schools. It is frankly admitted by the Superintendent that he estimated the enrollment for the schools in the rural parishes. He was almost forced to do so because of the fact that the district officials would not send in their reports. The funds for the year were $357,969.00, and came principally from the one mill state tax. The Superintendent further reports 700 schools in the State that were kept ppen for a session of eight months on an average ( a very fine record). The average 12 salary for teachers was approximately sso*oo per month. J- Carrigan, J. N., Superintendent of Public Education, Report, 1855, p. 16. The Situation in New Orleans The school situation in New Orleans was a little different from that over the State in general. From 1841, this city had been conducting a system of public schools, under a fairly efficient group of school officials. Mr. Lusher, sometime State Superintendent of Louisiana, gives 13 the following summary: A comparative table exhibiting the growth of the free public schools in New Orleans between 1841 and 1850. In this respect, New Orleans aided greatly in bridging the gap between the old beneficiary parish academies and the absolutely free public school system of the State: In the second and first municipalities the schools were graded as primary and intermediate; in the third, were more or less mixed. High Schools were opened in the second in 1843; in the first in 1845. French and Latin were taught in addititon to some higher branches. In the second, there was a little Greek taught. Perhaps as fair characterization of the whole public school system in the State by a special committee of edu-17 cational affairs 1860-61 is here given: The schools were prospering, and there was a constant demand for good teachers. All the higher English branches were now taught in the public schools The private schools, too, were numerous and well conducted, so that the means of education were presented and could be easily obtained by our fellow-citizens. A high school was in operation in Baton Rouge, where Latin and Greek were taught and students fitted for college. There were 71 students and two efficient teachers. The directors had spent $2,500 in fitting the school for use. Certain legislative changes were made in the fifties which had quite a decided effect upon the school system. The method of selecting the state superintendent was changed from appointment by the governor to popular election and his salary was reduced to $l5OO a year. The office of parish superintendent was abolished, and a non-salaried board of district directors substituted. These changes seriously crippled the system outside of New Orleans, and gave room for complaint against the schools everywhere. One of the capital complaints heard in the late fifties was against the local directors, who often appeared to have little interest in their work. Complaints came also ’’from many of the parishes that the teachers appointed were not only incompetent, but often drunkards and unprin-18 cipled adventurers. * These conditions greatly irritated many of the parents of the school children. In some communities the parents demanded, and in many instances ’’obtained their children’s quota of the public school funds, which they used in part payment of the salaries of private tutors and governesses.” Of course, this method worked an exceedingly great hardship upon the poorer classes. A statement of Superintendent Carrigan in his report for the year 1859, seems to describe conditions relative to this 19 very well: Under the present law, nearly every planter has a school at his house, and draws the pro rata share out of the public treasury. The poor children have not the benefit of these schools, and in this parish, which pays about $14,000 in school tax, there is consequently not enough in the treasury to pay the expense of a single school at the parish seat, where it ought to be. As has been previously stated, in 1841, New Orleans was given authority to establish a complete system of public schools, with a superintendent, and support by public taxation, "and in a few years the public schools of that city compared favorably with the best city systems in the 20 country.” The educational work and influence of the city continued to grow, and even before the war, served as a 21 good example to other towns and cities in the South. As closing remarks concerning the pre-war period, perhaps it will be fitting to quote the appropriations for public schools. The legislative enactments, which are the most accurate records we have on this point, show the following appropriations for public schools between 1847 22 and 1860, inclusive: Lusher, R. M., Superintendent of Public Education Report, 1866, p. 21. organized May 15th, 1841; schools opened January 1842; J. A. Shaw, of Bridgewater, Mass., Superintendent; his’ services warmly commended by the boards. Board organized probably in 1841; schools opened, 1842; G. W. Horly, teacher and acting superintendent; Prof. A. Dimitry, superintendent, 1846-47; Thomas G. Rapier, 1847-51. Board organized, 1844; schools opened, 1845; P. Bellanger, superintendent, 1845-46; Albert Fabre. 1847-50. 17 Lusher, Op. Cit., p. 17. 18 Ficklen, J, R., The Origin and Development of the Public School System in Louisiana p. 83. 19 Carrigan, J. N., Op. Cit., 1859, p. 20 Knight, E. W., Op. Pit., p. 243. 21 Henry Barnard was instrumental in planning the system to be worked out in New Orleans, and the statement is generally made, was offered the superintendency of the New Orleans schools. 22 Acts of the Louisiana Legislature for these years. Year Second Schools 14 Municipality Teach- Pu- 15 Third Municipality First Munici- pality^- 6 Schools Teach-Pu- Schools Teach- Pu ers pils ers pils ers 5 pils 1842 2 7 840 2 2 110 1843 3 20 1156 3 4 230 1844 5 33 1574 3 4 230 3 11 635 1845 6 37 1859 5 7 448 6 36 1029 1846 7 40 2004 7 10 672 6 38 1351 1847 8 46 2303 9 13 867 7 40 1512 1848 10 54 2693 12 15 902 9 43 1725 1849 13 57 2851 14 17 989 11 45 1850 1850 15 63 3155 17 21 1120 12 50 2010 Table 2 1847 1848-1851 (#225,000 annually). 1852-53 ($240,000 annually)... 1854. * ....$50,000.00 ....900,000.00 ....480,000.00 ....300.000.00 1855-56 1857-59 1860 (280,000 annually).... ($300,000 annually)... ....560,000.00 ....900,000.00 ....650,000.00 Total. Table 3 Education During the War: 1861-1865 For the year 1861, the legislature appropriated $5 per educable child in the State which was distributed at $1.25 per educable per quarter for the year. In speaking of the condition of the school system and the need of its being revised or remodeled, he stated that the school law had become an insurmountable barrier to him so far as improving the system was concerned. As a matter of fact, the law made it the duty of the police jury to district each parish into school districts, appoint a treasurer to receive school money, a committee to examine teachers, and also made it the duty of the directors to employ teachers.' Moreover, it was incumbent upon the treasurer to draw the school money on his own warrant, drawn on the State Auditor, and to pay teachers’ warrants as drawn by the directors of school districts. who succeeded Cardigan as State Superintendent of Publi Education, in making his report to the State Legislature in the early part of 1862, for the work done in the schools during the year 1861, observes in 23 substance as follows: Although the war had upset the thinking and living of the entire South, and had, as a result, brought these liberty-loving people into a temporary state of bondage to poverty, their interest in the education of the youth was not dead. It is clearly seen from the foregoing statements that the State Superintendent was reduced to a mere figure-head; practically powerless. About the only thing left for him to do was to make the quarterly appropriations, which, according to his own statement, could be done in less than three days for the whole year. The largest portion of the work which should rightly fall upon the shoulders of the State Superintendent, was being done by the State Auditor’s office. Concerning the condition of the schools throughout the State during the first year of the Civil War, the Super 24 intendent has this to say: I am sorry to be compelled to say that our schools are not so prosperous as we could wish. It will be seen, by reference to the returns of the Parish Treasurers, the number of schools, and the attendance does not average half the educable children of each parish. The law makes it the duty of the parish assessor to return the number, of educable children in each parish in the month of November every two years; but this year, only about 31 parishes have made any returns, leaving us to take the former enumeration of two years ago, as a basis for the apportionment of the year 1862. The reason of this failure on their part seems to be the belief, that in consequence of the war, there would be no appropriations made the present year, parish treasurers also, have not made their returns from all the parishes, though they were furnished with blanks, and urged to do so; this seems to have arisen from the same cause —namely, supposing no appropriations would be made to the public school for the present year. We have only 33 parishes reported, and their reports are short and imperfect. The attendance of schools is small, which is mainly attributable to the state of the public mind in consequence, of the war. Teachers are much improved in character and ability, of which there was great need, and the increasing of salaries has secured more competent persons to teach, and I am happy to state that great improvement is made from this cause. The schools have been hindered some in their progress by the failure of the treasury department to pay the appropriations when due, caused by the failure of the sheriff to collect the taxes; so that one quarter’s salary stands unpaid till another is due. This has caused some complaint among the teachers. I wish also to call attention to our school books; they must soon become a scarce article. If we do not banish from our schools the "refuse” of Northern Abolition houses, we must soon fight again that battle we are now fighting on our soil. The question is "where are they to come from?" It is up to the Legislature to make such provision. The school records during the years of the war, especially, are conspicuous for their incompleteness rather than for the information which was asked for by the State Superintendent. Only 33 of the 57 parishes made any sort of a report, and only a few of these furnished the data requested. A few of the most complete Parish (county) reports have been selected for this document, and it is believed give a fair cross-section on public education in the State in 1861. Each parish report is presented separately, be-25 cause each has a little different story to tell. This is one of the North-East Louisiana Parishes, situated for the most part in the Red River valley. It is not known exactly how many educables resided in this parish in 1861, but it is quite definite that the number reported as being in attendance is hardly one-tenth of the school population. Moreover, the majority of the schools reported a term of from three to five months during the year. *The number of pupils reported who were not attending the public schools in the parish of Iberville was 1135; about one in five in attendance. There were only three schools in the parish that had a school term of twelve months; the majority of them held school less than five months. As is the case in all these reports for 1861, the number of teachers is not given; therefore, we do not know whether the amount spent for salaries was anywhere in the neighborhood of reason or not. *The number reported who were not in attendance was 523; a considerable larger proportion attending the public schools in Carroll Parish than in the one just reported, is very evident. Perhaps this may be accounted for by the fadt that in this parish there was one fair-sized town, Carrolltdn. The average length of school term was a bit better here than in some other parishes, the average being between six and seven months. *The number reported not in school in this parish was 905. In this parish we find a fairly good percentage of the educables in attendance upon the schools. Of course we must bear in mind that the number of educables utilized is the same as that employed in 1858, and is therefore, subject to a large error. The average length of the school year was also cut short, being about three months. Calcasieu was one of the most promising parishes for wealth in the State, being situated in South-Central Louisiana, the parish seat of which is Lake Charles, situated on the beautiful Lake bearing the same name. This is in the heart of the rice section of the present day, but the dwellers there in 1861, seemingly cared little for public education. The average school term was a little less than three months. Another interesting parish in the North-West portion of the State is Caddo, in which is situated the city of Shreveport. The report of the Treasurer from this parish is very incomplete, but the following is what appears in the report for 1861: *This is a ridiculously small number for the parish of Caddo; however, it is well to remember that in the towns and cities especially, many of the children attended private schools. The fact that Shreveport was a town of some consequence, at least incorporated, may account in part for the small attendance at the schools. Since we are to present a chapter devoted solely to schools and their development in New Orleans, Orleans parish and the City of New Orleans are not included in this general cross-section of educational conditions in the State in 1861. It might, however, be said i# passing that school matters in New Orleans were somewhat better than in the State at large. As a matter of fact, in 1861, Louisiana outside of New Orleans, was a rural community for the most part; sparsely settled, transportation and communication very difficult. Moreover, the people as a whole were thinking of the war and its outcome; not so much about schools of any sort. It is interesting to get some notion of the type of curricula employed by the schools in Louisiana the first year of the war. The State Superintendent lists the follow-26 ing in his annual report: *The last four mentioned subjects, Algebra, Geometry, Latin, and Greek were reported on the list of subjects taught, but were employed only in a very small number of the better elementary schools over the State, and in the high schools in New Orleans. From a casual glance at the list of offerings, it is readily seen that the first ten subjects mentionabove are primary and intermediate school subjects. Superintendent Avery in commenting on the entire situation respecting education in 1861, observed that both public and private schools were doing very good work, under the circumstances. The public schools, he maintained, were reaching a little less than fifty per cent of the educables in the State, and the private schools were reaching most 27 of the others. Living as we are, some sixty-five years from the Civil War situation as it actually existed, the picture has become so marred and blurred that it is rather difficult for such "moderns" as we to fully appreciate school conditions as they really obtained in the South at large, and in some of the States In particular. The superintendent of public education in Louisiana seems to have been a very sincere and fairly capable school administrator. As with all such officers, there were several items which greatly disturbed his mental attitudes. But recently, the Parish (county) superintendent’s office had been abolished, on account of the tremendous expense of S3OO per annum for its upkeep, and, as a result, there was left no agency through which public education could be administered in the smaller units. An urgent request was made for the re-establishment of this office, but this was not done at this time, but instead, a school board, with the Parish treasurer acting as secretary, was constituted for the purpose of ad- ministering educational affairs in the parish. The majority of the teachers in the schools and most of the textbooks used were Northern products. Just as might be expected, the books contained materials which before the war went practically unnoticed, but now received the harshest sort of criticism. Likewise the teachers attempted to instill into the minds of the children their view points concerning the war. Louisiana and her superintendent were not alone in their renunciations of Northern teachers and textbooks; the same attitude prevailed throughout the Southern territory. Superintendent Avery made a very urgent appeal to the legislature early in 1862, that steps be taken at once to relieve "our schools of Northern teachers and Northern textbooks." The legislature concerned itself but very little with school matters, during the frightful struggle of the years 1861-65. There were no appropriations made by the legislature for public education for the years 1861, 1863, and 1864. However, in 1862, an appropriation of $485,000 was made, much of which, perhaps, was never used for this purpose. Moreover, there was no school legislation enacted by the legislature during the war period, save an act in 1864 abolishing the 28 office of State Librarian. It ought to be said to the credit of the law-makers of the State, that an appropriation of nearly half a million dollars for the support of public education was indeed quite generous, considering the fact that the war-fires were burning at white heat. It is quite certain, however, as Super-29 intendent Harris suggests, that a goodly portion of this fund was diverted from its true course, for, during the same year, Admiral Farragut made his triumphal entry into New 30 Orleans, and General "Big Ben” Butler took charge of the city and surrounding territory in the name of the Wahington government. It is ever to be borne in mind that in the larger centers, that is in the cities and towns of some consequence, public schools were patronized very well by all classes of of people; and, so far as the records show, no antagonism was observable in any of the more prominent trading centers, 31 In New Orleans, for example, public education had become popular. Other towns such as Baton Rouge, Shreveport, Lake Charles, Carrollton and Monroe placed to good account the State fund received, in an effort to promote public education for all the children within their territory. 22 Avery, Henry, State Superintendent's Report, p. 1, 1861 S4 Avery, Op. Cit., p. 3. i>s Avery, Op. Cit.. p. 13f. Avery, Bp. Cit., p. 23. 27 Avery, Op. Cit., p. 25. 28 Acts of the Legislature, Act No. 25, 1864. T. H., A Story of Education in Louisiana, p. 18 30 A fuller account is given of the devastating work of Butler in the chapter, The New Orleans Situation. 31 For a fuller account of educational development in New Orleans, see chapter, The Situation in New Orleans. In think ing of public education becoming popular, we must not lose sight of the fact that Reconstruction had not yet begun. No. of Schools Length No. in Term Attend- ance Amount paid - Teachers: Public Fund Teachers & Teachers: Private Fund Buildings School Houses Total Disburse ments: About 9 From 3 183 to 10 months About $3,400 About $2,064.92 No Report About $5,464.92 Table 4 Annual report of the Treasurer of the Parish of Bossier to the State Superintendent of Public Education: No. of School No. in Amount paid Teachers & Buildings: Total Schools Term Attend- Teachers: Teachers: School Disburse ance Public Fund Private Fund Houses ments 13 From Three to Twelve Months Reported $7,945.73 264* No Report $958.86 $8,904.59 Table 5 Annual report of the Treasurer of the Parish of Iberville: No. of Schools 12 School No. in Term Attend- ance From 375* six to ten months Amount Paid Teachers: Public Fund $5,534.01 Teachers & Teachers: Private Fund No Report Buildings Total Di sburse- ment s #5,534.01 For School Houses No Report Table 6 Annual Report of the Treasurer of the Parish of Carroll for the year 1861. No, of Schools School Term No, in Attend, ance Amount Paid Teachers: Public Fund Teachers Teachers: Private Fund Buildings School Houses Total Di sburse ments 36 From one to eleven months 682* $6,433,35 No Report No Report $6,433.55 Table 7 Annual Report of the Treasurer of the Parish of Catahoula: No. of School No. in Amount Paid. Teachers Buildings Total Schools Term Attend- Teachers: Teachers: School Disburse- an ce Publie Fund Private Hou se s ments Fund 29 From two to 12 months No Report $5,956.83 No Report No Report $5,956.83 Table 8 Annual Report of the Treasurer of the Parish of Calcasieu: No. of Schools School Term No. in Attend- ance Amount Paid • Teachers: Public Fund Teachers Teachers: Private Fund Buildings: School Houses Total Disburse ments Number not Reported No 273* Report #5,482.85 No Report No Report $5,482.85 Table 9 1. Reading 6. English Grammar 11. Algebra* 2. Spelling 7. French Grammar 12. Geometry 3. Writing 8. History 13. Latin 4. Arithmetic 9. Dictation 14. Greek 5. Geography 10. Composition Table 10 Curricula of the Public Schools of Louisiana (New Orleans Excepted), for the year 1861 Henry Avery The Constitution of 1864 Operating upon the joint suggestion of President Lincoln and Governor Michael Hahn, a constitutional convention met in the city of New Orleans April 6, 1864, for the purpose of considering the adoption of a new constitution. The convention was called to order by temporary chairman, Judge E. H. Durell who was elected president of the meeting. On 23, of the same year, the convention adopted a constitution which was acceptable to the Washington government. The 32 principal educational provisions of this instrument follow: Article 140 provided for the election of a State Superintendent of Public Education for a term of four years, and at a salary of $4,000 per annum until otherwise provided by law. The legislature was given the power, by a majority vote of both houses, to abolish the office of Superintendent of Public Education whenever in their opinion, said office was no longer necessary. Article 141 stated that the legislature should provide for the education of all children of the State between the ages of six and eighteen years of age. The schools were to be maintained by taxation or otherwise. Article 142 declared that the general exercises in the common schools should be conducted in the English language. Article 143. A University should be established in New Orleans. Article 144. The proceeds of all lands previously granted by the United States to Louisiana for the purpose of public schools, and of all lands which might hereafter be granted or bequeathed for that purpose, and the proceeds of the estates of deceased persons to which the State might become entitled by law, should be and remain a perpetual fund on which the State should pay an annual interest of This interest, together with the interest of the trust funds deposited with the State by the United States, under an Act of Congress approved in June, 1836, and all rents of unsold lands, should be appropriated to the purpose of such schools the appropriation to remain inviolable. Comparatively little public school legislation was enacted during the period of Presidential Reconstruction, 1864-1868. Some of these Acts however, proved to be rather significant. Under the Constitution of 1864, the legislature was given the power to discontinue the office of State Superintendent of Public Education at any time this body deemed such a step necessary or advisable. Tn keeping with legis- lative action, even at the present time, we find that for a few months this State office was abolished. John McNair was Superintendent at the time of its abolishment. An Act to Abolish the Office of Superintendent of pub-33 lie Education. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana in general assembly convened, that the office of Superintendent of Public Education is hereby abolished; this act to take effect on the first day of January, 1866. Another legislative Act of the same year relative to 34 the purchase of elementary school books follows: An Act to Authorize the Governor to Procure the Purchase of Publication and Distribution of Elementary School Books for the Benefit of the Children of the State. Be it enacted, That the Governor is hereby authorized to draw on his own warrant the sum of $lOO,OOO or so much tereof as may be necessary, out of the school fund and to expend the same in the purchase of suitable elementary school books, which he will deliver to the Treasurer, who shall distribute the same to the several police juries of the several parishes, to be by them in turn distributed equally among the children thereof between the ages of six and sixteen years, upon payment by such children of the cost of publication there. Books to be given gratuitously in case of necessity. There were no legislative enactments relative to education, in 1866; but, in 1867, the last year that the State operated under the Presidential plan of reconstruction, there were two Bills of far reaching influence passed. Act number 34 gave the Mayor and Board of Selectmen of the city of Baton Rouge authority to maintain a school for white children in each ward of the city, and to levy a tax of one-eighth of one per cent on all property of the white population, and one-half of one percent on all licens 35 es for their support. Another school Act of the same year provided that the city of New Orleans be constituted into one public school district for the purpose of administering gratuitious education to the white children residing therein; provided, That any child of the proper age residing temporarily in the city, and mentally qualified for admission in the public schools therein established, should not be debarred from the privileges of the same by reason of such temporary residence; and provided further, that all persons residing in the adjoining parishes (counties) should have the right of sending their children to said public schools, when of proper age, and possessing the requisite qualifications, upon paying a prorata of the expenses of educating such children; said prorata to be fixed by the board of directors of said public schools. Moreover, that the common council of the city should annually elect a board of directors for the management and control of said schools; provided, that the term of the members of said board should be so regulated by the common council that the seats of only one-third of the whole board should 36 be vacated annually. 32 Constitution of Louisiana, Title XI, Article 140-146, 1864. 23 og Louisiana Legislature, 1865, Act No. 25, p. 20. Ibid., 1865, Act No. S 3, p. 26. 55 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1867, Act No. 34. Superintendent John McNair Superintendent John McNair was in charge of the educational system during the period when the State was being reconstructed under the Presidential Plan, 1864-68. It is to be remembered in this connection that the political and educational control under the Lincoln or Presidential Plan of reconstruction was as thoroughly "white” as it had ever been before the war, or ever was after reconstruction under the democratic regime. 37 According to Superintendent McNair’s report, public education in the State was in a lamentable condition; schools very poor in character exceedingly inefficient, except in the city of New Orleans. Most of the teachers were incompetent from an educational point of view, and many of them unfit to teach the youth from a moral point of view. The law made no provision for an executive school official in the various parishes, since the abolishing of the office of Parish superintendent in 1861. As a result, supervision was wholly neglected. Superintendent McNair’s reports were all very incomplete, practically nothing being reported from the state at large; however, a splendid report was mad each year from New Orleans, a complete account of which is given later. In his report relative to the State Free School Fund, McNair stated that during the year 1864-65 he apportioned to the various parishes for teachers 1 salaries the sum of 38 $105,894.80. The following is a quotation from the Superintendent’s report of the foregoing reference relative to the Free School Fund, which seems significant: It is my duty, under the law to work out some means of improving the Free School Fund, but at present, I do not see any way of improving it. But it is very desirable if possible to save the accumulations of past years, arising from the sales of school lands, generously donated by the Congres of the United States to Louisiana for the purpose of securing a common school education to every child of the State. These accumulations were, on the first of January, 1862, represented by one thousand two hundred and eleven (1,211) State bonds amounting to the sum of $1,193,500, besides a large indebtedness for school lands sold, I presume, still due. The interest on this sum of money at six per cent, per annum was by law appropriated to aid in defraying the expenses of the public schools in the several towns, in which the lands sold were located, and as the bonds have been carried off by the rebel State officers, both principal and interest seem to be in danger of being lost to the purposes for which it was set apart as a sacred trust, viz., the education of the children of the State. Perhaps the two outstanding difficulties in the way of public education in Louisiana at the present time is the lack of funds with which to operate the schools, and the lack of qualified teachers. The teachdrs are usually ignorant of subject matter, and of low moral grade. Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1867, Act No. 107, p. 203 37 McNair, John, Report of State Superintendent of Public Education, 1864, p. 7. Op. Cit., p. 7. The Freedmen’s Bureau One of the most powerful agencies created by the Federal Government during reconstruction days was the Freedmen’s Bureau. In March 3, 1865, about a month before the surrender of General Lee, this bureau for the relief of Freedmen and refugees, was established under the control of the war department. The institution was to continue during the rebellion, and for one year thereafter. This bureau had full charge of all matters relating to freedmen, especially the distribution among them of lands abandoned by the owners, or confiscated by the United States govern-39 ment. Forty acres might be given for a term of three years to each freedman who was to pay an annual rental on the same or purchase it. In case of purchase, he was to receive such title as the National Government could confer. While the war was still in progress, the bureau did not materially affect Louisiana, except that portion in and around New Orleans; but as soon as the war was over, the operation of the institution was extended to the entire State. Aided by missionary and religious societies of the North, the bureau doubtless helped the negro in making provision for himself in his new state of freedom; however, its officials were mostly indiscreet army officers —often bent on making their own fortunes —who managed the work of the bureau in such an inefficient manner that the planters, especially those coming home from the war, found the bureau an intolerable nuisance, and longed to be rid of it. The planters complained of the bureau; the bureau complained of the planters, and the freedmen complained of both. It was confusion worse confounded. In order that the reader may become better acquainted with the document which perhaps gave more trouble in the South than any other single act of the reconstruction congress, and for the further fact that present day historians seem to agree that this Freedmen’s Bureau Act of March, ry 28, 1865 was of most vital importance, the Act is given 40 herewith in full: An Act to Establish a Bureau for the Relief of Freedmen and Refugees. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there is hereby established in the War Department, to continuedduring the present war of rebellion, and for one year thereafter, a Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, to which shall be comitted, as hereinafter provided, the supervision and management of all abandoned lands, and tbe control of all subjects relating to refugees and freedmen from rebel States, or from any district of country within the territory embraced in the operations of the army, under such rules and regulations as may be prescribed by the head of the bureau and approved by the President. The said bureau shall be under the management and control of a commissioner, to be appointed by the President, and with the advice and consent of the Senate, whose compensation shall be three thousand dollars per annum, and such number of clerks as may be assigned to him by the Secretary of War, not exceeding one chief clerk, two of the fourth class, two of the third class, three of the second class, and five of the first class. And the commissioner and all persons appointed under this act shall, before entering upon their duties, take the oath of office prescribed in an act entitled, "An act to prescribe an oath of office, and for other purposes," approved July 2nd 1862. And the commissioners and the chief clerk shall, before entering upon their duties, give bonds to theTTreasurer of the United States, the former in the sum of fifty thousand dollars, and the latter in the sum of ten thousand dollars, conditioned for the faithful discharge of their duties respectively, with securitties to be approved as Sufficient by the attorney general, which bonds shall be filed in the office of the First Comptroller of the Treasury, to be by him put in suit for the benefit of any injured party, upon any breach of the conditions thereof. Section 2. And be in further enacted, That the secretary of War may direct such issues of provision, clothing, and fuel as he may deem needful for the immediate and temporary shelter and supply of destitute and suffering refugees and freedmen, and their wives and children, underssuch rules and regulations as he may direct. Section 3. And be it further enacted, That the President may by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, appoint an assistant commissioner for each of the States declared to be in insurrection, not exceeding ten in number, who shall, under the direction of the commissioner, aid in the execution of the provisions of this act, and he shall give a bond to the Treasurer of the United States in the sum of twenty thousand dollars, in the form and manner prescribed in the first section of this act. Each of said assistant commissioners shall receive an annual salary of two thousand and five hundred dollars, in full compensation for all his services And any military officer may be detailed and assigned to duty under this act without increase of pay or allowances. The commissioner shall, before the commencement of each regular session of Congress, make full report of his proceedings, with exhibits of the state of his accounts, to the President, who shall communicate the same to Congress, and shall also make special reports whenever required to do so by the President, or either house of Congress. The assistant commissioners shall make quarterly reports of their proceedings to the commissioner, and also such other special reports as from time to time may be required. Section 4. And be it further enacted, That the commissioner, under the direction of the President, shall have authority to set apart for the use of loyal refugees and freedmen such tracts of land, within the insurrection ary States, as shall have been abandoned, or to which the United States shall have acquired title by confiscation, or sale, or otherwise. And to every male citizen, whether refugee or freedman, as aforesaid, there shall be assigned not more than forty acres of such land, and the person to whom it is so assigned shall be protected in the use and enjoyment of the land for the term of three years, at an annual rent not exceeding six per centum upon the value of said land as it was appraised by the State authorities in the year 1860, for the purpose of taxation, and in case no such appraisal can be found, then the rental shall be based upon the estimated value of the land in said year, to be ascertained in such manner as the commissioner may, by regulation, prescribe. At the end of said term, or at any time during said term the occupants of any parcels so assigned may purchase the land and receive such title thereto as the United States can convey upon paying therefor the value of the land, as ascertained and fixed for the purpose of determining the annual rent as aforesaid. Section 5. And be it further enacted, That all acts and parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of this act are hereby repealed. The thousands of destitute freedmen who came into the Federal lines were to be cared for and furnished with empby- ment. To meet the difficulties of the situation the Bureau of Free Labor under Superintendent Thomas W. Conway, established what were termed "home colonies." Of these, there were four in Louisiana; the McHatton, at Baton Rouge, the Ross and McCutcheon, in St. Charles Parish, the General Bragg, in Lafourche Parish, and the Sparks in Jefferson parish. The number of acres of land included in the home colonies was 9,650. The number of dependents placed in them was 1,902, of whom 609 were sick. The colonies were organized with a superintendent, a physician, a cultivator of land, and clerk. In each were a school and, "where parties so desired," churches. The government was to receive one-third of the crops on the lands cultivated. General Banks, who succeeded General Ben Butler in New 41 Orleans, established a Board of Education for the Freedmen. General Orders number 38 which provided for the creation of this board of education may be foundiin full in Appendix A; the gist of the order follows: This board was composed of three men whose duties were to purphase tracts of land suitable for school sites, of not less than one-half acre each; to erect suitable school houses upon these tracts so purchased; to select and employ such teachers as the demand required; to purchase and provide the necessary materials such as books, stationery, and apparatus for the use of children; to regulate the course of study, and to have generally the same authority and to perform the same duties that assessors, supervisors and trustees of Northern States performed. General Banks also undertook to bring about amicable relations between the planters and the negroes, so that the latter would return to work, they having formed a sort of union, and refused in most cases to work at all. A system of wages, fines and punishments had been adopted two years previous to the passage of the Freedmen’s bureau. At the close of the year 1863, this plan was reported to be a "decided success." On February 3rd, 1864, General Banks promulgated his "General Orders No. 23." setting forth the ‘rules and regulations for the employment of freedmen for the year. Laborers were divided into four classes, to receive respectively $B, $6, $5, and $3 per month, in addition to "healthy rations, comfortable clothing, quarters, fuel, medical attention, and instruction for children." At least one-half of the wages stipulated should be withheld until the end of the year, and provision was made for the cultivation of land on private account. It is interesting to observe what the negroes themselves, thought of the Bureau. The description which follows of this institution, given by a negro in Florida, is perhaps typical of what one might find over the South. This negro 42 remarks: The freedmen’s bureau, an institution devised by Congress under the influence of the very best people of the Northern States, and intended as a means of protection for the freedmen, and preparing them for the new responsibilities and privileges conferred, in the hands of bad men, proved, instead of a blessing, to be the worst curse of the race; as under it, he was misled, debased, and betrayed. The agents of this Bureau were stationed in all the cities and principal towns in the State. They overruled the local authorities with the arbitrary force of military power. Before it was definitely known that the Congress of the United States could confer the right of suffrage upon the negro, the great majority of the agents were more oppressive of theffreedmen than the local authorities, their former masters. Provisions and other necessities of life which had been supplied by the friends of tte freedmen to be distributed to them by the officially appointed agent, rarely ever got very much of the materials so much needed; for, the agent of the Bureau would appropriate them to his own use. Another very interesting side light from the Negro’s point of view concerning Freedom and the Freedmen’s Bureau 43 is given by Rhodes. He states that the negroes’ idea of Freedom was crude and pitiful. To support this statement, he cites the case of William Lord Garrison and his experience with a group of darkies in Charleston. Garrison came down to Charleston, S. C., April 15, 1865; he discovered about 1200 freed darkies a little di stance sway, and upon speaking to them, suggested that they join him in giving three cheers for Freedom. The blacks stood speechless and amazed; the ignorant freedmen did not understand the meaning o f his "rahs." Moreover, Rhodes suggests that from a section of the Freedmen’s Bureau Act of March 3, 1865, the negroes got the idea that the United States government purposed to give to each of them 40 acres of land andaa mule with which they might make a living. They frequently asked army officers, ’’When is de land goin fur to be dewided?” The Congress and the President had not been able to agree on many matters relative to reconstruction, and in the beginning of 1866, this breach grew wider and wider. A second Freedmen’s Bureau Bill was passed by Congress in February, but the President promptly vetoed it. However, the measure was passed over the President’s veto the following July. It was the education feature of the Freedmen’s Bureau which caused the most trouble and confusion. Dissatisfaction on this point in Louisiana was so great that Lieutenant Governor Albert Voorhies telegraphed president Johnson that serious disorders would arise if orders for the collection of taxes were not suspended. On April 12, 1866, the presi-44 dent sent the following telegram to the Lieutenant Governor: Your telegram was referred to the Secretary of War, who reports that all orders and proceedings for the collection of taxes by the Freedmen’s Bureau for the purpose of education have been suspended. One of the best pictures of the workings of this much 45 talked of Freedmen’s Bureau is given by Burgess. He states that the Freedmen’s Bureau with its powers, jurisdiction, and charities, was a far greater source of irritation in the South than was the presence of the United States amy. While its superior officers were generally men of ability and character, a large number of subalterns were ranking hypocrites and outright thieves. They kept the negroes in a state of idleness, beggary, and unrest, and made them a constant danger to the life and property of the whites, and their veritable tyranny over the white population did more to destroy Union sentiment amoung the whites and make them regard the United States Government in a hostile light than anything which had happened during the whole course of the rebellion. The Bureau as such, never seemed to work successfully; it failed to solve the problem which it undertook to solve, viz., to furnish the freedmen employment, and encourage them to assume responsibility of making their own living. Although a second Bill was passed over the President’s veto, opposition to this institution continued so strongly that in July, 1868, Congress ordered that the bureau be withdrawn from the several States that were being reconstructed, and that its operations, with the exception of the educational feature, the most objectionable, be discontinued on January Ist, 1869. 39 Ficklen, John Rose, Reconstruotion in Louisiana, p. 133. 40 Senate of the United States, Reports; 38th Congress, Second Session. Washington: Government printing Office, 1865, Report 137. 41 Headquarters, Department of the Gulf, General Orders No. 38, March 22n 1864. 42 Iallace, John, Carpetbag Rule in Florida, p. 41. 4 sRhodes, J. FHistory of the United States. 1850-1877 Vol. 5, p. 557. Op. Cit., p. 75. 45 Burgess, J. S., ReconstructionCand the Constitution P* . ~ ’ CHAPTER III SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL CONDITIONS IN LOUISIANA, 1868-1876 Reconstruction, under the Congressional scheme, manifested itself in many ways in the South. Even in the elections, there was a determination on the part of the more radical whites from other sections of the country, and the recently freed colored population of the South to obtain, by the most convenient and often by the most unethical methods, the desirable State offices. The various specific features of the new constitutions afforded abundant opportunity for the usual kind of electioneering discussion; but the dominant tone in the campaign of 1868 was that which sounded with defiant resonance in the resolutions of conservative conventions, concerning the relations of the races. 1 Dunning calls attention to the "lapse of Caucasian civilization into African barbarism in Louisiana;" the Mississippi denunciation of the "nefarious design" of the Republicans to "degrade the Caucasian race as the inferiors of the African negro;" and the unequivocal declaration in South Carolina that "the white people of our State will never quietly submit to negro rule.” In discussing the managers of Southern State govern-2 ments during Congressional reconstruction, Dunning points out the fact that in the offices of the State and local governments, except the judiciary, the carpetbag element was less conspicuous in proportion, and the colored and scalawag element assumed chief prominence. The highest office secured at this time by the colored allies of the radical wing of the Republicans in Louisiana was that of Lieutenant Governor. Most local whites had been disfranchised, and the Freedmen infranchised. William A., Reconstruction, Political and Economic, p. 117. Political Conditions In providing what was considered necessary machinery for the smooth working of the reconstruction plan in general, Congress enacted legislation of such a character that every Confederate State became equally as rebellious in attitude as they were at the beginning of the unfortunate conflict. For eight years, the Congressional scheme held sway in Louisiana. The four National legislative Acts which provided for the reorganization of the entire Southern territory into Military Districts, and for the governing of these districts by Military leaders, may be found in 3 Appendix C. The principal features of these Acts follow: The first reconstruction Act was passed Maran3, 1867. In enacting this legislation, Congress took the position that th erebel States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, and Arkansas were without legal governments, and that life and property were inadequately protected. Moreover, Congress agreed that peace and good order should be enforced in these States until such time as loyal, republican governments could be legally established. On this general premise, this first law was enacted, which stated: That said rebel States shall be divided into Military Districts, and made subject to the Military authority of the United States as hereinafter and for that purpose Virginia shall constitute the first district; North Carolina and South Carolina, the second district; Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, the third district; Mississippi and Arkansas the fourth district; and Louisiana and Texas, the fifth district. The law further stated that the President of the United States should assign to the command of each of the districts, an officer of the army whose rank was not below that of Brigadier General; and to detail a sufficient military force to enable such officer to perform his duties, and enforce his authority within the district to which he had been assigned. The law also provided that the officer so assigned to a commanding position over a district should see to it that all persons, regardless of standing or position, class or color were properly protected from violence and abuses of every sort; that all offenders should be summarily dealt with either by the civil or military authorities, the nature of the offense to be the basis of jurisdiction. Moreover, the law stated that a Constitutional Con- should be ordered by the military leader, in which convention a constitution should be planned and ratified; that when any State had complied with all the provisions as set forth by the Congress of the United States for reentrance into the Union of States, it might be so recognized, and would be entiteld to representation in Congress. A second reconstruction Act was passed March 23, 1867, just twenty days after the first one, which was vetoed by by President Johnson the same day. The chief provisions 4 of the Act as finallypassed were: That the; commanding general in each military district should cause to be taken, before September Ist, 1867, a registration of the eligible voters, and that each voter so registered should be compelled to subscribe to a very "hard” oath which Congress had prepared. Another proviso of this Act was that an election of delegates to a convention, to be designated by the commanding officer, should be held, for the purpose of establishing a constitution and civil government for such States as were now loyal to the Union. The third reconstruction Act came July 19, 1867, which was likewise vetoed by the President, and later passed over his veto. This Act gave the commanding military officer in a rebel district authority to suspend any civil officer whom he deemed disqualified in any sense, and to fill the office which he occupied. One other rather important provision in this Act gave the boards of registration authority to check each person on election day, and ascertain whether or not he was qualified to vote; this board had the right also, without explanation, to strike any names from the 5 voting list, if deemed disqualified. One other reconstruction Act was passed by Congress March 11, 1868, which contained one major provision, viz., that at the same time an election was held for ratification of the Constitution, votes might be cast for Representatives 6 in the lower House of Congress. The Congressional Military scheme went into effect in Louisiana in 1868. The Republicans were placed in charge of the election machinery, with the United States military at their command. One does not have to go far afield to find ample evidence that the State was in the hands of carpetbaggers from the North, scalawags from the State and South at large, and negroes, with the United States army at their back to enforce their will. With such a group as this in charge of the entire State program, educational, political, and otherwise, it is not difficult to surmise the outcome. Henry Clay Warmoth from Pennsylvania became Governor, and Thomas W. Conway from Massachusetts, earlier head of the Freedmen’s Bureau in the State, was made Superintendent of Public Education. We have been unable to learn very much about the lives of these men before they came to Louisiana. From their general course of procedure in office, however, the purpose of their coming is rather clearly portrayed. This purpose, as interpreted by their actions, was to fill their financial coffers by any method or means that might be most convenient, and at the same time to gain for themselves all possible political honors. Governor Warmoth, soon after his election, became involved in a violent political factional fight which lasted throughout the period of his administration. However during the last year of his term of office, 1872, he formed an alliance with the liberal Republicans and Democrats. This alliance was perfected in the hope that the radical wing of the Republican party which had bitterly fought the administration, might be defeated. It is probably true, as Dunning suggests, that Warmoth was willing to effect this 7 combination only for his own glory and financial benefit. It is interesting to note that the Governor and his followers outwitted the radical Republicans and secured the election of 1872; but United States district judge Durell ruled against him, called out the national troops to prevent Warmoth’s legislature from convening, and directed a canvass of the election returns. As a result of this confusion counfounded, double electoral returns were sent to Washington, and two governments were set up in New Orleans. The radical legislature went through the form of impeaching the Governor, recognized the lieutenant-Governor, Pinchback, as his temporary successor (Pinchback, a mulatto, served as Governor about a month), and finally installed William Pitt Kellogg, another radical leader, as the duly elected Governor. The conservative legislature composed of the liberal republicans and democrats, recognized Warmoth as Governor until the end of his term, January, 1873, and then installed their candidate John McEnery as the State’s executive. President Grant, urged by his brother-in-law, Josiah Casey, collector of customs at the Port of New Orleans, and by United States Marshall, Stephen B . Packard, recognized Kellogg and Pinchback as having been duly elected, and directed the troops to protect them in office. A few weeks later, President Grant referred the entire matter to Congress for settlement. Congress failed to find sufficient basis for recognition of either of the Louisiana State governments, and advised that another election be held. No measure, however, for this purpose could be passed by Congress, owing to irreconcilable opinions which had developed, and Louisiana remained in a state of governmental chaos for well nigh two years. The United States troops were all that kept the Kellog regime from being swept into oblivion two years sonner than it was. 8 Albert Phelps an historian-statesman, in commenting on the situation in New Orleans, the headquarters of the Louisiana government, states that "matters reached a bloody crisis, when on the 14th of September, 1874, a mass-meeting of citizens appointed a committee to wait upon Mr. Kellog who claimed the gubernatorial election, and asked him to abdicate. Kellog had fled to the Custom’s House, known as"the house of refuge," and refused to negotiate at all. The Democrats went ahead with their organization, but President Grant soon called Kellogg from his place of hiding, and set him up in the Governorship, surrounded by United States troops. The Democrats and liberal Republicans were so enraged that, although Federal troops were present, they prevented the legislature from doing very much for two more years, at the end of which period they were able to defeat the radicals by an overwhelming majority. In 1876 Federal support was withdrawn by the newly elected President, Rutherford B. Hayes, and the State soon launched a genuinely reconstructive program. Ibidl. p. 120. 3 Senate Executive Document 14, 40th Congress, Ist Session,lB67;;also House cut!ve Document 342, 40th Congress, 2nd Session, 1867. 4 House and Senate Journals, 40th Congress, Ist Session, 1867. s House and Senate Journals, 40th Congress, 2nd Session, 1867. 6 House and Senate Journals, 41st Congress, Ist Session 1868. 1 Dunning, Op. Cit., p. 214. 8 Phelps, Albert, "New Orleans and Reconstruction," Atlantic Monthly, 88:121, July, 1901. Economic and Financial Condition Next to Virginia, Louisiana suffered more from a financial standpoint, during the war, than any of the rebellious States. Not satisfied to win on the battle field, the victors would thoroughly crush the vanquished if possible. For eight years, Louisiana was ruled by an unfriendly regime; and, perhaps no other State of the Confederacy presents such 9 appalling monuments of desolation wrought by her adventurers. The people were not only impoverished by the sudden loss of many millions of slave property, but also by the fearful waste of protracted war within her borders, and the possession of her chief center, New Orleans, by the victors in war. Her plantations, the chief source of wealth, had been overrun or abandoned, and her marts of trade and wharves were glutted. A legitimate debt of some eight millions, and a State credit that had been scrupulously maintained until no government was left to reflect the integrity of the people, was 10 the result. In a single decade of reconstruction, the positive debt of the State was increased to twenty-five millions. Those in charge of affairs during this period did not content themselves with creating debt and wasting the State’s proceeds. Reckless assessors were sent out amonng the people to evaluate property for taxable purposes, and they were tempted, by being paid a percentage on the amount assessed, to over-evaluate the property. Upon these evaluations, the taxes for State purposes alone arose as high as 21 1/2 mills on the dollar. By the end of the reconstruction period, everything that earned money was oppressively taxed, such as trades, occupations, professions, etc. With millions of assessed revenues, however, the ordinary government expenses went unpaid. What became of the 11 money? According to McClure, the answer is all too obvious. This terrible oppression of debt and devastated property could bring but one inevitable result, viz., widespread bankruptcy. Values depreciated from forty to sixty per cent, and every channel of industry was thoroughly paralyzed. Bonds had depreciated to nominal prices; interest could not be paid because the money had been mis-applied by those in authority. The resources of the people from which money could be wrested, had well-nigh perished. State bonds, which had ceased to be marketable, were recklessly issued by the millions with little more than the color of law as a 12 basis for their support. In this state of utter despair of creditors, those in charge of the State government decided to speculate on their own misdoings. They bought up ett nominal prices, the fraudulent bonds which they had issued, and proposed to scale the entire debt at sixty cents on the dollar, in seven per cent, forty-year bonds. The old bonafide creditors of the State who held the undisputed six per cent bonds, were tempted to accept this proposition. The bonds were hastily funded, and a constitutional amendment, declared as ratified by the election machinery common in Louisiana in those days, fastened a double fraud upon the people; first, by a fraud upon the honest creditors because they would probably never be repaid, and next by a fraud that made thousands of dishonest claims a constitutionally adjudicated debt of the 13 State. Arthur K., The South: Industrial, Financial and Political, p. 122. 123. “ibid., p. 124. 12 McClure, On. Cit., p. 125. 13 Chambers, Henry, E., A History of Louisiana, p. 679. CHAPTER IV LEGAL BASIS FOB THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN LOUISIANA DURING THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD The Constitution of 1868 While Louisiana was slowly but gradually being reclaimed from an almost indescribable state of destruction and waste to a respectable standing in the community of commonwealths, she was thrust again from iher pillar of hope, by a Congressional Act of March 2, 1867. This Act in its entirety may be seen in Appendix B. In accordance with the provisions of this first Congressional Reconstruction Act, a constitutional convention was held in March, 1868, at the direction and under the supervision of the Military. The educational provisions contained 1 in the constitution adopted were the following: Article 135 stated that the legislature should provide the necessary machinery for the establishment of at least one free public school in every parish (county) throughout the State, and that these schools should be supported by taxation or otherwise. All children in the State between the ages of six and twenty-one years of age were to be admitted to the public schools or other institutions of learning sustained or established by the State in common, without distinction of race, color, or previous condition. Moreover, the constitution specifically provided that no separate schools or institutions of learning should be established exclusively for any race in the State. Article 136 declared that no municipal corporation should make any rules or regulations contrary to the spirit and intention of Article 135. Article 137 made it clear that a State Superintendent of Public Education should be elected by the qualified voters, for a term of four years, and at an annual salary of |5,000, payable quarterly on his own warrant. Article 138. In this Article, the proceeds of lands which had been granted by the United States for the use and support of public schools, and of all lands or other property which might be bequeathed for that purpose, and of all lands which might be granted or bequeath to the State, and not granted or bequeathed expressly for any other purpose which might hereafter be disposed of by the State; and the proceeds of all estates of deceased persons to which the State might be entitled by law, should be held by the State as a loan, and should be and remain a perpetual fund on which the State should pay an annual interest of as provided for under an Act of Congress of June, 1866. Moreover, the rent of the unsold lands were to be appropriated to the support of the public schools, and this appropriation to remain inviolable. Article 140 provided that no appropriation should be made by the legislature for the support of any private school, or any private institution of learning whatsoever. Article 141 stated that one-half of the funds derived from the poll tax should be appropriated exclusively to the support of the free public schools throughout the State, and the University of New Orleans. In the main, the educational provisions in the constitution of 1868 are not greatly different from those in the constitution of 1864; the few differences, however, which do occur, were sufficient to defeat the real purpose of the entire program. It is generally agreed that the Article pertaining to compulsory mixed schools was the worst of all. Superintendent Fay, in commenting on this point of mixed schools, remarks that the inexpediency of co-mingling the two races in social and educational activities has 2 since been amply demonstrated by the course of events. The laws referred to in a subsequent paragraph, the purpose of which was to carry out the spirit of the Constitution, were never really observed. They lacked that indispensable requisite of popular government; the consent of the governed. As far as these laws were enforced, it amounted to the exclusion altogether of the whites from the schools. of Louisiana, Title VII, Article 135-143, 1868. 2 Fay, o£. Cit., p. 101. Public School Legislation, 1869-1876. The Acts of the Republican legislature which convened in January, 1869 were very carefully checked by the military general in charge of the fifth military district. As a matter of fact, the law makers were made to feel that they must immediately comply with every provision of the recently ratified constitution. The phases of the general education bill enacted by the 3 legislature during the first session, follow: 1. A State board of education was provided for to be composed of the State Superintendent and one member from each congressional district to be appointed by the Governor for a term of four years, and at a salary of $l,OOO per annum; 2. The State board appointed school boards as well as the boards for incorporated towns and villages; 3. The parish boards appointed district boards; 4. The New Orleans board appointed the ward boards in the city; 5. The State was divided into six supervisory districts with a district superintendent in each, appointed by the State board; 6. Each parish (county) was required to support at least one public school for a minimum session of twenty-four weeks, six months; 7. The Act levied a State school tax of two mills to be distributed on the basis of the number of educables, six to 21 years of age; 8. The parish boards were required to distribute the school funds to the districts on the same basis: 9. Police juries could, if they saw fit, levy school taxes as high as two mills; 10. Electors in a shhool district were authorized to come together annually in mass-meeting, and levy school taxes up to a maximum of three mills; 11. School difficulties could be appealed from the district boards to the division superintendents, and from these, to the State board; 12. The use of the Bible in the school program was optional; 13. The State and division superintendents performed the usual duties of such officers; 14. No person could be employed to teach a common school which was to receive its distributive share of the school fund, unless he had received a certificate of qualification signed by the division superintendent of the division in which the school was situated, and no certificate was considered valid for more than one year from the date of its issuance. Any teacher who began teaching without such certificate forfeited all claim to compensation from the public education fund. In 1870, the general school act was modified in the 4 following respect: Any teacher who refused to accept any pupil of suitable grade in his or her school was subject to fine, imprisonment and suit for damages; the State board of education was changed to consist of the State superintendent and the six division superintendents, the latter to be appointed by the Governor. The State Superintendent was allowed $3,000 per annum as a salary for a secretary, and $l,OOO per annum for traveling expenses. The minimum length of the school session in each district was reduced from 24 to 12 weeks, and the millage that mass-meetings of electors could levy for school purposes was reduced from three to two mills; a board of eleven members was provided for the city of New Orleans, six of whom were to be appointed by the State board of education, and five by the city council; the New Orleans school board was permitted to employ a secretary at a salary of $l,BOO per annum; the superintendent of the sixth division was also to become the city superintendent of New Orleans at a salary of $2,500 per annum. Section 40 of this same Act six stated that the fees of assessors for assessing any State school tax should be one per cent of the amount assessed. No fees should be allowed any officer for assessing parish or district school taxes. The fee of collectors of school taxes was placed at five per cent. The annual appropriation for the support of the public schools in the city of New Orleans was placed under the control of the board of educational directors; not more than one-twelfth of said appropriation could be drawn monthly from the treasury. It was required that the monthly pay rolls should state in detail the salaries of superintendent, teachers and other employes, bills of supplies, stationery, rents, repairs, and other expenses incurred by the board. When the pay rolls had been approved by the president and finance committee of the board, the comptroller was instructed to draw a warrant on the treasurer for payment 5 in full. Legislative Act No. 8, of January 14, 1871 carried several important provisions relative to educational machinery. One of the provisions declared that the State bo board of education should be hereafter composed of the State Superintendent of Public Education and the six division superintendents. The State Board was authorized to appoint a parish board of school directors for each parish, except the parish of Orleans; the school directors were to serve for a period of two years, during which time they would have complete charge of the schools throughout the parish in which they were chosen except in towns or cities having more than 1,000 inhabitants; each parish board was authorized to choose a treasurer whose duty it was to perform faithfully all the functions incident to his office, for which service he would receive from the parish school fund, a salary not to exceed $lOO per annum. This Act further provided for the levy of not less than one mill, and not more than two mills as a chool tax in each parish, town, or city; this tax to be levied and collected in the same manner as other taxes, and the amouht collected to be used exclusively for the benefit of the school system in paying teachers 1 salaries, renting and repairing school houses, erecting new school buildings, etc. Another provision of the Act stated that the salary of the superintendent of the sixth division and of the city of New Orleans schools should be increased from $2,500 to $4,000 per annum. The superintendent of the sixth division was authorized to employ a secretary and one or more messengers at salaries aggregating not more than $2,500 per annum, 6 which salaries to be paid from State funds. An Act in 1872 relating to the purchase of 16th section 7 lands is unique. It follows: In all cases of the sale of the school lands known as the 16th sections heretofore made, where the purchase money has not been paid, the purchaser or purchasers, shall have the right to annul the sale upon application to the district or parish courts of the parish wherein the lands are situated, according to the amount in controversy; provided: That the judgment of nullity shall be obtained at the cost of the applicant, and contradictory with the district attorney, in conjunction with the board of school directors of the parish in which the land is situated, who shall be made a party defendant in such suit. Furthermore, that all purchasers of lands known as the 16th sections from the State of Louisiana are hereby authorized to sue the State of Louisiana for the purpose of returning said land and cancelling their outstanding notes for the payment of the price of said land. In Act 82, of 1873 we have added authority for improving and extending public schools in the parishes in general, 8 Orleans parish excepted, the one main provision of which is: That all boards of school directors of parishes, and all the boards of school directors of cities and towns (New Orleans excepted), should have the power to make demand upon the respective police juries, officers, boards or local governments, of whatever form for the levy of an extra tax for the year 1873, and for each succeeding year, said tax to be used for the purpose of improving and extending the school system, the demand to be accompanied by an estimate of the expenditures proposed, and the special or more detailed objects to which the same were to be devoted. "The amount levied and collected for school purposes to be in addition and above that already provided, regardless and notwithstanding." The State Board of Education was given the authority, by legislative enactment of 1874, to select textbooks for the public schools of the State. The provision relating to this matter made it clear that the State board of education should designate textbooks to be used in the public schools throughout the State without change, for a period of two years. Another provision of the same Act stated that the basis for apportioning the State school fund should be the enu- meration of educables as per the 1874 census list. Section 7 of the above Act authorized the State Superintendent of Public Education to appoint a person of legal attainments in each school division of the State, for the purpose of examining notes due and other assets arising out of the purchase of lands granted to meet educational ends; to recover lands improperly held and revenues diverted, and generally to protect the school interests in matters apper-9 taining thereto. During the last year of Congressional reconstruction in Louisiana, the legislature passed two bills which had to do with public education. These Acts number 85 and 35 of 1876 providing for the sale of certain school lands in Tensas parish, and for the annual public school anpropria-10 tions respectively, follow: Be it enacted, That the school board of the parish of Tenaas be and they are hereby authorized to sell at public auction to the highest bidder after thirty days advertisement in a newspaper published in said parish, the following school lands, to with: part of section sixteen, part of section fifteen, part of section fourteen, all in the township 12, range 12 east, containing 160 acres. That the president and secretary of the school board of said parish are hereby authorized to make a title deed to the purchaser of said land in the name of the parish, which title deed shall be countersigned by the president of the police jury. The Appropriations covered by Act 35 of the same year were: An Act making appropriations for the general expenses of the State for the year ending December 31, 1876 For salary of Superintendent of Public Education $5,000 For Secretary of State Superintendent 3,000 For salary of division superintendent, Sixth Division 3,000 Salary of Assistant Superintendent, 6th division 2,000 Salary of five division Superintendents 12,500 For Traveling and contingent expenses of State Superintendent 1,000 For support of public schools 500,000 For payment of interest due several townships 50,000 Compensation to board of assessors of New Orleans 1,862 Compensation to board of assessors country parishes 2,482 Compensation to parish assessors 8,965 TOTAL APPROPRIATION $589,809 One of the principal criticisms of the financial program of public schools in the State during reconstruction times, was due to the fact that the large amount appropriated for administrative expense was out of proportion to that expended for instructional purposes. This criticism is well taken, when we consider the general practice which obtained over the country in that day. 3 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1869, Act No. 121, p. 175. 4 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1870, Act No. 6, p. 12. 5 Laws and General Ordinances of New Orleans, 1870, p. 352 g Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1871, Act No. 8, p. 42f. 7 lbid., 1872, Aot No. 109, p. 23. Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1873, Act No. 82, p. 150. 10 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1876, Act No. 85, p. 130. 11 Ibid., Act No. 35, p. 65. CHAPTER V PUBLIC EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA, 1868-1876 Administration of Superintendent Thomas W. Conway, 1868-1872 With the radical wing of the Republicans in charge of State affairs, a new constitution approved, and with legislation sufficient, providing for a system of public education, free and open to all children alike regardless of race or color, it is interesting to observe what degree of success Louisiana’s first superintendent of public education under the Congressional scheme of reconstruction, attained. As to Mr. Conway’s character and professional equip ment, not much has been discovered. However, Fortier laments the fact that one of Conway’s caliber should succeed a man with such splendid qualifications as Robert M. Lusher. He asserts very that Conway was an inexperienced and exceedingly injudicious officer, whose first endeavor was to please the politicians who were ruining the State. These politicians were the carpet-baggers and scalawags who had managed to obtain control of affairs through the ignorant negro vote; and who, from 1868 to 1876, misdirected the affairs of the once fair State whose plantations are nourished by the father of waters. The State was called on to instruct an immense number of colored children, while the whites, who alone bore all the burden of taxation, were impoverished, and the school fund was misappropriated by unscrupulous men at the head of the government. For several years, the schools were entirely inadequate to fulfill the purposes for which they had been established. It is generally agreed that Conway was fairly well qualified for the position 1 , from an educational standpoint, but hisaactions prove, beyond a reasonable doubt, that he was far more interested in increasing his personal bank account, than in the general welfare of the school boys and girls of Louisiana. The very fact that he was a resident of another State, and that in the North, until but a short time before taking office, and the further fact that he was altogether unacquainted with the educational needs of Louisiana, at once disqualified him for a successful Superintendent of Public Education. A further comment on the political office seekers from the victorious section of our country, of which group Mr. Conway was certainly one of the chief, is given in a very 2 interesting fashion by Ficklen, in substance as follows: In 1868, Louisiana having been duly "reconstructed", was readmitted to the Union. But this was not to be the end of her troubles. Crowds of republican adventurers, who had hurried down from the North, got possession of the State Government. This was easy to do, for according to the new constitution, framed in this same year, the Southern Democrats who had taken a prominent part in the war were not allowed to vote, and the freedmen naturally thought that they must support the republicans who had abolished slavery. Hence, a bitter contest arose between the Democrats, who owned all the property in the State, and the political adventurers, who held all the offices. These latter were rightly named "carpetbag politicians." The new-comers soon began to seize the public money, large sums of which they put into their own pockets or spent in keeping themselves in offline. All their actions were supported by a band of soldiers called Metropolitan Police, and by the United States troops which were "to keep order in Louisiana." There followed a period of shameless corruption. Superintendent, Thomas W. Conway, of the department of public instruction, was one of the chief among this group. New Era in Education in Louisiana la Ms prefatory remarks to a report submitted to the State legislature covering the years 1867-1868, Superinten- dent Thomas W. Conway, the first Superintendent of Public Education in Louisiana under Congressional Reconstruction, states that the year 1868 began a new era in the history of Louisiana, and especially in the field of public education. 3 A summary of the Superintendent’s claim follows: The year 1868 commenced a new era in the history of Louisiana, and we are now chronicling its first page. New ideas and aims are brought forward for recognition in the great march of human progress, demanding new legislation and increased provisions to meet their requirements. "Let us meet them manfully and recognize the power that has wrought the change. In one thing, we all should work in harmony. It is true, our population is heterogeneous, but our aims should be homogeneous, the moral, intellectual, and physical development of our people." One important event that has indelibly marked the advent of this new era is the formation and adoption cf a State Constitution which recognizes the brotherhood of a race of human beings, long held in the bondage of body and mind; but the work is yet only half accomplised. Heretofore, upwards of 90,000 children have been denied the benefits of our public schools, who in the future, are to be received into them and prepared for the duties of life, the same as those who formerly reaped ®ll their benefits. The constitution has mapped out the course to be taken; the legislature will clear away all obstructions, and the Super intendent of Public Education will see to it that free education is extended far and wide over the State; to rich poor; to black and to white alike. No one would deny that the State Constitution of 1868 and the Legislature of the same year did make generous provision for free, public education for all the children in Louisiana between the ages of six and twenty-one years of age; but, even so, that in itself is not sufficient evidence of the beginning of a New Era in educational matters. As a matter of fact, the Constitution of 1864 set forth practically the same provisions. Should one rely solely upon the State Superintendent’s reports he would arrive at about the same conclusion as did Conway; on the other hand, when light from other reports such as newspapers and historical accounts of many writers is thrown upon the educational screen, we are inclined to the opinion that both Superintendent Conway and his successor Brown must have been over-zealous to make a good showing in their reports to the Legislature. However, we shall present the data as they are, and leave the reader to draw his own conclusions. Unit of School Administration The local school district was the unit of public school administration in the so-called New Era. The "district system” is quite bad enouch at its best, but in this case, such a system was at its worst, for it required that the school funds should finally reach the schools on the basis of the number of educables in each district. This scheme would have prevented the sparsely populated portions of the parishes from having good schools, even if there had been a serious intention to provide them. The plan of organizaticn made no provision for local supervision, since there was no parish (county) superintendent or other executive to administer the affairs of the schools. If the division superintendents, six in number, had been trained, efficient supervisors, instead of politicians, most part, interested only in personal gain, it would have been impossible for them to supervise instruction. For, with the exception of the sixth division of New Orleans, each division consisted of a number of parishes, with the poorest sort of facilities for travel. It is unaccountable, remarks a later school administrator, that the office of parish superintendent should have been overlooked, since 4 it would have added just one other salary in each parish. Fortier, Alcee, Louisiana Studies, p. 268. 2 Ficklen and King, History of Louisiana, p. 238. 3 Conway, Thomas W., Report on Public Education, 1867-68 p. 5. 4 Harris, Op. Cit., p. 28. Condition of Public Schools (1867-1868) According to Superintendent Conway’s report, presented to the Legislature in January, 1869, covering the years of 1867-68, the entire school system, and interest in education were at a very low ebb. He observes that except in the city of New Orleans, and a few other towhs of fair size, there was practically nothing to rencr t of an educational nature; 5 nothing had been done. In it he states: In the rural, districts, owing to the insignificande of the available fund, and an almost entire lack of organization by which local interest could be aroused and means secured through local tax or otherwise, but few and weak schools have been in operation, and those even have barely eked out a miserable existence. Even the private schools, that have formerly been found nowhe where in the South so numerous, or of so high a standard of excellence as in Louisiana, except in New Orleans and the larger towns, have in too many instances assumed the same sickly existence as the public schools. The following extracts from Parish (county) Treasurers reports to the State Superintendent will further show the inefficiency of the so-called public school system in vogue in Louisiana during the first year under Congressional Recon 6 struction. The ten reports which follow of parish treasurers are typical of the State, except New Orleans and Orleans parish. 1. The character of ourpublic schools is not as good as might be, owing to the carelessness on the part of the Directors to employ competent teachers. 2. Our schools are generally good and well attended. They are mainly supported by private subscription, but for want of reports from the Directors, I am unable to make a report of the amount so paid. 3. The majority of the schools are supported by private subscriptions. 4. The Directors and people generally seem to care very little for their (the schools) success and give the matter no attention. In a word, I consider the money applied under the present system entirely squandered. 5. I have not received a single report from any of the school Directors. 6. lam entirely unable to make a full report, as the Directors all failed to report to me the condition of the schools generally. 7. If you could only see whom we have for Directors, one-half of whom make their crosses to their signatures . 8. Generally the teachers are scholastically bad, and morally worse, the Directors uneducated and, consequently, incompetent to judge of the requirements of applicants. 9. We have no school houses, in the proper acceptation of the term. The schools are generally taught in dingy, rickety, half-roofless sheds of shanties that a planter of ordinary capacity for managing affairs would not allow his negroes to inhabit. 10. The present condition of public schools in this parish calls loudly upon the Legislature for some revision and modification of the present system. School Fund 1867-68 The appropriation effected by the Legislature, approved March 25, 1867, for the support of free public schools during this year was $225,000 or so much as might be raised from the mill and poll tax paid into the Treasury during the year; and for 1868, approved October 19th, the sum of $250,000. The actual apportionments of the funds paid into the treasury 7 were as follows: As may be seen from Table 11, only one quarterly apportionment of the school fund was made in 1868, in consequence of Act No. 5 of the Legislature, approved February 9th, 1866, authorizing the Governor "to issue on behalf of the State," certificates of indebtedness; said certificates to be made payable twelve months after date without interest, and receivable for all State taxes or other public dues, "provided that, when received, they shall be cancelled, in the presence of the Governor, by the Auditor and Treasurer.” The Superintendent observes that by cancelling these certificates of indebtedness no fund could be collected in the Treasury till after the issue of General Hancock’s order number 40, directing that all State taxes be paid in 8 United States currency, A small fund was then accumulated which was absorbed by act of the Legislature, approved September 29th. 1868, "for the relief of the parishes of Washin ton, St. Martin, Livingston, Rapides, Terrebonne, Jefferson, St. Tammany, Caddo, St. Charles, and the City of Jefferson," to pay certain school warrants to the amount of $14,338.75, leaving little or nothing in the Treasury to the credit of the school fund. However, in accordance with the act of the Legislature of January 4th 1869, exempting the school fund from the conditions of Act number 5, approved February 19th 1866, the fund will now, as formerly accumulate and apportionments as heretofore be made. 9 By pursuing this item of expense for public schools a bit further we find that according to the report of the State Auditor, there was in 1868, about $260,000,000 of taxable property in the State, and as shown by the report of registration, 146,398 polls. Allowing, then, that the full amount&of the mill and poll tax, as provided by law, could be collected, there would have been available for school funds $333,199.00 which would have given a per capita rate per annum of about $1.65. As a matter of fact, by referring to the sum of the naned above, it may be seen that the annual per capita rates was 58jd for the dducable youths between the ages of six and 21 years of age. K Conway, o£. Cit., 1867-68, p. 8. 6 lbid., p. 17. n Conway, Op. Cit., p. 6. g Conway, Op. Pit., p. 7. 9 lbid.. p. 8. 1867, March 30—for quarter ending March 31, $20,808.00 62,424.00 62,424.00 145,656.00 July 1st— " October 2nd" Total n w June 30, Sept. 30, 1868, April 1st —for 31, 1867, and Grand Total for quarter ending March 31, 1868 • 1867 and 1868 December 86,367.75 232,023.75 Table 11 Mixed Schools Under the leadership of Superintendent Conway, the law decreed that the schools should he open to both races. The white people of the State were considerably aroused by the attempt to force social equality upon them. Instead of cooperating with the public school forces, as they had done formerly, they determined to have nothing at all to do with the public schools, unless the mixed-school plan was abandoned. One would naturally expect that with a State Constitution behind him and United States troops at his command, almost any person could succeed in forcing his will upon the people: but such was not the with the State Superintendent of public education. Conway referred to the mixed school problem as one of the gravest with which those In 10 charge with educational matters had to deal. No doubt there was much prejudice against the negroes and against any persons who favored giving the blacks an education of any sort. Although the Constitution of 1868 made ample provision for the education of all children on an equal footing, in actual practice there was nothing resembling equality of opportunity at all; and more especially did the whites resent the idea of mixed schools. It was quite enough for a white man to pay his taxes for the support of school^for colored children; but for him to be told to send his chil dren to a school where colored children attended, was all too much; in most cases the white children were not sent; the law was evaded. The reports of both the State and Division Superintendents admit some opposition at first to the plan of mixing the two races in the public schools; moreover, these same officials affirm that gradually prejudice and ignorance were dissipated and that the scheme was accepted in good spirit. This latter statement seems to be contradicted by facts discovered when we consider the number of educables and the number enrolled in the schools. As a matter of fact, it is generally accepted today that the Mixed school plan was never acceptable to the people in the South, and that it remained one of the sore spots throughout the reconstruction period. The following letter written by Superintendent Conway in 1870, suggests just what was happening all over the State 11 with reference to the mixed school situation. Office State Superintendent Public Education New Orleans, Louisiana January 12 —1870 To the President and Members of the District Board of School Directors, Algiers, La. Gentlemen: My attention has been called to the manner in which you are conducting the public schools within your jurisdiction. It is alleged that you are acting in violation of Articles 135 and 136 of the Constitution of the State, and the Law relating to public education: in this —that you' require colored children to attend colored schools, and white children to attend white schools —thereby establishing and conducting separate schools... The Constitution gives me "control and supervision" of all the public schools of the State; and the law regulating public''education, passed in pursuance of the Constitution, provides that I shall see that the school system is, as early as practicable, carried into effect... Part of this system...provides, "That any officer, school, municipal, parish, or State or any teacher of any public school, who shall refuse to receive into any school any child between the ages of six and twenty-one years, who shall be lawfully entitled to admission into the same, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor." It is clearly my duty, under the law, to require you to revoke any rules and regulations you may have adopted, under the operation of which any children entitled to admission are excluded from the public schools...public schools must not be established from which any children are excluded by reason of color. Very respectfully, ( Signed) Thomas W. Conway, State Supt* Public Education Op. Cit. t 1869, p. 11 Division Superintendents Reports (1869) According to the Constitution of 1868, the State was divided into six sections or divisions, and each division was provided with a Divisional Superintendent, whose function was to look after the schools in his division and make annual reports to the State Superintendent. The First division was composed of Orleans parish and the city of New Orleans. A full account of this division will be found in the chapter dealing with the New Orleans Situation. The Second Division was composed of the parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson, left bank, St. Charles, St. John the Baptist, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Lafourche, and Terrebonne. A statement concerning public education in some of these parishes will make plain educational conditions generally, at this time. The reports are very incomplete, but enough is given to indicate the scarcity of educational effort. Second Division Superintendent Lacy 12 reports in summary as follows: St. Bernard: This parish had 879 educable youths, only 53 of whom were attending school, and they in a private one. The public schools in operation at the beginning of Superintendent Conway’s administration, January, 1868, were discontinued for lack of funds. Plaquemines; In this parish there were 2,373 youths returned between six and twenty-one years of age. The public schools in operation in 1867 were closed for want of funds. The treasurer of the parish reported $1,935.70 on hand in warrants, against which amount were claims of teachers in warrants signed by the school directors for more than the amount on hand. Jefferson, left bank: There were in this parish 5,275 youngsters between the years of six and twenty-one. On this number, 1,243 were in attendance upon the public schools in Jefferson city which were opened on the 6th of September, 1869, in accordance with provisions of an act to regulate public education in Louisiana, approved March 10, 1869. Tn Division Superintendent Lacy’s report the following schedule is given, showing the name and number of schools, number of teachers employed, and scholars enrolled, in the 13 city of Jefferson, Jefferson parish, 1869: St. Charles: There were 921 youtftia of school age in this parish, of which number 97 were in public schools. St. John the Baptist: In this parish, there were 2,628 children between the ages of six and twenty-one, of which number 64 attended private schools, there being four such institutions in operation in the parish. The statement was na de that the parish treasurer had not reported in several years; hence, the financial situtation relative to the schools was unknown. However, the last apportionment gave the parish $561, but undoubtedly the mone> had been used for school purposes. St. James: There were 4,134 children of school age reported in this parish. Two high schools and one religious academy were in operation, with a total attendance of 220 pupils, of which number 25 were colored. Assumption: This parish had 4,179 children between the ages of six and twenty-one, 125 of whom attended the four schools in operation in the parish. At the close of 1867, the parish treasurer reported $3,609.48 on hand; no report since. Lafourche: In this parish there were 3,466 educable youths; the report stated that several schools had been organized, but the exact number is not given, neither the number of pupils enrolled. In order that we may appreciate at a glance, the educational situation in the Second Division in 1869, a sumdisrgiven in Table 13. In considering the enrollment in public schools at this time, we are willing to concede the point that there were possibly more youngsters attending school than the foregoing figures indicate, but as one attempting to utilize the data as they appear in the records, I am driven to name the above figures as final. For the Third, Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Divisions no attempt is made to give the reports as much in detail as has been the ease in dealing with the Second Division. The chfef reason for this abbreviation is the fact that there is so much similarity among the various parish reports. A few of the parish reports will be analyzed, such as may be more or less typical of the entire group, and a Division summary will be given of each Division. Third Divisional Superintendent Richardson furnishes 14 the following information: Iberville: The total number of educables in this parish was reported as being 4,019. No schools had been organized on account of difficulties encountered in securing proper persons to act as school directors. The parish treasurer had on hand at last report, January, 1867, $662.08. East Baton Rouge: This parish had 3049 educable youths between six and twenty-one years of age. In the city of Baton Rouge, there were two schools with six teachers employed; number of pupils enrolled not given. The parish treasurer reported, "no mones on hand." Pointe Coupee: In this parish there were 3,675 persons between six and twenty-one years of age, fourteen schools school districts, no schools, and but one complete Board of school directors. No report from the parish treasurer had been received since January, 1867, at which time a balance of $423.27 was on hand. School directors had been appointed, but the appointees rejected the positions . Washington: The State tax collector reported 1461 youths in this parish between six and twenty-one years of age. The parish treasurer reported an empty treasury. The number of schools, teachers, and pupils not reported. The following Table 14 gives a summary of the school situation in the Third Division in 1869. In three of the six parishes composing the Third Division, mention was made of existing schools, but the number of schools, together with the enrollment was not given. The superintendent of the Fourth Division rendered the 15 following report: St. Mary: This parish had 3314 educables. The Divi sion Superintendent reported that preparations were being made to open schools in St. Mary’s in January, 1870. Lafayette: There were repotted 2355 children in this parish between six and twenty-one years of age. Five schools were reported to be in operation, but number of teachers and pupils not given. Calcasieu: In this parish, there were 2536 children of school age. The report states clearly that there were no schools in the parish of a public sort. The only money disbursed from the school fund, the total of which is not given, was treasury’s salary, $2OO. Rapides: In the parish of Rapides, the parish site of which is Alexandria, there were 3490 educable youths between six and twenty-one years of age. Thirty two persons were appointed school directors for the different wards of the parish, of which number but One accepted the appointment, and filed the required oath. Hence, no organization of schools had been perfected. The parish treasurer had not made a report of the finances in five years. Parish treasurer Baissat was charged with having $16,983.20 of the school fund in his possession. The following schedule exhibits the success obtained in securing organizations of school boards in this parish: 1. Town of Alexandria —Appointees refused to serve 2. Cheyneyville Ward-?-- " ” ” M 3. Kingstown Ward — M " w " 4. West Ward —-— B. Wales (accepted appointment) 5. Bayou Kapides Ward —Appointees refused to serve 6. Pineville Ward * " " 7. Springfield Ward * " ” 8. Quacoco Ward — n w 9. Cotile Ward " " " " 10. Lamourie Ward — * ” " It goes without comment, that the majority of men cared but little for the public school system which was being conducted by a foreign element. In only one parish in this Division, Lafayette, was there any claim made that a publi school had been set in operation, and in this instance, the information was rather vague. It will be noted that this group of parishes (counties) are situated in the heart of the State. In his report to the State Superintendent, Mr. Turner, superintendent of the Fifth Division discusses school affairs in a number of the parishes in the Northern part of the 16 State. Natchitoches: In this parish there were 4077 children of school age. No account is given of the number of schools, children or pupils. The parish treasurer had on hand of the school funds, $2254,33. Of the 45 persons appointed school directors for theseveral wards of the parish, only three accepted commissions. De Soto: There were in DeSoto parish 5388 eduoables in 1869; two schools reported in operation. A balance of $442.06 in the parish treasury to the credit of the school fund was reported. The treasurer also reported about 6,000 acres of school lands in the parish, the average value of which was from $4 to $5 per acre. Caddo: The report shows 2890 educable youths between six and 21 years of age in this parish; no further information is given, except that the division superintendent was having a very difficult time securing school directors Bienville: This parish had 2815 youngsters between the ages of six and twenty-one. The report shows that 16 schools were in operation, with an attendance of 467 pupils The school fund amounted to $3390.26. *Schools were referred to in these two parishes, but no one seems to know how many Schools, number enrolled, or number of teachers employed. A few of the parishes in North-East Louisiana appear in the Sixth Division. According to the Division Superintendents report, schools were poorer in this section of the State than 17 elsewhere. The information in this Division is so "lean" that only a summary is needed. 12 Lacy, J. W., Second Division Report, 1869, p. 30f. 13 Laoy, o£. Cit., p. 31. 14 Richardson, R. C. Third Division Report, 1869, p. —37 f. : — l — 15 Mayo, Claudius, Fourth Division Report, 1869, p. 45f. 16 Turner, T. M., Fifth Division Report, 1869, p. 54f. Name of School No. of Teachers No. pf Pupils 1. Girls* high school 3 60 2. First ward 4 161 3. Second ward 6 215 4. Third ward 4 151 5. Fourth ward 3 99 6. Fifth ward 4 182 Table 12 7. Marengo 3 82 8. Plaquemine 3 114 9. Valence 3 107 10. Pelachaise 2 72 Total “ 3b Parish No. Educables Public School Enrollment Pritate School School Enrollment Funds St. Bernard 789 None 53 None Plaquemines 2373 None None $1935.70 Jefferson, L. B. 5275 1243 None None St. Charles 921 97 None None St. John Baptist 2628 None 64 None St. James 4134 220 None N) ne Assumption 4179 125 None $3609.48 Total 23,765 1,685 117 $5,545.18 Table 13 Summary of Second Division Report, 1869 Parish No. Educables Public School Private School School Enrollment Enrollment Funds Iberville 4019 None None $662.08 East Baton Rouge 3049 None None None West Baton Rouge 1129 None None 174.46 Pointe Coupee 3675 None None 423.27 Washington 1461 None None None Tangipahoa 1992 None None None Total If ),325 None None #1,259.81 Table 14 Summary of Third Report, 1869 Parish No. Educables Public School Enrollment Private School Enrollment School Funds St. Mary 3314 None None None St. Martin 2122 None None None Lafayette 2355 None None None Calcasieu 2536 None None None Rapides 3490 None None None Grant No Report None None None Total 13,817 None None None Table 15 Summary of Fourth Division Report, 1869 Parish No. Educables Public School Enrollment Private School School Enrollment Funds Natchitoches 4077 None None $2254.33 DeSoto 5388 None* None 442.06 Bienville 2815 467 None 3390.26 Winn 2208 None None None Caddo 2890 None* None None Bossier 2969 None None None 20,347 467 None $6,086.65 Table 16 Summary of Fifth Division Report, 1869 Parish No. Educables Public School Enrollment Private School School Enrollment Funds Concordia 1390 None None None Madison 2128 None None $1012.00 Carroll 3886 None None 752.82 Caldwell 1457 None None None Morehouse 2158 None None 69 5.64 Total 11,019 ifone iJone $2,460.46 Table 17 Summary of Sixth Division Report, 1869 The Peabody Educational Fund In 1866, George Peabody who, although by birth a native of Massachusetts of old New England stock, had become an English merchant, visited the United States, and made a gift of $2,100,000, which he increased to $3,000,000 in 1869, for the promotion of education in the South. The first general agent chosen by the corporation of the Peabody Fund to administer its trust, was Dr. Barnas Sears. Dr. Sears held this position until his death in July, 1880; and in Feb- ruary, 1881, J. L. M. Curry was elected his successor in the 18 General Agency. The plans of the trustees of the Peabody Fund were an 19 nounced in the press as follows: The trustees of the Peabody Fund have had a meeting in the City of New York, and have partially agreed on their program. It is proposed that the fund shall be made immediately available in furthering the common school systems of the South, and thus securing the immediate and widespread operation of this munificent donation. Dr. Barnas Sears of Brown University has been chosen as Special Agent of the Board of Trustees. He it is who will have direct charge of allocating the fund to the various causes and locations. In addition to giving aid for the advancement of public schools in general in the stricken States, it is proposed also, to establish Normal schools for the common school teachers. In the ten schools indicated in Table 18, Lusher states that there were 32 teachers employed; the earliest school began May Ist, 1867, and the last, October Ist of the same year. The schools were in operation a little more than half a year in each case. Furthermore, the same year, the following amounts were 20 given to Normal schools: *The length of school term varied from one semester to a full year’s work. The; total amount contributed by the Peabody Fund in Louisiana for 1869-70, according to Lusher’s report which appears in the Proceedings of the Board of Trustees, was #15,000; #4,000 of which went to the Normal schools. More- over, #35,000 was raised by local contributions to help 21 carry on the educational program. The Trustees of the George Peabody Education Fund held their first meeting in the Willard Hotel, Washington, D. C., February Bth, 1867. At this time, the board was organized. Honorable Robert C. Winthrop was chosen Chairman. The Chairman communicated to the board the letter of Mr. George Peabody, which had been received by him, constituting the gentlemen present, and others therein named, Trustees for the direction and management of a gift of one million dollars, and in addition, bonds of the State of Mississippi known as Planters’ Bank Bonds, amounting with interest, to about eleven hundred thousand dollars, all to be used for the promotion of education in the Southern and Southwestern States. Schools in ten towns and cities in Louisiana received aid from the Peabody Fund during 1867-68. Mr. Robert M. Lusher, former State Superintendent of Education, was the 22 Louisiana Agent for this Fund. In Louisiana, as may be seen from the following quotation, the Peabody contributions were used independently of the State system of Public Education, by the Agent appointed, 23 in establishing and promoting schools. It has not been practicable to make any equitable arrangement to cooperate with the school authorities in Louisiana. We have consequently continued to act upon the plan pursued in former years, availing ourselves of the voluntary services of Honorable Robert M. Lusher, as local agent. The mode of distribution, adopted for the present sdhool year is to give the customary aid to 28 localities which have been selected according to their imnortance and influence, and which will contribute their share of the expense. ...The local agent has authority to alter the proportions of the donations specified in the list given below, if he sees cause to do so; also, to substitute other towns, if any of these shall fail to fulfill their engagements. *To this sum of $13,800 should be added $2,100 ap propriated to Normal Schools. These contributions remained about the same for some years. It is interesting to note the attitude of the Agent of the Peabody Fund toward the State Superintendent of Education. This attitude is very clearly portrayed in the following correspondence in 1873. Superintendent Brown 24 referred to in the correspondence, was a colored man. State of Louisiana Office State Superintendent of Public Education New Orleans, October 31, 1873. Hon. Robert M. Lusher, Agent, Peabody Fund, New Orleans. Deqr Sir: I shall deem it a great favor if you will furnish me a statement for publication in my annual report, of your administration of the Peabody Fund, naming schools aided, num ber of teachers employed, salary per month, and number of scholars enrolled, and any other information relative to the same that you may deem of value for the purpose named. Very respectfully, (Signed) William G. Brown State Supt. of Public Education 25 The following is Mr. Lusher’s reply. Office of the Agency of the Peabody Education Fund for Louisiana New Orleans, November 3, 1873 To Mr. William G. Brown, Occupying the Office of State Supt. for Louisiana, Sir: Your letter of the 31st ultimo has been received and filed for future reference. After it shall have been proven by equally truthful and legal evidence that you are entitled by election to possession of the office of State Superintendent, the undersigned will consider the propriety of giving you the information solicited of his courtesy. As long, however, as you remain a beneficiary of the prima facia fraud and actual usurpation by which the liberties of the people of Louisiana have been sacrificed and their republican system of government has been suspended, iii violation of the Constitution of the United States, no selfrespecting citizen of the State can deem it an honor ro appear in your "annual" report as an auxiliary in the compilation of educational statistics. Respectfully, (Signed) Robert M. Lusher Agent, for Louisiana of the Peabody Education Fund It is thoroughly obvious from this bit of correspondence between the State Superintendent of Public Education and the Agent of the Peabody Fund that there was no coordination of interests, and no cooperation of activity in trying to solve the educational problem. On the contrary, it is clear from other materials presented, that the two agencies worked almost if not entirely independently of each other, until the year 1876, at which time the Carpet-bag-Negro rule came to an end. Peabody Fund for White Children It is a point of interest to observe that in the case of Louisiana, the Peabody education fund was used to promote the educational welfare of white children, only; all the schools heretofore mentioned as sharing in this fund were attended solely by white children. This was not the case in some of the Southern States, during reconstruction. The Peabody Board of Trustees and its Louisiana Agent, Mr. Robert M. Lusher took the position that under the Repub- lican scheme of organization, public education was denied white children, while school facilites were provided for negro children; and, that it was incumbent upon the Peabody Board to help the children whom the State government had virtually proscribed. We reproduce below General Agent Sears’ reply to Super intendent Conway, who complained against this apparent in-27 equality of distribution of the fund. I should be most happy to cooperate with the State authorities. But I understand that the State public schools are so organized that the greater part of the white population are unwilling to send their children to them, and that consequently, the benefit of the public money goes in fact chiefly to the colored children. If there is any feasible way of removing this inequality, bringing the white people generally into cooperation with you, the necessity for a local agency would cease, and we could act in concert with you. We ourselves raise no question about mixed schools. We simply take the fact that the white children do not generally attend them, without passing any judgment on the propriety or the impropriety of their course. We wish to promote universal education —-to aid the whole communities, if possible. If that cannot be, on account of peculiar circumstances, we must give the preference to those whose education is neglected. It is well known that we are helping the white children in Louisiana as being the more destitute, from the fact of their unwillingness to attend mixed schools. We should give the preference to colored children were they in like circumstances. (Signed) Barnas Sears 17 Wyly, R* Sixth Division Report, 1869, p. 61f. E. A., and Gordon, A. C., J. L. M. Curry, A Biography, p. 249. 19 The Daily National Intelligencer, March 26, 1867. of Peabody Fund, Dp. Cit., p. 136. 21 Trustees of Peabody Fund, Proceedings, 1870, p. 218. g2 lbld., p. 135. 23 Trustees of Peabody Fund, Op. pit., 1871, p. 40 — . Brown, G. W., Superintendent of Public Instruction, Report, 1873, p. 31. 2 sBrown, Op. Cit., p. 32. Supp. Robert M. Lushed Name of Town Peabody Fund Plaquemine Normal $400 Mt. Lebanon Normal 300 Bastrop Normal 300 Table 19 Amounts Given to Louisiana Normal Schools, 1867-68* New Orleans Normal 1000 Clinton Normal 200 Plaquemine Normal 200 Total $2,400 Name of Town No. of Pupils Local Contribution Peabody Fund Plaquemine 60 $600i00 $300.00 Arcadia 100 650.00 250.00 Natchitoches 90 745.00 375.00 Trinity 50 320.00 150.00 Plaquemine 160 1100.00 450.00 St. Martinsville 172 850.00 500.00 Bayou Sara 153 300.00 600.00 Clinton 70 420.00 200.00 Eureka 72 420.00 240.00 Franklinton 60 1100.00 240.00 Covington 80 550.00 300.00 1007 $6,885.00 $3,605.00 Table 18 Distribution of Peabody Fund in Louisiana, 1867-68 Name of Town Local Contribution Peabody Donation Acadia $1600 $600 Bastrop 1400 450 Columbia 1300 400 Harrisonburg 1500 400 Homer 1400 375 Minden 1300 350 Monroe 1200 375 Natchitoches 1200 400 Pleasant Hill 1100 300 Shreveport 2500 750 Winnfield 700 250 Amite City 2500 800 Baton Rouge 2800 1000 Bayou Sara 2700 1000 Clinton 1420 500 Fairview 750 200 Franklinton 1000 300 Gretna 3200 1250 Livonia 500 200 1st District, New Orleans 2000 700 2nd " " 1500 500 3rd " " 1200 400 4th " " 1200 400 5th " " 900 300 6th " " 900 300 Plaquemine 1300 300 Terre Aux Boeuf 1475 300 Thibodaux 1475 500 Total $41,445 $15,80(5* Table 20 Schools Receiving Donations from Peabody Fund, 1871 General School Funds 1868-69 According to the State Treasurer’s report to the Legis- lature in 1869, the public school fund receipts and disburse-26 ments for the year 1868-69 were as follows: Receipts. Free School Fund: Interest received on bonds held by and belonging to the Free School Fund, $14,730; ten per cent tax accruing to the State from Foreign heirs, $1,368.95; total of free school fund, $100,715.60. Current School Fund: This fund appeeared in the form of Mill tax and Poll tax as follows: Mill tax, $273, 091.82; Poll tax, $37,009.25, or a total for the current school fund of $310,101.07, plus a small amount transferred from Special tax on one per cent for Redemption State Debt of $559.54, making a total for the current school fund of $310,660.61. The grand total received for school purposes by the State Treasurer for the year 1868-69 was $411,376.21. The total receipts for all purposes in the State for this year were $4,055,217.41. The amount collected for public educational purposes bears about the same relation to the total amount received as was found to be the case in the previous year; that is, between ten and eleven per cent of the whole amount went into the education fund, or at least was collected for that purpose. Disbursements. The amount expended from the Current School Fund was $317,305,62, and from the Free School Fund, $16,725.94, or a total of $334,031.56, as follows: Commission to Tax Collectors $8,431.70 Compensation to Assessors 9,088.51 Deductions to Tax Collectors 65,519.96 Payment of interest due the several 16,725.94 townships Support of Free Public Schools 122,726.70 Destruction of State Certificates of Indebtedness 97,000.00 Appropriation for the support of the Widow of Young Burke 200.00 Relief of Washington, St. Martin and other parishes 14,338.75 >334,031.56 The amount expended by the State Treasurer for all purposes for the year 1868-69 was $3,837,877.74. Many very interesting questions might be raised concerning this financial report. Perhaps the person who scans carefully these statistics would like to know what went with the balance between the total school receipts and disbursements of $77,244.65. According to the records of Superintendent Conway, the education fund was completely exhausted at the beginning of the following school year. It may be that the charges brought by many native Louisianians to the effect that the public school funds were, in many instances, stolen, had some foundation. St Trustees of the Peabody Education Fund, Proceedings, 1868. 2 g Louisiana Legislature, Documents, 1869, p. 14f Cross-Section of School Conditions, 1870 In order that we may get a little clearer picture of educational conditions after two years under the Congressional plan of Reconstruction and the Mixed-School organization, let us take a look at a resume of the reports of the Division Superintendents’ as compiled for State Superintendent Conway, for 1870. *There was one school Intermediate grade in Jefferson, right bank, Parish. No high school in this division. *The great majority of the schools were of Primary -grade only eight grammar schools, and five intermediate schools; no high schools in any of these 14 parishes. Perhaps it is quite sufficient just to observe that there was practically no public school work going on in these ten Central and North Louisiana parishes in 1870. The report blanks sent out by the Divisional Superintendent were returned without any of the information asked for, save the single item Number of Children in the Parish from six to twenty-one years of age; this item was likely secured from the United States census rolls. The Divisional Superintendent in commenting on his report, observed: ’’Nobody seems to care whether there are schools in the country or not. Parish officials, who have schools funds in their hands, seem loathe to give any information concerning it. Not a single board has furnished me any report whatever; two boards notified me that they had met and organized, and adjourned without doing anything.” As in the case of Division Four, the report of Fifth Divisional Superintendent Wyly is almost without value. The report very clearly reveals either the lack of information or the unwillingness on the part of the parish directors to make reports. The truth of the matter seems to be that the white population in general over the State were not favorable to a system of public schools ‘which requh ed their children to attend school with the colored children. It is clearly revealed in these five reports, which cover the enitre State except Orleans parish and the City of New Orleans, that the whites preferred to keep their children at home rather than have them associate in school with the colored population. The mixed school plan was undoubtedly the greatest hindrance in Louisiana to public educational development. aAgain, it may be observed that the parishes listed in table 25 are located in North and East Louisiana. A general ization may be drawn on the basis of our data to the effect that, in 1870, only a few of the parishes in the State had done very much along the lineof public education, save for the negro population; and, that these parishes are located, f>r the most part, in the Southern section of the State. Central and North Louisiana seems to have taken no part in the educational system at all, or if there were public schools, the officials did not see fit to renort them. Moreover, it should be remembered that the reports which were made were very careful not to separate the attendance of white and negro children, nor do they indicate the number of mixe.d schools actually in existence. These five divisional superintendents’ reports covering 52 parishes, all except Orleans, in dicate that there were, in 1870, 155,466 educables between the ages of six and twenty-one years, of which number only 6,983 were enrolled in public schools; that there were 1865 schools, taught by 155 teachers, 93 of whom were men and 62 were women; that the average monthly salary received was $56; and that in the 165 schools reported as being in operation a part of the year, 6nly 14 offered any instruction above and beyond the primary level; six of these offered intermediate work, and eight offered grammar school instruction. Not a single high school reported in these 52 parishes. Of course it is entirely possible that there were some high schools in Louisiana in 1870, outside of New Orleans, but the reports of the Superintendents do not so indicate this possibility. Another bit of information on the general school situa tion at this time is furnished by the Ninth United States Census report, the substance of which is set forth in Table 26. 26 It is to be noted that Table/includes the entire State. Superintendent Conway undertakes to show that a great injustice had been done his administration because of the fact that tax collectors and assessors had not enumerated the educables correctly. Table 27 sets forth a few instances pointed out by Conway to show discrepancies between the enumerations 34 made by the assessors and the census officials. It appears that Superintendent Conway made out a rather feeble case of his Discrepancy contention, because of the fact that he employed such a small number of cases in which small discrepancies occurred. Only one entire Parish was cited, together with parts of four others. From this meager bit of evidence, one concludes that the Superintendent’s warm contention on the discrepancy count, is not very well founded, and might be discarded as insignificant. Administrative Expense in 1870 A further characteristic of the reconstruction era was the large amount of money consumed in the mere administration of the public schools. An analysis of this account is given in Table 28. The status of public education for 1371, the last year of Superintendent Conway’s administration, is shown in the general report of the United States Commissioner of Education for that year. A brief summary of the report appears 36 in Table 29. Superintendent Conway, like his successor in office, made a desperate effort to convince the people that tie system of public education which he inaugurated in 1868 had been a gigantic success, but one only has to weigh carefully the evidence presented in order to arrive at an entirely different conclusion. A careful consideration of the available data dealing with the reconstruction era, will suggest to any reasonable mind that theentire effort at rejuvination of public education was a miserable failure. The Constitutional policy school oragnization and administration was utterly unsuited to prevailing conditions, and practiced customs. It was absolutely unthinkable that a Southern white child would attend school with a negro child; this attempt at mixing the schools was perhaps the largest cause of their failure. Superintendent Conway’s term of office expired in 1872, and he was succeeded by G. W. Brown, colored, who remained in this position until 1876, at which time the native whites regained control of all the affairs of state. pp Richardson, R. 0., Divisional Superintendent’s Report, 1870, p. 52. OQ _ Stoddard, E. S., Divisional Superintendent’s Report, 1870, p. 72. 30 Doissy, R. K., Divisional Superintendent's Report, 1870, p. 86. 31 McCleary, James, Divisional Superintendent's Report, 1870, p. 103. 3s Wyly, R* CL, Divisional Superintendent’s Report 1870 p. 110. " — ’ 33 The Ninth United States Census Report, 1870, p. 488. 34 Conway, Op. Cit., 1870, p. 30 35 Fay, o£. Cit., p. 102. rz p. °United States Commissioner of Education, Renert, 1871. p. 401. —— Number of Number of Number Grade of Enroll- Teachers: Average Parishes Children Schools Schools ment M. F. Salary 6-21 years per Mo. About 7 13,289 13 Primary 468 7 7 $53.00 Table 21 An abstract of Annual Report for 1870, of Divisional Superintendent R. C. Richardson. The parishes (counties) included are: Plaquemines, St. Benard, Washington, St. Tammany, St. Helena, Livingston, and Tangipahoa.2B Number of Number of Number Grade of Enroll- Teachers: Average Parishes Children Schools Schools ment M. F. Salary per Mo. About 7 30,041 45 Primary' * 2,911 35 27 $60.00 Table 22 An abstract of Annual Report of Second Division Superintendent E. S. Stoddard. The Parishes included are: Jefferson, left bank, Jefferson, right bank, St. Charles, St. James, St. John the Baptist, LaFourche, and Terrebonne. 29 Number of Children Number Grade of Enroll- Teachers Average Parishes 6-21 years Schools Schools ment M. F. Monthly Salary 14 46,540 71 Primary* 3,604 Grammar Intermediate 51 28 $55.00 Table 23 An abstract of Annual Report of Third Divisional Superintendent, R. K. Diossy. The fourteen parishes are St. Mary Iberia, Vermillion, Cameron, Calcasieu, East Baton Rouge, West Baton Rouge, East Feliciana, St. Martin, St. Landry, Lafayette, Assumption, Ascension, and Iberville. Number of Pari shes Children Number Grade of Enrol1- 6-21 years Schools Schools ment Teachers M. F. Average Monthly Salary 10 33,483 — — — — •• w Table 24 The following is a summary of the Annual Report of Fourth Divisional Superintendent, James McCleary. The division included the parishes of West Feliciana, DeSoto, Rapides, Natchitoches, Avoylles, Winn, Bossier, Pointe Coupee, Caddo, Sabine, Number of Children Number Grade of Enroll- Teachers Average Parishes 6-21 years Schools Schools 32,113 36 ment M. F. Monthly Salary 14 •* — — «* -» MM MM Table 25 An abstract of the Annual Report of Fifth Divisional Superintendent R. C. Wyly. The following parishes are included in this division: Carroll, Concordia, Madison, Morehouse, Tensas, Union, Caldwell, Franklin, Richland, Ouachita, Catahoula, Bienville, Claiborne, and Jackson. 52 Number Teachers Pupils Income Year ending June 1st, 1870 Schools M. F. M. F. 12,095 Total From From Endow- Taxa- ment tion From Other Sources 178 122 337 13,737 -- $445,683 $473,707 $28,024 Table 26 33 Public School Situation in Louisiana in 1870 Parish Distri ct by Enumeration Assessors U. S. Census Returns,1870 Jefferson, left bank, Carrollton 1119 1414 Jefferson right bank, First Ward 827 307 Jefferson’ " M Third Ward 3061 92 Jefferson, M M Fourth Ward 1065 168 Jefferson, ” " Fifth Ward 82 220 Jefferson, ” " Eighth Ward 240 St. Charles Whole Parish 921 1268 Lafourche Thibodeaux 555 729 Lafourche Third Ward 485 1163 Lafourche Ninth Ward 368 606 Terrebonne First Ward 797 259 Terrebonne Second Ward 565 282 Terrebonne Fourth Ward 500 245 Terrebonne Ninth Ward 865 223 Terrebonne Twelfth Ward 823 274 Table 27 Comparison of Educable Enumerations, 6-21 years of age, 1870 State Superintendent’s salary $5,000 Five Division Superintendents Salaries 12,500 New Orleans Superintendent’s Salary 4,000 Secretary to State Superintendent, Salary 3,000 Secretary to New Orleans Superintendent, : Salary 2,500 Contingent Expenses, State Superintendent 2,000 Traveling Expenses: Division Superintendents 3,600 State Superintendent 1,000 Total >33,600 Table 28 35 Administrative expense of Public Education in Louisiana, 1870 Total Population 716.394 School Population between 6-21 years of age 254,533 Number of Children Enrolled 50,000 Average Attendance 40,000 Average Absence of those enrolled 10*000 School Children not Registered 204,533 Average Total Absence 214,533 Number of Schools *483 Average Duration of Schools 4 months, 11 days Number of teachers in Public Schools: Males 150 Females 475 Average Salary of teachers per month Males #112.00 Females 76.00 Value of Taxable Property #250,000,000.00 Table 29 Status of Public Education in Louisiana, 1871 The Administration of Superintendent William G. Brown 1872-1876 In considering William G. Brown, the last Superintendent of Public Education in Louisiana under the carpet-bag, republican regime, we are at a disadvantage, due to the fact that the records, relative to the life of this man prior to his entering upon the duties of the high office to which he was elected, are practically blank. Most of the Southern newspapers, and many of the Northern papers, both democratic and republican, considered him an unfit person for the office which he secured. Some of the papers labeled Brown as an ignoramus, a drunkard, an unworthy politician who rode into office, just because his name was placed on the Republican ticket with one William Pitt Kellogg who made the race for Governor. It is evident now, that negro Brown would not have been elected to the State Superintendency had it not been for the influence of William P. Kellogg and the Republican party ove? the negro race. The republicans doubtless desired that the negroes should have some offices, in order that their loyalty to the party might be maintained. The two highest offices that negroes ever held in the South anywhere were those of Lieutenant Governor, and State Superintendent of Public Education, both of which were in Louisiana. It is suggested that the newspapers might have been too harsh in their criticisms of Brown, especially Southern papers. However that may be, we shall analyze with all fairness, the available materials bearing on the issue. In the editorial column of Scribner’s Magazine we have 37 these remarks, concerning Superintendent Brown: The State Superintendent of education is a mulatto gentleman of evident culture —seems indeed, quite up to the measure of his task, if he only had the means to perform it. He could not tell me how many schools were in operation in the State at the time of my visit; nor, indeed, how much the increase had been since the war; and explained that there was the greatest difficulty in procuring returns from the interior districts. Reorganization of State Department One of the first duties of the Nev/ superintendent was to reorganize, according to law, the State Department of Education. The provisions contained in section two of Act six, extra session of 1870, and of section one of Act eight, 181, made vacant the offices of all the division superintend ents, and the offices of all the school directors in the State, with the excention of a few of the seats in the 38 Board of School Directors for the City of New Orleans. These provisions, and the requirements of section one of Act 36, 1873, providing for additional members for the City Board of Nev/ Orleans necessitated the appointment of the division superintendents, and the reorganization of the State Board of Education, and the appointment of school directors, as well as the reorganization of the boards of school directors in every parish, city, and town in the State. Officers of State Board of Education The officers of the State Board of Education under the 39 reorganization in 1873, were as follows: William G. Brown, President, and State Superintendent Charles W. Boothby, Superintendent, Sixth District, New Orleans James Brewster, Superintendent, Fifth District Charles W. Keating, Superintendent Fourth District George B. Loud, Superintendent, Third District George B. Loud, Superintendent, Third District E. S. Stoddard, Superintendent Second District C. M. Williams Superintendent First District M. C. Cole, Secretary of the Board The reorganization of school districts was no small task in itself. Section 22 of Act six of the extra session of March 7, 1870 designated police jury wards as school districts, and provided for the appointment of a board of school 40 directors for each such ward throughout the State. Act 8 of January 2nd 1871 repealed the above named section, so far as it related to the appointment of a board of school directors for each ward, and made the parish boards of school directors responsible for the discharge of the duties formerly performed by the ward boards. This same act required the State Superintendent to observe strictly, the ward boundary lines in apportioning the current school fund, although in many parishes such a strict observance worked a hardship on many parishes, and actually prevented the establishment of schools in some instances, where they were most sorely needed. To illustrate: Three or four wards near or forming the corner section of a parish, each of them, excepting the corner ward, with an enumeration list of edudable children aggregating from four to six hundred —the corner ward having 100, or perhaps less. This ward, receiving only its pro rata of the school fund, is unable, because of its smallness, to build a school house, or, if it possesses one, to main-41 tain schools longer than two or three months in the year. 37 Scribner * s Magazine, No vember, 1873. 38 Acts of Legislature, Op. Cit., 39 Brown, William G., Report on Public Education, 1873, p. 5. Supervision One of the most neglected phases of the public educational program at all times has been that of supervision. Somehow, those charged with the responsibility of promoting the educational welfare of the group have left the matter of supervision largely to its own fate. This was mere nearly true, by and large, fifty years ago tnat at the present time. Supervising officials were usually selected, but rarely without regard for the necessary qualifications to do the work effectively. In Louisiana, between the time of ratification of the Constitution of 1868, and the educational legislative enactments of 1869, until the end of Reconstruction in 1876, there were, in addition to the general State Superintendent, six Division superintendents, one for each Congressional District The chief function of these Division superintendents was to promote public education in their district by encouraging the establishment of more schools, selecting the curriculum, examining prospective teachers, assisting in the selection of teachers for the various schools, administering the public funds, and compiling reports for the State office. There was before the war, a group of parish (county) superintendents who looked after educational matters within the parish, but these offices were discontinued, because of insufficient funds to operate, about the beginning of the war. It was the belief of the general superintendent, as well as of many others, that supervision, under the Division-42 al system was more efficient than under the parish system. However, it is interesting to note that at the close of reconstruction the parish system of supervision was restored, and remains in vogue to the -present. Whether these divisional supervisors were especially trained for their work or not, I suppose it may be said that the effort put forth was at least a gesture in the right direclion. 40 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1870. Op. Cit., p. 15. 4S Brown, Cit., 1873, p. 159. General School Conditions, 1873 In addition to giving a brief summary of school conditions throughout the State as a whole, perhaps it will be profitable for us to get a glimpse of what was going on in a representative number of parishes, first. In these parish reports by the division superintendents, we are able to get a close-up view of what the situation really was. For this particular discussion, fifteen parish reports have been chosen. Care has been taken to choose parishes of representative size, and well distributed over the State. A resume of these reports follow: Ascension Parish. The superintendent of the third division reported that public schools were not reopened in this parish until late in the Spring, owing to the unhappy condition of the school treasury. This unstable condition was caused in part by the extravagance of the former board of school directors, and in part by the failure of the parochial authorities to collect the greater portion of the "special school tax." The December 1872, and 1873 apportionments from the State were very small, and more schools were kept in oper- 43 ation during the winter months than the finances justified. A very interesting little comment on the school situa- tion in this parish, is made by the editor of the only paper 44 in the parish. The supervising directors of the seventh and eighth wards visited the district last Wednesday, and made provision for the establishment of three more schools, as follows: One in the old school house near Dutch Stores, with John A Kierman as teacher; another near the junction of the New River and Manchac roads, with Mr. John Hack as teacher, and the third in the lower end of the seventh or New River Ward, with Mr. John Dixon as teacher. These new schools will be opened Monday, next, and will make a total of five public schools in operation in the wards (districts) forming the seventh school district; a state of affairs that is entirely new to this region. Ouachita Parish. The supervising officer’s report shows that Ouachita was one of the first parishes to establish free schools. The opposition to schools for colored children was very bitter, but the president of the school board was determined to do his duty by the people, and devoted himself to the work, though his life was more than once in danger. In the town of Monroe, the largest town in the fifth division, was located the best school house in North Louisiana, in 1870. The building was not furnished with school apparatus, such as globes, maps, or other educational aids: it had a 45 small blackboard. During the school term of six months ending with September, 1873, the superintendent’s report showed an average attendance of only 37 pupils in the entire pa rish; at the same time he claimed that the town of Monroe, the parish site, had the best school house in all North Louisiana. The whole number of children or persons of educable age was given as 478. It is stated that most of these educables lived in town, and were not kept from school to work in the fields; but they did not attend school. Commenting further, the superintendent states that the situation was not an encouraging one; with a good school house in which teachers were employed at from $7O tos7s per month, moie than five-sixths of the children who lived within half a mile of its doors were growing up untaught. Lafayette Parish. From this South Central Louisiana parish, we have only a very brief report; hardly enough information to base a sound judgment upon. Shortly after the organization of the school board in this parish in May, 1873, there were four public schools m operation. The schools were reported as being in a flourishing condition. 46 ~ Lafourche Parish. The superintendent of the Second Division reported for the parish of Lafourche 16 schools, 16 teachers, 1192 47 pupils in attendance, and 108 months tuition. Furthermore, the report shows that very little progress has been made in an attempt to establish a permanent system of public schools in the parish, one of the chief hindrances being, "insufficient funds." Morehouse Parish. In this Northeast Louisiana parish, but little is said of the schools. As a matter of fact, the public schools mixed schools such as were being attempted, were conspicuous for their absence, not only in this parish but throughout Central and North Louisiana. m 48 The Superintendent of the division has this to say: The new school board was not able to open schools earlier than in September, and then the children were for the most part in the cotton fields, and could not attend. Rapides Parish. The statement is made in a report from this parish that 17 schools were established during the year, but that no record was kept showing the length of time they were open, or of the number of pupils enrolled, and number of teachers 49 employed. One might very easily conclude from this scant report that the white people in the heart of the State cared little for the system of public education being promoted by their colored State Superintendent. Grant Parish. The report from Grant parish states that the Colfax Riot troubles were still unsettled; and perhaps on account of these continued disturbances, progress in school matters was very greatly retarded. The superintendent states that he visited the parish about the 25th of July, and forwarded his recommendations for the appointment of a school board. But, during the year 50 1873, no school directors were commissioned. Iberia Parish. The school board in this parish was organized late in the year, June, 7th. The secretary of the board reported that the schoolswwould soon be open, and that every effort possible would be put forth to advance the educational interests of the parish. The old board left an indebtedness 51 of more than $3,000, mostly unpaid salaries of teachers. In Iberia, as in some other parishes, public schools did not function at all during 1873. Jackson Parish. Superintendent Brewster stated that during the past two years, very little had been done for the improvement of public schools. The first treasurer of the parish school board failed in business in 1872, and part of the fund in his hands was lost. The claim was made that several 52 schools had been in operation during the year. Cameron Parish. The board of school directors for this parish organized September 5, 1871, and refused to relinquish their positions to the new board appointed April 18, 1873. The report states that very little interest was manifested on the part of the people in this sparsely settled section in the cause of public education. Moreover, the report has it that very few of the people of this parish ever attended school for any considerable time, and that they are satisfied to live to themselves; do not care especially, to communicate with outside communities. Naturally, public schools would not likely be crowded with alert minds, eager for all available knowledge. Four schools 53 were in operation a part of the year. DeSoto Parish. The school board of this parish has but lately organized, and arrangements have already been made to open a large number of schools by the first of 1874. The financial condition of the board is good. 54 East Baton Rouge Parish. The school board in this parish was organized May sth 1873. A special tax of two mills was levied by the police jury, which aided very materially the school work. The secretary reports 13 schools in operation, with an at-55 tendance of 464 pupils on the 30th of September. Caddo Parish A total of 28 public schools are reported as having been established in Caddo during the year 1873. A number of these schools however, were forced to close after a very short period of operation on account of the yellow fever epidemic. Five flourishing schools were reported in Shreveport, and the people in general, it is said, were manifesting considerable interest in public education. Two of the school board members died that year with yellow fever; it seems that these two were the most influential in school af-56 fairs. Calcasieu Parish A school board was organized in this parish, June 2nd, 1873 with John A. Spence as president, and A. H. Moss as Secretary and Treasurer. Because of the fact that the secretary neglected to forward his annual report to the Division Superintendent, this latter officer was unable to get a correct view of the school situation in Calcasieu par- is to the State Superintendent. However, it was reported that 23 schools with an aggregate attendance of 593 pupils, were kept in operation during the year. The teachers in the Parish were selected by the 57 president of the board. Bossier Parish. It was late in the year before the school board was organized in Bossier. This was due in part to the failure of the division superintendent's ability to appear in the parish. He was kept away on account of the yellow fever just across the river in Shrevenort. Practically nothing was done in the way of school work in this parish during 1873. The report states that a lively interest was manifest in educational matters, but this interest 58 was slow of crystalization. Bienville Parish. This parish received very little attention from the division superintendent during the years 1871-72. A school board was appointed early in 1871, but the annual report gave an incorrect list of the names of the members, which was never rectified. It does not appear that any public examination of teachers was held in Bienville at all. Blank certificates were left by the in the hands of several citizens who were not members of the school boards, and whose names were never published as such. Every person who wished to teach a public school applied to these citizens, and certificates were issued without question or examination. The possession of a certificate was considered not only as evidence of the holder’s fitness to teach, but as giving him a right to demand a position. The report shows that about one-half of the population of the parish was colored; that the prejudice against colored shhools was so great that white men refused to teach the colored children. Moreover, competent colored teachers could not be obtained, and as a result the colored children did not receive their share of the benefits of the public 59 school fund. It is hoped that the reader has at this point, a much clearer, and fuller appreciation of the public school situation in these representative parishes than would be possible from a more general perusal of the data. Moreover, it appears that a resume of the situation throughout the State may now be better conceived. *865 were reported by the State Superintendent, whereas, only 685 were reported by the Division Superintendents. Raising the literacy level of her inhabitants has been one of the most commanding problems with which this country has been faced. During the Civil War and reconstruction in the South particularly, inability even to read and write was appalling. Perhaps in no State in the Union was this inability more pronounced than in the Palmetta State. According to the Census Report of 1870, the total population of Louisiana was 726,915. Of this number, 362,065 were whites, 364,210 were colored, and 569 were Indians and Chinese. Of the total number, 276,158 over ten years of age were unable to write. A complete analysis of the whites and 60 blacks follows: Add to this number the children between six and ten years of age, and we have an illiterate population in the State nearly 300,000, or practically half of the entire population. Louisiana ranked ninth from the top in illiteracy; Georgia stood ih first position with 468,593 illiterates. 61 Brown, Cit.. 1873, p. 12 The statistics presented in table 32 appear, in many respects to be thoroughly modern. The salaries paid administrative officers, especially, were very high, and those paid teachers were good for that day, when compared with salaries paid teachers of similar qualifications nowadays. But, there is another story to this financial program which must be told; it is best suggested in the term ’’embezzlement.’ 1 43 Loud, George 8., Report of Third Division Superintendent, 1873. 44 The Donaldsonville Chief, September, 6th 1873. 45 Brewster, James, Report of Fifth Division Superintendent, 1873. ' * 46 T , Loud, Op. Cit. 47 Stoddard, E. S., Report of Second Division Superintendent, 1873. ~ — 48 Brewster, Op. Cit. 49 . ’ "Keating, Charles W., Report of Fourth Division Superintendent, 1873. Op. Cit., 51 Loud, Op. Cit. Op. Ci t. s sLoud, Op. Cit. Op. Cit. 55 Loud, Op. Cit. Op. Cit. 57 Loud, On. Ci t. 58 Keating, Op. Cit. 59 Brewster, Op. Pit. 60 United States Census Report, 1870, part I, p. 414. Total number of educables, 6-21 years of age 272,334 Number enrolled in public schools 57,433 Number of public schools in State 864 Total number of teachers employed: Males 865* Females 611 Table 30 A Resume of the Public School Situation in Louisiana, 1873 Average Salary per month $42.50 Whole number of months schools were taught Average number of months each school was taught 3,600 4 1/2 Average length of daily sessions (hours) 5 1/2 White illiterates between 10 and 15 years of age, males 7,130 White M tt tt tt it ft w , female s 6,395 White " ft 15 it 21 " tt " , males 4,710 White " tt tt it tt tt tt ” , females 4,926 Whi te " w over 21 years of age , males 12,048 White " tt tt rt tt tt tt , females 15,540 Total White illiterates 50,749 Table 51 Illiteracy in Louisiana, 1873 Colored Colored Colored Colored Colored Colored Total illiterates between tt ft rt ft tt tt " over 21 tt tt tt Colored illiterates 10 and ft ft 15 " tt tt years < tt 15 it 21 tt of tt years of age tt « tt tt tt tt tt ft tt age, males ” , females , males , females , males , female s 16,978 .16,375 15,873 19,718 76,612 79,437 224,993 Total illiterates 1 of both . races over ten years old 276,158 Balance on hand September 1, 1872 $91,917.19 From former treasurers 12,921.38 From State apportionments 254,249.50 From corporate authorities 204,995.94 From interest on sale of school lands 44,883.78 From other sources not named in reports 34,805.73 From appropriation for salaries of officers and office expenses 34,600.00 Total Receipt s $678,473.52 Disbursements For Previous indebtedness $ 16,944.33 For teachers’ wages 551,460.92 For rent of school houses 42,966.62 For repairs of school houses 13,419.88 For purchase of school furniture 13,966.35 For fuel and incidentals For school apparatus 30,632.04 802.40 For school house sites 4,038.07 For building school houses 14,995.39 For salary of State Superintendent 5,000.00 For office rent of State Superintendent 1,000.00 For traveling expenses of State Superintendent 1,000.00 Table 32 61 School Fund, 1873 For contingent expenses of State Superintendent 2,000.00 For salary of Secretary of State Superintendent 3,000.00 For salaries of five division superintendents 12,500.00 for contingent expenses for five division supts. 3,000.00 For salary of superintendent of sixth division, 4,000.00 For contingent expenses of Supt. sixth division 600.00 For salary of secretary of Supt. sixth division 2,000.00 For salary of messenger of Secty.sixth division 500.00 Balance of funds on hand Less amount paid in school certificates Total 98,971.26 822,797.26 144,323.74 678,473.52 Exploitation of School Funds Among the causes that prejudice and destroy confidence, not only in a school system but also in other other organizations, perhaps none is so fraught with evil as that of official dishonesty; and this is trire whether the dishonest act be the result of criminal ignorance, failure to appreciate the responsibilities attached to the office, or direct defalcation of the funds. There was a general complaint abroad in Louisiana during the reconstruction period, that those in charge of affairs were misappropriating the money of the tax payers. There is no reasonable doubt but that considerable amounts were stolen outright, and good examples may be found in the handling of the school funds. In the parishes of Concordia and Morehouse there has been bad management of the school funds, but Carroll parish has been the most unfortunate of any in this division. An immense fund was squandered ih 1871 and 1872. The amount of warrants on the free school accumulating fund drawn between December first, 1871 and May 15, 1873 was $26,444. Besides this sum the quarterly apportionments, up to and including that of March, 1873 were all absorbed, and yet the public schools were closed in July, 1872. No less than $30,000 were spent in the parish with only two or perhaps three schools in Operation, all of primary grade, and these open only a few months in the year. What became of the funds? In the Fourth Division Keating states that he had expected to find many irregularities in the proceedings of the parish boards in his division, yet he was in no way prepared to meet such a demoralized, corrupt and inefficient class of men as he found composing a number of the retiring boards. In two of the parishes, the former treasurers had absconded with quite a large amount of money belonging to the school fund; in another parish, the money appropriated to establish schools was invested in private business and speculation. The exact amount was not ascertained in either of these instances, but it is not too much to say that the 63 steal was considerable. Another example of misappropriation of school funds is found in the use of the John McDonogh bequest, a full account of whose beneficence is reported in the New Orleans Section of this discussion. Of this handsome gift to public education of more than a million dollars, more than $500,000 of it failed to get into the right treasury. Just what became of it, no bne seems to know; it is enough to say that it was misdirected. The following exhibit compiled from a report of the Parish School Board of Palquemines, and from several supplemental reports of the treasurer of said parish board, shows the amount of embezzlement of the funds received for the pub 64 lie schools, 1871-1873. By comparing the totals in the last two columns of Table 33 it is found that more than half of the amount appropriated for teachers’ salaries, etc., was directed into other channels. Apparently not much of the school funds reached the schools. A favorite method of stealing the public school money was through defaulting school treasurers. In a number of parishes, the school treasurers stole practically all the funds, the thefts running as high in some cases, as $lO,OOO 65 a year. A correspondent of the New York Times who toured Louis iana during the period under consideration, for the purpose of getting first-hand information concerning affairs, wrote 66 as follows. The Parish of Natchitoches (county) receives for school purposes, from the State treasurer, $15,000 to $20,000 annually, but there is only one school, a colored one, in the parish. If it were not for the exertions of the Catholic bishop, the rising white generation would get no education whatever. To the school, there are three teachers; one Raford Blunt, the State Senator who can neither read nor write, but who is-a member of the school board and had himself appointed as teacher with a salary of $lOO per month. There is fortunately a very excellent school attached to the Cathedral, and under the personal supervision of the Bishop, where the teaching is done by the Sisters of Mercy. There has been no white public school in the parish since 1869, and in the Pine Hills, there are no schools whatsoever. All is darkness indeed in that region. Fifteen to twenty thousand dollars per annum to run one cola? ed school of three teachers, one of whom could not read or write, and who as State Senator, had himself appointed as teacher, was extravagance. Could anything be more tragically farcical? From the beginning to the end of the reconstruction period, it was generally believed that large portions of the school funds were being either stolen outright, or grossly mismanaged. In 1879, two years after the State had been restored to her white citizenry, a legislative investigationwwas ordered the result of which showed that funds amounting to $2,137,000 had been misapplied during reconstruction. The responsibility for this large ’’steal”, for that is about what it amounted to, attached to the various legislatures and to the State officers including the Superintendent of Public Education, and other 67 local school officers. 62 Brewster, Op. Cit., 1873. Sweating, Op. Git., 1873. P. M., Report of First Division Superintendent, 1873. Chambers, Henry 8., History of Louisiana, p. 678. New York Times, October 14, 1874. Teachers 1 Salaries $435.00 $260.00 $175.00 Teachers 1 Salaries 940.00 565.00 375.00 Teachers 1 Salaries 1,042.50 885.00 157.60 Rent s 485.00 90.00 395.00 Fuel 29.00 00.00 29.00 Teachers 1 Salaries 120.00 10.00 110.00 Rents 90.00 00.00 90.00 Teachers 1 Salaries 360.00 195.00 165.00 Table 33 For What Purpose Used Reported Actually Amount Embezzled Rents 93.00 00.00 93.00 Teachers* Salaries 172.50 000.00 172.50 Rents 236.00 000.00 236.00 School Furniture 717.55 000.00 717.55 Charles Lewis 50.00 00.00 50;00 C. Brown, Carpenter Work 75.50 00.00 75.50 $2,005.00 $2,841.05 Political Corruption A brief picture of the political and economic corruption which obtained in the State during the administration of the carpet-bag, republican Governors Warmoth and Kellogg, 1868-76, will furnish a parallel for what happened in the narrower field of public education. Moreover, because of this general practice of corruption, and maladministration of the State’s affairs, we may find a first-rate reason for this latter practice. Under the leadership of the young adventurer, Henry C. Warmoth of Illinois, the financial history of the State was even more scandalous than in other Southern States. During the four years of his administration, 1868-78, the average annual expenditure of the State government was about six millions of dollars; when measured by the previous experiences of the State, six hundred thousand dollars would have been ample to defray all legitimate expenses. At the beginning of Warmoth’s administration, the debt of the State was between six and seven millions, with more than enough assets to extinguish it. At the end of the four years of his power, the debt was nearly fifty millions, the assets had practically all disappeared, and there was nothing 68 worth mentioning to show for the one or the other. Near the end of Warmoth 1 s administration when events were extraordinarily violent, and when his former Republican friends became his enemies, he betrayed his party, and went over to the Democrats. In this act, Warmoth promised to aid the democrats in electing their candidate for Governor and their candidates for the legislature. Of course, it was tacitly understood that Warmoth would receive protection at the hands of the democrats against his former friends to whom he had denied what they had conceived to be their proper share of the public plunder, and who, if in possession of the State government would make him answer for his misdoings . The young carpet-bagger supposed he was able with his election machinery to give the State to the democrats, whether the voters should do so or not. The election took place at the same time as the presidential election, November 4th 1872. The returns were sent to Warmoth, and he delivered them to his returning board. This board consisted of the Governor, the secretary of State, F. J. Herron, and one John Lynch, the other two members of the board, Lieutenant Governor Pinchbeck, (colored), and one Anderson having been disqualified since both of them were candidates for office at this election. The Governor had his suspicions aroused about the loyalty of both Herron and Lynch to him before the count took place, and having the legal power to remove Herron, he did so at once, and appointed one John Wharton, a friend upon whom he could rely. It was generally believed that the democrats had won the election, with John McEnery as Governor; in fact, Warmoth so declared McEnery duly elected, on the sth of December, 1872, and the whole elction matter was a closed book, as was generally conceived. In the middle of the night following, Judge Durell issued an order to the United States Marshall, S. B. Packard, to take possession of the capitol and hold it at the pleasure of the judge against all unlawful bodies attempting to convene therein. The judge claimed that Warmoth had committed a contempot against his court in the returning board proceedings, and he declared that the decision of the Warmoth board to consider the election returns, to be illegal. In this muddle, another board was provided which, when it had gone over the election returns, declared that McEnery had not been duly elected Governor, but that one William Pitt Kellogg had been elected. Moreover, the United States troops were calfed out to assist 69 Kellogg, the republican leader, to set up his government. A more palpable outrage upon the lawful powers of a State could hardly have been conceived. The judge had not a scintilla oi authority upon which to rest his proceeding. It is claimed that he was drunk when he made the order, but this can hardly be true, certainly not any more nearly so than was his custom, for when after ijiany days and weeks when he might have been sobered, there was no effort on his part to correct any error. Kellogg was installed in office of Governor, and for four more long years, the fair State received abuse after abuse at the hands of this unscrupulous politician. A Congressional Investigating Committee was appointed January 16, 1872 by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, to look into election contests in Louisiana. The members of this committee were Glenni W. Scofield of Pennsylvania, George W. McCray, lowa, H. Boardman Smith, New 7 York, Daniel W. Voorhees, Indiana, and Samuel Sr? Marshall of 111- 70 inois. On account of illness, Mr. Voorhees and Mr. Marshall were unable to serve ontthe committee; and, as a result, R. Milton Speer, and Stevenson Archer were substituted in their places. The committee repaired to New Orleans soon after their appointment, and on January 29th began taking testimony of leading citizens of the city relative to the disputed election contests, especially the contest for Governor. For twelve days, this committee worked diligently gathering what information they could, bearing on the problem, under consider ation. February 9th, the committee returned to Washington, constructed three different reports, and presented them to Congress, May 30th, 1872. A delay in printing the reports was the cause of their not being presented earlier. Although the committee of five could not agree on all points, they were unanimous in reporting that a series of infamous laws had been enacted in Louisiana, placing imperial powers in the Governor’s (Warmoth) hands, which power he had used with reckless disregard of the interests of the people, and with the double purpose of enriching himself and 71 his friends, and of perpetuating his control in office. Furthermore, the report stated that under the law in Louisiana, elections were a farce. The Governor appointed the registrars, and through them returned his friends to the legislature. In several instances, persons held seats in the house of representatives from parishes (counties) in which they did not reside. In one case, a friend of the Governor was elected in a private room in a New Orleans hotel at midnight, to represent a parish a hundred miles away. Moreover, the committee reported that Henry Warmoth entered upon the duties of Governor in 1868 a poor man. Although his salary was only $B,OOO a year, he left the Govern-72 orship in 1872 a millionaire. Quoting from the report: The world has rarely known a legislative body so rank with ignorance and corruption; no bill that"the Governor opposes can pass, and all bills that he favors always pass. The Governor refers to the legislature as, ”my crowd.” A brief statement from the New York Times concerning 73 carpet-bag Warmoth and his ’’swarming flies” is interesting: It is reported that several of Warmoth’s tax collectors are delinquent, and flung from the State. Among these is one Blanchard, brother of the State Register of Elections, a tax collector for Morehouse parish, said to be a defaulter in more than $20,000. Concerning the disputed State and Congressional elec- tions held in 1875, the New York Daily Tribune observes as 74 follows: The colored State officials, particularly Antoine, Lieutenant Governor, and Brown, Superintendent of Education, have positively refused their consent to the arbitration of the Congressional Committee. All of the McEnery party (democrats) consented formally, and in writing; the others (republicans), Kellogg included, refused. The feeling here is rather in favor of a new election, if it can be held under congressional auspices, and absolutely beyond any interference of ’’Grant**; otherwise, no election is needed; no good would come of it. The drift of things politically is obvious; the time of liberation is near at hand. Liberal Republicans all over the country were beginning to sympathize very deeply with the down-trodden Southerners; even President Grant was severely critized by Republicans because of his decided stand against the South. 67 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1878, p. 210. fZ Q * Burgess, John W., Reconstruction and the Constitution, 1866-1876, p. 263. " 69 Burgess, Op. Cit., p. 270. 70 The Congressional Globe, 1871-72; 42nd Congress, 2nd Session, Part I, p. 412. 71 The House of Representatives, Reports of Committee, 1871-72, 42nd Congress, 2nd Session, R eport No. 92. 72 Ibid., No. 92. 75 The New York Times, January 3, 1873. New York Daily Tribune, January 11, 1875. The Coushatta Riot In 1874 the Coushatta affair, whereby several white carpet-bag officials were killed, attracted the attention of the entire nation. At the bottom of this bloody occur-75 rence was the question, who should rule the State. In this riot, the president of the DeSoto School Board and the Secretary of the Red River Parish Board, both carpetbaggers, lost their lives. There had been rioting in the streets of Coushatta, and in the lanes leading into the town several days, as a result of which a number of people kad been killed. The trouble grew out of the obnoxious political agitation and persecution by the parish administration. It was finally agreed that six of the carpet-bag leaders would surrender to a designated committee and by it should be hurried away to Shreveport for safekeeping. On the road to Shreveport, the party was waylaid and all six of the prisoners, among whom were the school officials mentioned, 76 were assasinated. This was another blow, and a rather severe one, against negro and carpet-bag rule and domination. It was intended to strike a deep terror to the hearts of the blacks, and prevent their general cooperation with the carpet-baggers ih a violation of existing law. Governor Kellogg promptly offered a reward of $5,000 for each person implicated in the Coushatta affair. The committee of 70 appointed by him to investigate the matter, deplored the sad condition, and adopted a series of resolutions one 77 of which is the following: Resolved, that in our opinion the immediate restoration of the State government to the hands of its legally elected officers, from which it was arrested by Federal power, is the true remedy and would quickly compose all our difficulties and restore peace and good order. 7 5 Goodspeed, Weston A., The Province and the States, p. 170 76 Harris, Op. Cit., p\ 42. School Lands On May 29th, 1826, Congress granted for the use of schools in Louisiana the sixteenth section of every township of public land in the State. On September 6th, 1841, there was a further grant made of ten per cent of the proceeds of all public lands sold by the United States government, in Louis-78 iana to be applied to the school fund. The general Superintendent of public education, despairing of obtaining from the authorities designated in the laws enacted for the protection of this valuable endowment of the general government, requested the Divisiom Superintendents, in 1873, to make this subject one of special inquiry and investigation; and to report in full all information relative to the school lands that they might succeed in obtaining. 79 A gist of their reports follow: There have been the greatest carelessness and indifference, as to the Management and disposition made of the school lands; That the irregularities attending the renting and sale of the school lands, will, nine times out of ten, so vitiate the transactions as to make them null and void; That it is the duty of the State to at once, take such measures as will prevent further alienation of this property, by centralizing the control of the same in some one of the State departments, and by clothing the chief of that department with sufficient authority to enable him successfully to resist all encroachments; That all sales of school lands to be estopped until they have been surveyed, their condition and value ascertained proper records made, and rules and regulations for the control, sale, renting and investment of funds accruing from them, have been carefully devised and officially promulgated. It is universally agreed that the proceeds from school lands all over the South were, in a number of instances, frittered away; much of it, fraudulently disposed of. In those States in which carpet-bag rule prevailed the longest, of which Louisiana was one, this sort of practice was more prevalent than elsewhere. , Op. Pit., p.,171. 78 Congressional Globe, 1826, 1841 An Educational Journal Published At the meeting of the State Board of Education, July 18, 1873, it was agreed that an educational journal to be edited and published under the supervision of the State superintendent of Public Education, with the Division Super- intendent of Public Education, with the Division Superintendents acting as Associate editors; that this journal be cirulated as much as might be among the people of the State, showing in detail the actions of the state board of education, and any other matters of school interest throughout the State. The hope of the committee who recommended that such an enterprise be undertaken was that it might help to encourage the development of the ideal of Public Education within the 80 State. It is not at all certain that such a publication ever came from the press, the writer has not been able to locate a copy of said journal anywhere, although the State Board heartily endorsed the undertaking. 7 sBrown, Op. Ci t. , p. 32. Local Teachers’ Institutes The first teachers 1 institutes to be held in Louisiana were those conducted in 1874, during the State Superintdndency of George W. Brown. Owing to the fact that this institution was something new, and for the further fact that some teachers were afraid that their shortcomings would be revealed, the movement was not very heartily received. Results of the institutes for this first year were not very encouraging; a painfully small number of teachers having been in attendance; but, those teachers who really desired to become efficient, saw in the institutes something of more than ordinary worth, 81 and soon began to attend in large numbers. A brief account>of a few of the Teachers’ Institutes for the school year, 1875, showing the purpose, membership, and type of programs may be of interest. The president of the Lafourche Teachers’ Institute states that this institution was founded January 31, 1874, with the view of improving the teachers in the principles and methods of the art of teaching; and for creating bonds of friendship and sympathy between teachers and parents. Four meetings were held during the school year, with an enrollment 82 in membership at the end of the year of 33. Some of the essays and subjects discussed at the various meetings: Ought the sexes to be educated together? Has the State the right to establish a Free School System? Requisites for success in a teacher of a primary school. If corporal punishment is necessary, should it be inflicted in the presence of the school? Best method of teaching reading, writing, spelling, grammar, arithmetic, geogrpahy, composition, history, etc. Object lessons, their importance and extent. Ought Normal Schools to be supported by the State? The duties a teacher owes to tie community, and vice versa Advantages of teachers 1 meetings and institutes. Should teaching be ranked among the learned professions? The Committee on Resolutions, at the October session, presented the following: Resolved, That ignorance is a curse to any people, and a menacing danger to Republican institutions. Resolved, That of all subjects demanding government aid, public education should of right take precedence. President Wingard of St. James parish. institute states that four meetings were held during the year, and at the end of the year there were 30 registered as full-fledged members. Wingard had a very high regard for the earnest, sincere teacher, at the same time entertained a rather strange notion as to the source of one’s teaching qualifications. Teachers are like poets, born such, and of those not made in this way, and their name is legion, how few make any progress. The ture teacher is everaactive in everything practically pertaining to the profession, not only to improve himself, but diligent in aiding others. 83" There are two other institutes reported as having been in existence and rather enthusiastic in the work, in 1875. These were in the parishes of Terrebonne and St. Charles. 80 Louisiana State Board of Education, Proceedings, 1873. 81 Brown, o£. Git., 1875, p. 85 Op ~ Dolese, John, Report of Lafourche Teachers’ Institute, 1875. Public School Work in the Parishes, 1875 At this point we come to consider the last educational report presented, under the reconstruction regime. Early in 1876, Superintendent Brown gave quite an elaborate account of the work done during the school year, 1874-75, a large portion of which had to do with a detailed enumeration of items of interest in the various parishes over the State. It is necessary, therefore, to analyze the report very minutely, in order that we may appreciate the full significance of it. The writer is not offering any apology for presenting this part of our study in such a detailed fashion, although the reader may have gotten that impre.ssion; but, rather that he who reads may be better prepared to receive that which is to follow. It seems to be the only intelligent way to present the material. The data which follow are taken from the Division Superintendents reports for the school year 1874-75. These reports show such a tremendous improvement in school affairs in the State over those presented for the year 1872-73, that many contemporary writers, as well as some who express themselves on the point at the present time, believe that these reports now under consideration., were "padded”, in order that those in charge of affairs might make a good showing at the forthcoming election. It is true that this general election of 1876 marked the Congressional Reconstruction in the State, and it may be that Brown, Kellogg, et. al., foresaw this event, at least in figure. At this point we shall p? esent some eight or ten parish reports just as they came to the State Department from the Division Superintendents. In commenting on this report, the superintendent states that "there is no parish in his division where the public school interest exhibits such an excellent and thrifty condition as in Caddo.” During the past school year, 42 public schools were established, which remained in session from three to eight months. Moreover, the reporter states that the competent corps of teachers under his supervision, were always paid promptly in currency, not warrants, at the close of each month. Such an exhibit as this is quite a challenge to any modern educator; 42 new schools of high grade within one year; excellent teachers, and a balance of funds on hand of upwards of fourteen thousand! dollars, Keating surely must have stirred up a lot of public school interest in those two years of service. But, he does not tell us what type of schools these were; nor does he say whether they were schools for negro children or for white children, or perhaps for both. It was customary to appoint a new school board every year, but in DeSoto this appointment had not been made since 1873; thus, the old board was still functioning. One of the board members was murdered in the Coushatta Riot referred in another section, and his place had not been filled at the close of 1875. Moreover, this murdered school board mem ber had in his possession at the time of his death, a free school warrant, which was never accounted for. Superintendent Loud states that Iberville was his banner parish for good schools, the previous year; that in proportion to it s population, it had the largest attendance upon the schools in 1875. Under the personal supervision of the energetic president of the school board, Hon. W. W. Wharton; with the cooperation of every member, aided and encouraged by the large collection, and prompt transfer by the collector of the parish school tax of 2 1/2 mills, and furthermore, with the most prudent and economical disbursement of the school funds, the board was able to make a very laudable showing for the year. Division superintendent Loud remarks that "the public schools of this parish are in as flourishing and prosperous a condition as any that have come under my observation in the State." One of the *best of the 18 public schools in Iberville parish was located in Plaquemine, the parish site. A picture of this Wharton Union School, named for the president of the sehool board, appears on the following pafee, having been taken fron an original print which appears in the State Super-87 intendent’s report. In March, 1875, the school board of the parish of Iberville purchased a building and ample grounds in the suburbs of the town of Plaquemine, for a Union school house. The house erected was about seventy feet square, two stories high; four large galleries, ten feet wide the whole length, front and rear, with attic, four rooms and large observatory. Two large halls, twenty feet wide, extended through the house, one above and one below, opening on to the galleries at each end by wide, double doors; six large windows in each school room; two in each room reaching to the floor, the glass twelve by twenty, and twelve by twenty-four inches; every sash raised and lowered by weights; blinds to every window; rooms thirteen feet high in the walls. The house was located near the middle of a large lot extending from one street to another, with fine shade trees in front. The grounds were divided in two nearly equal yards, one for boys and one for girls (far enough back to be away from the noise and dust of the business streets, and so isolated that old maids will not be frightened by the noise of children, consequent upon their innocent plays); the boys’ yard was large enough for base ball, without trespassing upon anyone’s land; one large cistern in each yard which never failed. The school was graded according to proficiency, boys and girls being together in classes. The grades taught were primary, elementary, and grammar. There were 273 pupils enrolled in the school, it is stated. Table 36 88 School Situation in Ouachita Parish. 1875 The report for Rapides parish indicates that public schools in this section of the State had gained a very good foot-hold for some of thepopulation. This particular report does not indicate whether these 22 schools were mostly schools for white children or for negro children; but, other writers seem to think that they were negro schools for the most part. However, it is certain that there was at least one rather respectable public school for white children in the city of Alexandria, the parish site of Rapides, We have been able to secure a picture of this school building, the Alexandria Public School, which appears on the following page, the first public school for white children in Alexandria, a city at the present time of about 30,000 population, and which city has the one most expensive high school plant south of Baltimore. This public school was a four-room house, and its curriculum extended through what may be thought of as the seventh or eighth grade. It was often referred to as a high school, but in reality it was nothing more than an elementary school. We have not been able to secure a copy of the curri- culum of this institution, but it is reasonable to believe that this school, like most of the other similar schools in the State, employed the course of study suggested by the State Board of Education which consisted cf reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, geography, English grammar, elementary history of the United States, and perhaps, a bit of algebra. With four teachers busily engaged with about 45 pupils for some five or six months during the year, this school made a right respectable showing as a public educational institution’of that day. In order that we may appreciate more fully the evolution of public school buildings in Louisiana since the reconstruction period, we present on the following pages photo stats of three other buildings located in the little city of Alexandria, in the heart of the State. The original public school building served as both a grammar and high school from the time of its erection, 1873, to 1903, at which time the building represented in plate II was erected on the same plot of ground in seventh street, at a cost of about $50,000. Likewise, this latter building was used to house all the white school children in Alexandria until 1909, at which time a separate grammar school building was erected, known as the West End Grammar School, and the seventh street building was used exclusively for the high school department. In 1914-1915, the school population had increased to such an extent that it was necessary to erect another building. During this year, a splendid stone structure was erected in Beauregard Street, at a cost of approximately $125,000. This building was erected on property donated for school purposes by Honorable and Mrs. James W. Bolton whose ancestry were among the pioneer settlers of this section of the State. Moreover, this institution was known as the Bolton high school in honor of the donors of the property. When the Bolton high school was completed, the seventh street unit was converted into a grammar school. During the last decade, the once little cross-roads town in the heart of a fertile commonwealth has grown into a beautiful little city with a population of approximately 30,000. With this growth in general population there came an almost phenomenal increase in school population. In 1925 it was very evident that larger facilities must be provided for both elementary and high school pupils. At this time a movement was set on foot to erect a larger high school building and use the one then in use for another grammar school. On November 2nd 1926, the building represented in Plate IV was occupied by the high school. This institution, bearing the name of the former donors, The Bolton High School, was erected at a cost of f 1,200,000, including the site, furniture and fixtures, improvements, etc. The building which is located in Vance Avenue, has 75 class rooms including four lecture rooms. The auditorium-gymnasium will seat 2,554 people in addition to the rostrum and broad, spacious aisles in which several hundred others could be accomodated The stage will seat 150 individuals comfortably. At the presenttime, the enrollment of Bolton High School is approximately 1,200. It was largely through the untiring efforts of Honorable James W. Bolton, parish Superintendent W. J. Avery, and Professor S. M. Brame, principal, that this school plant, scarcely unexcelled in all its appointments in the country, became a reality. The report seems to reveal the fact that the people in general in this parish were taking quite an active part in public education. It is stated, that they very cheerfully paid the special tax which had been levied for the purpose of improving the public schools. In the State Superintendent’s report for this last year of his administration of schools, not only in Louisiana but elsewhere as well, we find a comparative study of school statistics for the last three years of his administration. Because the statistics are self-explanatory, they are presented without comment. A comparison of school statistics covering the years 1873 1874, and 1875 94 The sums expended before the war exceeded the appropriations, owing doubtless to the payment of the annuity from the free school fund out of the general fund. Since the war, it is generally believed that the appropriations were never realized for the schools. As a conclusion of this section of our discussion, probably we can do no better than to state, in an abbreviated fashion, the views of one of the best informed historians on the entire reconstruction program. Much of the trouble and the bitterness that resulted from the various attempts to solve the educational problems was due to the mutual misunderstandings and to the fact that the plans formed by Norther teachers and missionaries for use in the South were based on ignorance of actual conditions There were very clearly two or more views concerning the educational situation in the South. The Northern view of the situation as shown by the various reports and addresses published by the teachers* associations, the freedmen’s societies of the churches, the missionary societies, and the freedmen’s bureau, all of which may be summarized some-96 what as follows: (1) The South had had no public education, was opposed to it, and such education as had been given was based on wrong principles which had resulted in secession, rebellion, etc.; (2) the poor whites were densely ignorant, and this ignorance, exploited by unscrupulous leaders, had been made the basis of the Confederacy; (3) not only were the Southern leaders opposed to the general education of the white masses, but all classes were opposed to any education of the recently freed negroes; (4) the main difference between the negro and the white was due to the enforced ignorance of the former — a difference which might speedily be removed. The views of the Southern whites may be given about as follows: (1) The leaders, those who had been leaders in state and church, recognized the changed conditions of the negro, and favored education, under Southern supervision, to fit the negro race for citizenship; (2) the masses of the whites were undecided or indifferent; (3) the lower and more ignorant class of whites were strongly, opposed to educating the negro at all; (4) in the black belt, the whites were generally friendly to negro education, and in the white districts, negro education found the strongest opposition. As to the negroes themselves, they were eager for education, and were inclined to prefer that offered by the Northerners who had freed them. In regard to the education of the negro of this period a Hampton teacher has said that "when the combat was over and the Yankee school ma’ams followed in the train of the Northern armies, the business of educating the negroes was a continuation of hostilities against the vanquished South, and was so regarded, to a considerable extent, on both sides." With the Federal armies came the Northern teachers, sent by missionary or aid societies or by the churches, or brought in by the Bureau, which favored these, and not the Southern efforts to educate the blacks. Not only did they organize schools for negroes, but they were placed in charge of the city school systems for the whites where any suoh had survived the war. Under the elaborate systems of reconstruction governments, after 1868, attempts were made to force the attendance of whites and blacks in the same schools, but only in South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana were mixed schools made legal. This policy was not demanded by the negro race, and was bitterly opposed by the majority of whites. It was advicated by the carpet-baggers and a few negro leaders, chiefly mulattoes. The whites, for the most part, refused to attend such schools. In all the states the school systems broke down, for lack of funds. Schools were revived after the overthrow of the reconstruction governments, but were hampered by the heavy debts left by the carpet-bag regime, and were for a decade or more poorer than the ante-bellum schools had been. The Southern whites objected to the kind of education given by the Northern teachers, and in the reconstruction schools. They complained that the teachers were political emissaries and taught doctrines of social equality; that they made the blacks dislike the whites; that the teachers were often fanatical or of bad character; that the schools were centers of trouble; that in the white schools, textbooks hostile to the South were used and the punils forced to sing Northern songs about the war, etc. On the other hand the Northern teachers complained that they were socially ostracised, and sometimes mistreated, and that the Ku Klux Klan burned their school houses. 83 Wingard, J. C., Report of St. James Teachers’ Institute 1875. — ’ 84 Keating, os. Cit., 1875. 85 Keating, Op. Cit. 86 Loud, Bp.Cit., 1875. 87 Brown, Cit., 1875, p. 375. 88 Brewster, Op. Cit., 1875. 89 Keating, Op. Pit., 1875 90 Stoddard, Op. Cit., 1875. Q O Keating, o£. Cit., 1875. Op. Cit., 1875, p. 6. 94 Brown, Op. Cit., 1875, p. 8-9. 95 Reports of State Treasurers, for these years Walter L., Documentary Hi story of Reconstruction, p. 165. Wharton Union School, Uoenville Parish. Bolton Hio-h School - 3oltoN H ig-h School- HU HahnviHe School, St- Charles Parish Number of Educables, 6 to 21 years of age 3,516 Number of public schools 42 Number of pupils enrolled 2,780 Number of teachers employed 53 Average salary of teachers per month $54.00 Whole number of months schools have been taught 313 Total number of school houses built Estimated value of school houses and sites 650.00 Estimated value of school apparatus 300.00 Estina ted value of furniture 1,500.00 Total school money received Di sbursements 25,644.00 Ecr previous indebtedness $2,376.00 For teachers^ salaries For rent of school houses 8,260.00 For repair of school houses 60 .00 For purchase of school furniture 250.00 For fuel and incidentals For school house sites For building school houses 172.65 Balance on hand 14,526.20 Total school money disbursed Present indebtedness 11,118.65 Table 33 84 School Situation in Caddo Parish, 1875 Number of educables, 6 to 21 years of age 2.764 Number of public schools 29 Number of pupils enrolled 976 Total number of teachers employed 29 Average salary of teachers per month $45.00 Whole number of months schools havebeen taught 116 Number of school houses built Estimated value of school houses and sites 200.00 Estimated value of school apparatus Estimated value of furniture' Total school money received 12,085.66 Disbursements For previous indebtedness Eor teachers’ salaries $7,606.50 For rent of school houses *350.00 For repairs of school houses 200.00 For purchase of school furniture For fuel and incidentals 500.00 For school house sites For building school house Balance on hand 3,429.16 Total school money disbursed Present indebtedness 8,656.50 Table 34 85 School Situation in DeSoto Parish, 1875 Number of eduoables, 6-21 years of age 4,036 Number of public schools Number of pupils enrolled 18 1,744 Number of teachers employed Average salary of teachers per month 31 #45.00 Whole nutaber of months schools were taught Total number of school houses built Estimated value of schoolhhouses and sites 126 1 400.00 Estimated value of school apparatus 500.00 Estimated value of school furniture 2,000.00 Total school money received 9,484.61 Di sbur seme nt s For previous indebtedness $895.00 For teachers’ salaries 6,944.39 For rent of school houses 480.00 For purchase of school furniture 94.60 For fuel and incidentals 240.00 For school house sites 500.00 For building school houses For repair of school houses 151.75 For purchase of school apparatus 134.50 Total school money disbursed 9 ,440.24 Present indebtedness 1,500.00 Table 35 86 School Situation in Iberville Parish, 1875 Total number of educables, 6 to 21 years of age 4,507 Number of public schools Number of pupils enrolled Total number of teachers employed Average salary of teacher per month Whole number of months schools were taught Number of school houses built 26 1,722 26 $45.00 91 2 Estimated value of school houses and sites 11,505.00 Estimated value of school apparatus 460.40 Estimated value of school furniture 700.00 Total school money received 11,156.06 Disbursements For previous indebtedness For teachers* salaries $5,347.55 For rent of school houses 20.00 For repair of school houses 72.94 For purchase of school furniture 700.00 For fuel and incidentals 371.08 For school house sites 2,774.00 For building school houses For purchase of school apparatus 460.40 Balance on hand 1,410.09 Total school money disbursed 9,745.97 Present indebtedness Total number of educables, 6-21 years of age Number of public schools 8,300 22 Number of pupils enrolled Total number of teachers employed 706 25 Average salary of teachers per month Whole number of months schools were taught Total number of school houses built $43.65 90 1 Estimated value of school houses and sites 2,687.00 Estimated value of school apparatus 100.00 Estira ted value of school furniture 150.00 Total school money received Disbursements For previous indebtedness $2,553.51 For teachers’ salaries 4,365.00 For rent of school houses 228.00 For repair of school houses 10,683.52 Table 37 89 School Situation in Rapides Parish, 1875 For purchase of school furniture For purchase of school apparatus For fuel and incidentals For school house sites For building school houses Balance on hand 200.00 907.00 2,430.01 Total school money disbursed Present indebtedness 8,253.51 Total number of educables, 6-21 years 2,042 Number of public schools 7 Number of pupils enrolled 671 Number of teachers employed 16 Average salary of teachers pg r month #44.35 Whole number of months schools were taught 50 Total number of school houses built 3 Estimated value of school houses and sites $ 6,150.00 Estimated value of school apparatus' 56.00 Estimated value of school furniture 1,257.00 Total school money received Di sbur sements For previous indebtedness For teachers 1 salaries 7n For rent of school houses $ ’335’00 For purchase of school furniture For purchase of school apparaturs 6,198.00 1/2 Table 38 90 School Situation in St. Charles Parish, 1871 Number of e du cables, 6-21 years Number of public schools 4,136 23 Number of pupils enrolled 760 Total number of teachers employed 31 Average salary df teachers per month $35.00 Whole number of months schools were taught 240 Number of school houses built 1 Estimated value of school houses and sites Estimated value of school apparatus Estimated value of school furniture Total school money received $6,211.07 Disbursements For previous indebtedness For teachers 1 salaries For rent of school houses For repair of school houses For purchase of school furniture For fuel and incidentals For school houses and sites For building school houses Balance onhhand $1,226.46 4,460.31 120.00 115.00 63.81 68.00 157.49 Total school money disbursed Present indebtedness $6,053.58 Table 39 92 School Situation in Webster Parish, 1875 Table 40 A financial statement showing the condition of the public schools for the entire State of Louisiana in 1875 Receipts Balance on hand September 1, 1874 From parish treasurers and tax collectors From State apportionments From corporate authorities From interest due from the free school fund From appropriation for salaries of officers, office, contingent and traveling expenses $95,890.14 14,659.32 207,406.20 313,358.31 33,051.23 35,300.00 Total Receipts for 1875 <699,665.20 Disbursements For previous indebtedness For salaries of teachers For rent of school houses For repair of school houses For purchase of school furniture For fuel and incidentals For school apparatus For school buildings and sites For salaries of officers, office, contingent and traveling expenses Balance in school board treasuries $33,214.75 573,144.44 36,704.00 5,004.28 5,745.92 28,039.17 1,036.06 5,985.95 35,300.00 139,217.29 rouai Disbursements ior 1875 863,391.86 Amount paid in school certificates New Orleans City school board by the 163,726.66 Total cash Disbursements for 1875 $659,665.20 Listed Items 1873 1874 1875 Number of educables, 6-21 years 272,334 280,387 280,387 Number of public schools 864 1,039 1,032 Number enrolled in Public Schools 57,443 74,309 74,846 Total expense of public schools $678 ,473.52 789,068.95 699,665.20 Cost per child per annum 12.00 11.00 9.40 Number of teachers employed--Males 856 79 7 79 7 Number of teachers employed--Females 611 697 760 Total teaohers—Male and Female 1,476 $42.50 1,494 1,557 Average salary of teachers per month 40.00 37 .00 Whole number months schools taught Average number months each school 3,600 4.961 5,231 was taught 4 1/2 4 1/2 3 1/2 Whole number school districts 483 474 473 Number of schol houses built Estimated value of school houses and 101 77 85 sites $573 Estimated value of school ap- ,510.00 777,011.00 786,100.00 paratus 11 Estimated value of school fur- ,471.75 12,000.00 13,000.00 niture 76 ,980.27 92,434.50 97,000.00 Table 41 95 State Appropriations for Public Schools 1847 to 1876 1847 1848-1851 ($225,000 $50,000.00 900,000.00 per annum) 1852-1853 1854 ($240,000 per annum) 480,000.00 300,000.00 1855-1856 ($280,000 per annum) 560,000.00 1857-1859 1860 ($300,000 per annum) 900,000.00 650,000.00 1862 (By Confederate Legislature) 485,000.00 1865-1866 1867 ($250,000 per annum) 500,000.00 225,000.00 1868-1869 1870 1871 ($250,000 per annum) 500,000.00 600,000.00 500,000.00 1872-1876 ($500,000 per annum) 2,500,000.00 CHAPTER VI THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SITUATION IN NEW ORLEANS 1866-1876 The settlers in the territory of Orleans early appreciated the value of an educated citizenry. Seven years before this virgin territory had advanced to the position of Statehood, the legislature provided the necessary machinery for public education in all thevast area included in this 1 Territory. On account of the numerous obstacles which beset the people, such as poor methods of transportation, bad roads, or rather bad trails, unbridged rivers, dense swamps with their wild beasts,sparsely populated districts, and lack of satisfactory means d communication, education of any sort developed very slowly. It can hardly be stated with correctness, that a system of education on a Statewide basis was organized prior to 1845. There were however, a number of schools in the State prior to this date, which received considerable funds from the Treasury of the State. These schools were, for the most part, private academies and seminaries. A system of public schools in the city of New Orleans came a little earlier. The purpose of this chapter is to trace the development of these schools through the reconstruction period. of Louisiana Territorial Legislature, 1805, Section IV. ” ~’ Organization and Early Development of Public Schools in New Orleans The public schools in the city ofNNew Orleans were first organized into a system in 1841. Samuel J. Peters, Joshua Baldwin, Dr. Picton, J. A. Maybin, and Robert McNair were prominent in this movement. In this group should also appear the name of Mr. J. A. Shaw of Bridgewater, Massachusetts, who became the first superintendent of public education in New Orleans. Mr. Shaw was a personal friend and admirer of Horace Mann who was at this time, at the peak of his educational career. It is stated by some writers that Mann himself, was urged to become superintendent of the New Orleans schools, and that he refused to accept the position because of the gigantic but "glorious" task which he had in his own State. In 1826, three schools, one central or high school, and two primary schools were established in New Orleans, primarily because of the discontinuance of the College of Orleans. These three schools continued until 1841 at which time the legislature provided for the establishment of one or more schools in each of three municipalities into which the city was divided. Furthermore, the legislature appropriated to the primary schools $7,500 on condition that the city raise p half that amount. With this Act, the development of a free public system of schools began in New Orleans. Two high schools, one for boys and one for girls, and several primary and grammar, schools were organized, with Mr. Shaw as superintendent. In his attempt to work out a program of study for each of these schools, the superintendent discovered that it was a tremendous undertaking, owing to the fact that the school population was exceedingly heterogeneous . Below Canal street, the lessons were given mainly in the French language; teachers were required to be examined first of all, in their knowledge of the French language and literature. It is said that in those days, many French families never crossed into that portion oftthe city where English was the language used. Above Canal street, French was taught in the high schools but the schoo" 1 work in general was done by both teachers and pupils, in the English. In these two divisions of New Orleans the schools were as distinct, the tastes, aims and aspirations of teachers and pupils as different, as the peoples 3 of England and France. When the civil war cane on, and the city fell into the hands of General Benjamin Butler, these district lines were theoretically abolished, and an attempt was made to administer the same type of curriculum to all the children in the city. A leading New Orleans newspaper, in commenting on the success of the New Orleans Public School System, just one year prior to the outbreak of the Civil conflict, has this 4 to say: The success of the public school system in our City is undoubted. No one with good judgment can visit the annual examination of the classes which will commence next week, without a sense of gratification, as he witnesses the clear intelligent exhibition of a critical knowledge of the subjects to which the attention of pupils has been directed. But a close observation of our schools will convince one that there is need for much improvement...especially in our high schools. The greatest objection to the high school program is not so much the manner in which the work is carried on, but rather the studies to which the young men are subjected. A large number of courses offered to the sons of our citizens are wholly impracticable . One of the chief subjects of study in our high school for boys is Latin; a subject which has no practical value whatsoever, unless one is going on to higher institution of learning, and acquire more than our boys are getting here in the high schools. A change in the course of study in our boys’ high school is very badly needed. A Dead Man’s Gifts Squandered, and Poor Children Robbed 9 of an Education. After reciting at some length, the donor's purpose in making such a wonderful bequest, and how he had been able to accumulate such a fortune by the help of the Almighty, the writer of the article attempts to reveal in what manner final disposition was made of the estate. As soon as the will was admitted to probate, the struggle for the spoils commenced. Instead of trying to carry out the intent of the will, improve the property and devote its proceeds to the objects of the bequest, all parties devoted their energies to divert them. The very safeguards that McDonogh threw around the trust proved its ruin. The two cities to he benefited desired to sell the lands and seize the money. The heirs attempted to set aside the will, and it required a decree of the United States Supreme Court to quiet their claims. The States of Louisiana and Maryland intervened. The African Colonization Society came into court and complicated matters. From the day of the testator’s death until 1855, the history of the fund is one of litigation. Enormous fees were paid to counsel, experts to evaluate the property, and to executors. Fortunes were made of money that was intended to benefit the poor. At last the supreme court of the State affirmed a decision of the fifth district court which utterly annihilated the will. The provision that ’’none of the property should be sold” was declared illegal. Another clause which prohibited the corporative bodies of the two cities of Baltimore and New Orleans from receiving any of the funds was disregarded, and the cities compromised thematter. The other legates were awarded certain sums which seemed to thoroughly satisfy them. The magnificent property vhich, under John McDonogh’s management, had grown to be worth more than $3,000,000, was found to have depreciated, being fritted away and abused, until only $1,500,000 was left. This amount was divided equally between the two cities. That portion which New Orleans received was abused still more. In 1860, the city council of Nev/ Orleans was authorized to issue six per cent, fifty-year bonds against the McDonogh donation, and the money secured was used to build school houses in the city. For many years, the donation proved highly beneficial in that it made possible school facilities 10 which otherwise could not have been secured. Several of the McDonogh buildings are still in use, the pictures of which while yet new, are to be found in this chapter. Status of Education in New Orleans at Outbreak of War In table 42, we have summarized statistics which reveal rather clearly the status of public education in New Orleans at the outbreakkof the war between the States. *of this number of public schools, eight were high schools; Two night schools included in the list that were open only 5 months in the year; **There is in this total, #55,884 whihh is undistributed; it is not known whether all this amount was paid to teacher, or whether it was partly used in erecting, repairing or rent ing school houses. It is also interesting to note the Course of Situdy in the New Orleans Schools at the outbreak of the war, and follow its development through the years, to the end of re construction. The following list of subjects were taught in the differ-12 ent schools: Primary Departments: Alphabet, spelling, reading, and arithmetic, writ ing in English and in French, and the elements of geography; Intermediate Departments: Arithmetic, geography, French and English Grammar, history of the United States, modern and ancient histjhistory, composition, writing, elocution: Boys' High Schools: Elocution, rhetoric, history, composition, mathematics, bookkeeping, natural philosophy, French, Latin; Girls 1 High Schools: The studies pursued in these schools are the same as those in the Boys’ High Schools, excepting book keeping. French was taught in both schools. 2 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, Act no. 20, 1841. Op. Cit., p. 267 Q McDonogh, Op. Cit. , p. 51. Q The New Orleans Republican, August 17, 187 3. 11 Avery, Op. Pit., p. 41. . • Ibid., p. 42. Number Length Number Number not Teachers 1 School House Total Schools : Term pupils Attending Salaries Expenditure Disburse ments 46* 10 nos. 19,571 20,479 $165,OSS $48,170 $268,136** Table 42 Annual Report of the Treasurer of the First District, to State Superintendent for the year 1861 Excitement in New Orleans In the brief account which follows, which 'is in keeping with the title of this article, is shown very clearly the attitude of the people in one section of this country toward those in another section. This account has little directly to do with the development of education in New Orleans, but such an attitude as is revealed herein might easily affect the development of the community in a general way, and in so doing, influence the attitudes of the people 5 educationally. In January, 1345, a great excitement was ir oduced in New Orleans by the arrival of an individual from Massachusetts named Hubbard. It seems that Massachusetts had heard that some of her colored ditizene were put in jail in New Orleans for visiting that city in contravention of laws which prohibited all'persons of that class from coming to the State. As a consequence Massachusetts intensely hostile to the South, authorized her Governor to employ an agent in New Orleans, for a period of time not to exceed one year, for the purpose of collecting and transmitting accurate information respecting the number and the names of citizens of Massachusetts who had heretofore been, or might be during the period of the agent's engagement, imprisoned without the allegation of any crime. The same agent was also to bring and prosecute at the expense of Massachusetts, with the aid of counsel, one or more suits in behalf of any citizent that might be so imprisoned, for the purpose of having the legality of such imprisonment tried and determined upon in the Supreme Court of the United States. Hubbard had been the agent delected. He sobn found out, however, that he would not be permitted to carry out his original plans; and shortly after his arrival, he wrote to the Governor that, not from intimidation, but from the conviction that his mission would be fruitless, he was ready to depart and to return his commission to the source from which it had originated. It is gratifying to record his admission that he "did easily see the high moral influence which must pervade and prevail in the city of New Orleans, in the courteous, bland and humane manner in which her citizens of the first respectability conveyed to him their sentiments, respecting his agency ahd the excitement it occasioned." 4 - The Daily Picayune, New Orleans, February 1, 1860. 5 °Gayarre, Charles, History of Louisiana, p. 666. The John McDonogh Fund In a noble band of Louisiana philantropists such as Fink, Poydras, Touro, Milne, and Girod, John McDonogh appeared. Before entering upon a discussion of the distribu tion of the fund left by this benevolent individual to the cause of education, it seems not inappropriate to mention briefly, a few of the salient points in his life. Born of Scotch parents in the city of Baltimore, December 29, 1779, John McDonogh soon found his way into the public schools of that City, but was withdrawn before reaching the seventh grade, and set to work in a large commercial house in Baltimore. This commercial firm did an extensive business both in Europe and America. It appears that Me Donogh attained rapid advancement in the business, and in the year 1800, he was sent in charge of one of the Company’s vessels to Liverpool, with instructions to load her with merchandise suitable to the Louisiana trade, and to proceed without delay to New Orleans. Having succeeded beyond the most sanguine expectations of his principals, McDonogh returned to Baltimore and again, in 1804, was intrusted with a similar enterprise, receiving an interest therein. He now resolved to make New Orleans his permanent place of business and his home. His labors and hopes were soon crowned with success. He is represented as living in princely style in 1809, keeping a magnificent mansion which was frequented by all the notables of the city. After the invasion of the city in 1815, and the proclamation of peace, Mr. McDonogh removed his residence to a plantation he owned on the opposite side of the river. Here he lived in seclusion until the day of his death, a period of over thirty years. It is said that he never spent another night in the City as long as he lived, although he crossed the river with his slave in his private boat to attend to business matters, nearly every day. He invested largely in real estate, and much of his time was occupied in attending the auction sales, collecting his rents, and paying his notes .Among the many eminent men with whom McDonogh corresponded were Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John M. Clayton, William M. Meredith and Judges Story and McLean. He never 6 married. He died at his residence October 26, 1850. A few extracts from McDonogtMs Will are herewith presented, in which the purpose of the philanthropist is stated, together with a general statement concerning the distribution of his estate. After giving to the children of his sister the widow of a Mr. Hamel, of Baltimore, a lot of land in Baltimore county, Maryland, and to his sister the sum of $6,000, his will emancipated his slaves, and directed that they be sent to Liberia. Moreover, he furnished each with a Bible and such implements as they may need to till the ground; and 7 then states his intentions, as follows: And for the more general diffusion of knowledge and consequent well-being of mankind, convinced as I am that I can make no disposition of those worldly goods which the Most High has been pleased so bountifully to place under my stewardship, that will be so pleasing to Him as that by means of which the poor will be instructed in wisdom and led into the path of virtue and holiness, I give, will and bequeath, all the rest, residue and remainder of my estate, real and personal, present and future, as well that which is now mine as that which may be acquired by me hereafter at any time previous to my death, and of which may die possessed of whatsoever nature it may be and wheresoever situated,... unto the Mayor, Aidermen and inhabitants of New Orleans, my adopted city, in the State of Louisiana, and the Mayor, Aidermen and inhabitants of Baltimore, my native city, in the State of Maryland, and their successors, in equal proportions of one-half to each of the said cities of New Orleans and Baltimore, forever, to and for the several intents and purposes hereinafter mentioned and especially for the establishment and support of Free Schools in said cities and their suburbs, and especially in the town of McNonogh, a suburb of New Orleans. The Will specifically states that instruction shall he provided ’’Free”, in the knowledge of the Lprd, and in reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, etc. etc. Moreover, it is emphasized that the Holy Bible of the Old and New Testament shall be at all times and forever made use of in those schools as one of the principal texts in the course of study. It is expressly and repeatedly provided in the will that no part of McDonogh’s real estate should ever be sold or alienated, but should be leased from time to time to good tenants, the lots of ground improved with houses, and unimproved and the improved lots of ground in the city and its suburbs or elsewhere leased for a period not to exceed twenty-five years at any one time. The McDonogh estate amounted to something over three million dollars, which, after a few small deductions as noted above, was to be divided equally between the cities of Baltimore and New Orleans, for the purpose of promoting public education. As a matter of fact, when the plunderers of the estate were through with it, each of the two cities received about three-quarters of a million. The list of his real estate, as written bjr himself in 8 his will, is as follows: Eleven squares, 300 lots, at the lower end of Poydras street; 2,000 lots in Mcßonoghville; 300 acres in rear of McDonoghville; 30 acres in unper end of McDonoghville; 4,000 acres in rear of Cazelar estate; 190 squares, 3,693 lots, in suburb Washington; 500 acres in rear of suburb Libingston; 41 squares, 900 lots, in Third Municipality; 4,498 acres in rear of suburb Washington; a claim of 200,000 arpents in the Florida parishes; 70,000 acres east side Mississippi river, 16 leagues above New Orleans; 4,596 acres adjoining; 7, 000 arpents on Bayou des Families; 140 arpents right bank Mississippi river, 20 leagues above New Orleans; 438 acres above lot; 31, 861 arpents rear of right bank, Bayou Lafourche; 3,200 arpents parish of Iberville; 2,188 acres adjoining last lot; the island of Grand Chinere, an island of Grand Lake, Barrataria; 40 by 80 arpents below Baton Rouge: 2, 065 acres on River du Chene; 24 and 40 acres on canal of Bayou Lafourche; 1,159 acres, townships 13 and 14, 10 and 80 acres on right bank of Mississippi, 11 leagues below New Orleans; 640 acres on the left bank of the Amite river; 3,200 acres, parish of Opelousas. Many other parcels of land, not embraced in this list, were found noted upon his ledger. The fate of this bequest, as well as its condition 23 years after thee death of McDonogh, may be learned from the following extracts from a publication in the official journal of the State, which appeared on August 17, 1873. The title of the article is: 6 %he New Orleans Courier, October 29, 1850. 7 McDonogh, John, The Last Will and Testament, p. 10, 1850 General Ben Butler’s Administration in New Orleans One of the first Acts of the Confederate Legislature of 1862 was to appropriate #485,000 for the public schools of the State. When the chaos of theetimes is considered, this 13 was avvery generous donation. It is very probable however, that very little, if any of this amount was used for the purpose for which it was intended; for, during that year, Admiral Farragut made his triumphant entry into New Orleans, and General Ben F. Butler took charge of the situation in the name of the Washington government. Upon the capture of Nev/ Orleans by the forces of the United States, in May, 1862, the administration of affairs of the citjr became Subject to military action. A military mayor was detailed to perform the duties of that office, and such affairs of the city as required attention during a complete military occupation were entrusted to the Finance Committee and the Committee of Streets and Land-14 ings of the Council. General Butler, who had himself made almost a complete failutre of his formal school training, having often been fined for non-attendance upon classes and failure to prepare his lessons, and who had received all his political and military appointments through the "wire-pulling" of in-15 fluential friends, promptly appointed a school board for the City, and undertook to supply it with funds for maintaining schools in the conquered territory. The schools which Butler provided were for doth white and negro children. Whether or not both races were admitted to thesame schools, we are not in position to declare; but judging on the basis of his "geographic origin and his 16 warped character," one is led to believe that he at least attempted such a practice. It must be remembered that Butleruand the Washington government had charge only of New Orleans, and South Louisiana; the Confederates were in control of all Central and Northern sections of the State. Just how much and what sort of education the Confederacy administered is but a surmise, since there are no records of it; but, it is perhaps, a good guess to say that there was scarcely anything done during the war period, in an educational way, outside of New Orleans; most of. the men and boys above sixteen years old were enlisted in the army, and the women and negroes were hard put to it in an effort to provide a sustenance. There were probably no taxes of any consequence forthcoming with which to pay for schools. General Butler attempted and succeeded fairly well in ruling with an iron hand. He seemed to take great delight in stirring up something; •in picking a quarrel; in irritating someone or some group . In addition to swelling his bank account to nearly a million dollars, he sent out a group of his kind to spy upon the teachers in the schools. The majority of these teachers at thebbeginning of his administration, were Southern women, and were naturally in sympathy with the Southern cause These spies were set to detect any uncomplimentary remarks that they might make concerning his regime, or that of the National government. Being constantly hounded by these agents of "Big Ben," a number of the teachers were heard to make remars that might be interpreted as uncomplimentary to Butler and his gang, for which they were summarily discharged from their teaching positions. Another source of irritation was Butler’s practice of employing in the schools Northern teachers to take the place of those Southern women whom he had spied upon and discharged. These teachers from the North, true to their convictions, had many disparaging things to say about the South at this time. Moreover, these teachers delighted in giving instruction, and making requirements of the children that exasperated the parents, and increased the volume of hate for ’’Big Ben.” After a few months of Butler’s administration, conditions in the city became almost intolerable, and finally the ’’infamous” general was succeeded by General Banks who undertook to heal the gaping wounds left bleeding by his unworthy predecessor. 13 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1862. 4 Howe, William W., "Municipal History of New Orleans,” Johns Hopkins University Studies; 1889, p. 16. 15 Parton, James, General Butler in New Orleans, 1864. Ojo. Cjt., p. 18. The Strong Arm of the Military Mention of the Freedmen’s Bureau which was pari? of the military.regime has been made elsewhere, but with no particular application to this city. The educational department of this arm of the military forces proceeded to establish schools in all conquered regions for negro chil-17 dren, and evening classes for negro adults.. According to the report of John B. Carter, City Superintendent of schools, this bureah had charge of 78 schools for negroes in the City and adjacent territory. It is recorded that these schools employed 125 teachers, and enrolled 8,000 pupils out of a total number of some 15,000 negro educables. In commenting on the qualifications of the teachers employed by the Bureau, Thomas W. Conway, a deputy in the Bureau staff, and who had charge of the educational department, st&tes that theteachers were educated, cultured, noble women, most of then from the South, and that the schools were operated on a high level of efficiency If the newspaper accounts are of any significance, and they must relate at least a part of the truth, the statement concerning Southern women teachers instructing these negro chil dren being educated and cultured is an exaggeration that is colored but lightly with the truth. Certainly, no Southern white woman would teach in a negro school in that day, and since there were only a few schools of higher learning for whites, and practically none for the negroes, it is absurd to speak of a group of around 125 educated, cultured negro women school teachers in one State in the South, at the close of the civil war, all of whom had been brought up in the South. Perhaps the Southern news writers have exaggerated in saying that the whole educational scheme on the part of this arm of the military was a farce of the worst sort. Such an attitude and position would naturally be expected of such papers as The New Orleans Times, The Picayune, The Delta, et.al.; on the other hand one would expect that The New York Tinges, The Herald, The Cincinnati Inquirer, et.al., all of which might, and under normal conditions would be considered thoroughly reliable, to be found defending a contrary position. Somewhere in between these two extreme., points of view, one will discover that the true status of affairs was. 17 Bureau of Freedmen and Abandoned Lands, Report, 1865. 18 Carter, Op. Pit., Educational Conditions in New Orleans, 1864 In reporting to the State legislaturecconcerning the New Orleans public schools, the State Superintendent of Pub-19 lie Education has this to say: As for public education in the city of New Orleans, we are happy to be able to say that the case is quite different from what it is in the rural districts. By an Act of the legislature passed in 1841, the city was fully empowered to attend to the education of her own children, and nobly has she done it. (This act is mentioned in the section entitled: Legislation Providing Public Schools in Louisiana) She makes her schools absolutely free; and consequently, in them, the rich and poor enter alike. The daughter born to wealth, sits on the same form with the child of poverty; end the son of a poor washer-woman very likely outranks in his class room reputation, the son of a banker. This is as it should be in a true and enlightened republic. The people of New Orleans may well feel proud of their excellent public schools, and deeply grateful to those worthy gentlemen who plannend and for so many years administered them. The City Superintendent, in his report to the State Superintendent, in the same year, states that within the last two years, very many changes in the administration of the public schools of the City had transpired, in substance 20 following: Soon after the reestablishment of the power and laws of the National government in New Orleans, early in 1862, an ordinance was passed under which the city schools were reorganized. The general, control and management of them was entrusted to a Bureau of Education, which was authorized to appoint a Board of Visitors for each municipal district, and one Superintendent for the entire city. The sum of $220,000 was appropriated to defray the expenses of the first year, and after almost as brief an intermission as in a time of profound peace, the regular session of the schools commenced. The most prominent and beneficial acts of the bureau of education were those which provided for the establishment of uniformity in the regulations, and in the text books used throughout the schools, and for the adoption of the English 21 as the sole medium of instruction. In the course of study assigned to the high schools, special provision was made for thorough instruction in the elements of the French language, so fondly cherished by a large and respectable portion of the community, and so much appreciated abroad, especially at that time, as a medium of international intercourse. Course of study adopted and employed in the New Orleans 23 schools during the yearllB64. Course of Study for High Schools--Boys First Year Reading Exercises, fifth reader, national series; English grammar, Quackenbos’ reviewed; Willard 1 s Universal History; Quackenbos’ natural philosophy; Perkins’ Practical arithmetic; Davies 1 Bourdon Algebra; Levizac’s French Grammar Harkness-Arnold ’s Latin Lessons; Composition and Declamation semi monthly. Second Year Rhetoric, Ancient Geography; History and Chronology; Chemistry; Algebra, concluded Geometry and Trigonometry French; Latin; Greek; Composition and Declamation monthly. Thir d Year Mental and Moral Philosophy; Chemistry; Astronomy; Surveying and Navigation; Bookkeeping. French —Grammar and Composition; Latin--Virgil with Grammar; Greek; General review of all studies before final Examination. 24 Course of Study for High Schools--Girls First Year Reading exercises, fifth reader, national series; English Grammar; Rhetoric; Universal History Arithmetic; Algebra; French; Composition monthly. Second Year 1 Select Readings; Rhetoric; Natural Philosophy; Botany; Algebra; French--Grammar and exercises; Third Year Select Readings and Composition; English literature; Mental and Moral Philosophy; Ancient Geography; History and Chronology; Astronomy. Compo s i t i on--monthly. Geometry ■ Chemis try French General review of studies before final examinations. Course of Study for Primary and Intermediate 25 Schools Alphabet, Webb’s Normal Cards; Spelling, Webster’s Speller; Formation of letters and figures on slate and blackboard; Elementary tables of Arithmetic; Reading; Writing; Geography; Arithmetic. Orthography; Penmanship; English Grammar; United States History; Composition. Condition of Schools in New Orleans, 1867-68 29 The single Act of the legislature of 1867, pertaining to public education, provided that the City of New Orleans be constituted into one public school district for the gratuitous education of the white children residing therein; provided, That any children of the proper age residing temporarily in the city, and mentally qualified for admission in the public schools therein established, should not be debarred from the privileges of the same by reason of such temporary residence. The Act further provided that all persons residing in the adjoining parishes should have the right to send their children to said public schools, when of the proper age, and possessing the requisite qualifications] upon paying a pro-rata of the expenses of educating such children; such pro-rata to be fixed by the board of directors of said public schools. The common council of the city was directed to elect annually, a board of directors for the management and control cf said schools: provided, that thettemr of the members of said board should be so regulated by the common coundil that the seats of only one-third of the whole board should be vacated annually. According to Superintendent Conway, the New Orleans Schools had attained to a very high degree of - efficiencybby 1867; but nothing compared to what they might do, when 30 left unhindered. On April 9, 1867, Ethan A. Allen, one member of a committee which had been appointed by President Andrew Johnson to investigate conditions in Louisiana, reported to the 31 chief Executive on the New Orleans situation as follows: I have been here for several days and inixed much with the people, and I find the most perfect good will and feeling existing toward the Federal Government. There is not the slightest desire on their par to oppose the power of your administration. The only turbulent spirits to be found here are Northern men who really appear to be in the interest of the radical element in the Eastern States; their whole aim and ambition is to foment trouble and they are ready at any to get up any excitement which may be damaging to the harmonious working of the government, and make some political capital for that party in the.North,to the injury of the South. 19 McNair, Or. Cit., 1864, p. 7. 20 Carter, Op. Cit., 1864. Orleans Bureau of Education, Acts, 1864. Op. Cit•, p. 26. 23 McNair, Op. Pit., p. 27. 24 Ibid., p. 28. 27 The South-Western, Shreveport, Louisiana, August Sth, 1866. 28 The New York Times, October 28, 1866 29 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 186 7, Act No. 107, p. 203 30 Conway, Op. Cit., p. 9. Types of Schools High Schools: Number of Schools Number Enrolled Boys 4 149 Girls 4 228 8 377 Table 43 Statistics relative to the New Orleans Schools, 1864.22 Primary and Intermediate 36 12,134 Grand Total 12,511 The New Orleans Riot The members of the Constitutional Convention, 25 in number, met on July 30, 1866, in the Mechanic’s Institute Building, New Orleans, for the purpose of considering the framing of a new constitution for the State, to supercede the one adopted in 1864, which was no objectionable, At that time, a negro procession comprising about 100 persons, arrived in the vicinity of the Mechanics 1 Institution. They had fife and drum, and a United States flag, and some were armed. The riot was occasioned by this procession, according to General Sheridan’s report to the Pre si dent. A shot was fired by a negro in the procession, and the rioting began in front of the building where the convention was assembled. Several negroes rushed into the building; there were some in the hall already. The police, who had been held in readiness by the Mayor, arrived on the scene during the rioting, when brickbacks were flying everywhere. A shot was fired, and there was a fight in the street between the policemen and the negroes; the latter were dispersed, and the policemen, according to some accounts, fired through 26 the windows into the building. A mob of several hundred rabble from the citizens and some firemen began to attack the negroes and killed a number who were trying to escape from the building. A white flag had been displayed by the members of the convention; but the policemen, infuriated by the resistance they had encountered in the street, and in the building, paid no attention to the token of surrender. Judge Howell and Ex-Govennor Hahn escaped almost miraculously; among the mortally wounded was D . Dostie, who, though unarmed, had been shot and beaten till he was apparently dead. The number of persons killed was probably 48, all negroes, except four, and 68 were severely wounded, and 98 slightly wounded. It is thought now-a-days, by many writers, that the members of Congress who were preparing the reconstruction law, were indirectly responsible for the bloody result. The South-Western, a Shreveport daily paper, has this 27 to say: The riot between the whites and the blacks here (New Orleans) on the 30th ult., was indeed disgraceful. No one is more ashamed of it than the citizens of New Orleans. There is no use of going into the details as to the cause or causes; these are well known. The rioting which began in the street near the Mechanics’ Institute, was carried on until-late in the afternoon, when the Military turned out and took possession, Some two hundred or mere negroes were either injured rather severely or killed, and about 40 white men. In support of a statement made in a previous paragraph, relative to certain members of Congress, and their responsibility for the New Orleans Riot, we have the following 28 from the Nev/ York Times; It is reported on good authority that Governor Wells and Judge Howell (one of those who escaped almost miraculously), who claims to be president of the constitutional convention of 1864, are about reconvening that body, and that they have ordered elections to fill vacancies. The Governor says that he has assurances from leading members of Congress that he will be sustained by force, if necessary. 25 McNair, Op. Cit. , p. 28 2 sJ?ortier, On. Cit., p. 85 Classification and Administration of New Orleans Schools 1867-68 The New Orleans public schools at the beginning of Congressional Reconstruction were of three types: Primary, or lower schools; Grammar, or intermediate schools; and High Schools. The consolidation of the schools of the four municipal districts, a measure effected during the war; the steady increase of pupils in the lowest departments: the increased facilities of conveyance, and communication afforded by the street railways, all tended to a gradual reduction in 32 the number of separate schools of higher grade. The annual appropriation by the Common Council for the support of the New Orleans Public Schools in 1868, was $360,000. This amount was used to defray the expense of the entire school program of the city, covering salaries of officers, teachers, and other employees, rent on new buildings, and the repair of those buildings belonging to the city, the furnishing of all supplies, such as books, stationery, fuel, furniture, etc. For the year 1867, the cost of instructing each pupil in the schools in the city for white children, including the three high schools, was $27.80, and in the schools for the colored children, chiefly of a primary grade, $18.76. The appropriation for that year was the same as for 1868; yet, the cost per pupil, applied to the actual attendants would have caused the expenses for 1868 to exceed $400,000. In the face of this deficiency, it is evident that the Directors were compelled to practice the closest economy in order to make ends meet. *AII the pupils pass under instruction of the respective teachers. In the United States Commissioner’s report for the .year 1867-1868, we find a very intere stirg comparison of expenses of public schools in the principal cities of the United States. Moreover, the average daily attendance, and total number of teachers are given. Average cost per pupil in Average Daily Attendance was, New Orleans, #27.80; San Francisco, $27.37 1/2; St. Louis, $21.73; Chicago, $28.03. The entire expense of day schools in these cities in this same year was, New Orleans, $338, 027.63. The Total Population of these cities was, New Orleans, 170,312; San Francisco, 149,473; St. Louis, 179, 864; Chicago, 187, 411. The total school population of these cities in this year was, New Orleans, 56,211; San Francisco, 27,897; St. Louis, 63,512; Chicago, 69,318. New Orleans Teachers--Salaries and Qualifications Of the total annual appropriation made for the New Orleans schools for the year 1868, about $215,000 of the amount was paid for the salaries of teachers in the schools for white children, and about $45,000 to teachers in the schools for colored children. The salaries were uniform for teachers of the same grade throughout the city. For example, male principals of Grammar schools received $l5OO per annum; female principals, $l2OO. First assistants of male schools, $lOOO, and of schools for girls, $BOO per annum. Second assistants or first primary teachers, received $660 per annum, and third assistants or second primary teachers, received $6OO, being the lowest salaries paid to teachers in 37 any of the schools. In commenting upon the qualifications of his teaching 38 staff, Superintendent Rogers states: That the teachers are very generally competent and faithful. Many of them have gained the most ample experience by years of successful labor. It is required of all applicants for teacherships, that they possess certificates of qualification from the committee on teachers, or diplomas as graduates of our city High Schools, or other institutions of the same grade. Our High Schools annually send forth those who desire to become teachers, and who only experience to insure success. Colored Schools in New Orleans in 1869 The City superintendent reports that sixteen of the city public schools were used exclusively for the instruction of colored children. There were 59 teachers employed in these schools, with an average daily attendance of 3,050 pupils. The amount expended for the education of colored children in 47 this year was $62,000, classified as follows: Salaries of teachers $46,620 Amount paid for rents 10,776 Wages of portresses 3,600 Coal, books and supplies 1,004 Total ' 62,000 The above amount was taken out of the appropriation made for white children, in order that the colored children might share in the benefits of a formal education. In keeping with a statement just made in a previous paragraph, concerning the control of the Nev/ Orleans schools, the State Superintendent has a word to say. In his report to the State legislature in January 1870, for the year 1869, the Superintendent points out the fact, that owing to a lack of definiteness in the legislative act regulating public education, the public schools in the city of New Orleans have not come under the control of the State Board of Education. ’’Although the intention of the law is evidently to give these schools, in common with all other public schools of the State, into the charge of the State Board, the law fails to make the intention so clear that it cannot be evaded; and the result has been the refusal of the old board of directors of the Nev; Orleans schools to transfer the control and supervision thereof to the directors appointed under the Act of 1869.” The appeal to the courts was fruitless, and the Super intendent made an appeal to the legislature to straighten outh the difficulty by clarifying, beyond a shadow of a doubt, the intent of the law of 1869, relative to the New 48 Orleans schools. Under date of January 12, 1870, the New Orleans Advocate carried an article in which the school board of the 49 city was attacked. The article in part, follows: The Board of School Directors appointed under the old regime by the City Council, have thus far been enabled to defy the law and retain the charge of the schools, though we think the fact is pregnant in the minds of all good citizens who have the public interest at heart, that some immediate change in desirable tha t will relieve the schools from a rule that has become particularly onerous and opprobrious. We are in possession of facts whic will in due time be laid before the public, that may perhaps explain why the office of school Director for the city of New Orleans should have been so very desirable and held on to with such marked tenacity. A position purely honorary could hardly be expected to be sought for with such determination and held to so cautiously. In a November issue of the Advocate, we find a lengthy charge against the New Orleans school board, because they re fuse to mix the schools; that is, to admit negro children into the schools that white children attend. The article states that there is no longer either reason or excuse for keeping the public schools of New Orleans closed to the negro race; nor can any of them be kept closed against colored children, when they are again in operation. It is claimed that the best element of the copulation of the city 50 favor mixed attendance. In 1870, a new Superintendent was selected for the Sixth Division and the Nev; Orleans schools. The following is an abstract of the annual report for this city, prepared 51 by Mr. Carter: Number of educables between 6 and 21 years of age 99,893 Number of public schools in the city 67 Number of High Schools 4 Number of Primary schools 9 Number of Intermediate schools 16 Number of Grammar schools 38 Number of pupils enrolled in all the schools: Males ‘ 8,373 Females 8,769 17,142 Average number in attendance 11,616 Number of teachers employed: Males 25 Females 350 375 Total amount of salary paid teachers per month $24,525.05 Average salary per month throughout the system 65.66 Type of teaching certificate held, Women: First Grade 118 Second Grade 115 Third Grade 117 Type of teaching certificate held, Men: First Grade 23 Second Grade 2 Concerning salaries paid New Orleans school teachers in 1871, we have the following statistics from the report of the United States Commissioner of Education.s3 Globe, 1867. William 0., Superintendent * s Report of_ Nev/ Orleans Schools, 1867-68. 34 Rogers, Op. Pit., 1867. 35 United States Commissioner of* Education, Report, 1871, p. 410. ‘ ' $ Rogers, Op. Cit. , 1868. 46 Ibid. On. Cit., 1869. 4ft Conway, Op. Cit«, 1870, p. 9 49 New Orleans Advocate and Journal of Education, 1870, Jan., 12. sQ lbid., November, 16. John 8., Report of Sixth Division Superintendent, 1870. 52 Carter, Cjt. , 1870. Municipal No. of No. of Districts Schools Teachers No. of Pupils Average Pupils per Teacher Total No. of Registered Pupils White Schools High Schools: 3 18 302 * 416 Table 44 Table showing number and distribution of schools, teach ers and punils in the rub lie schools of New Orleans for the year 1867. 54 1st District 11 75 4075 54 6218 2nd District 9 62 2814 47 39 72 3rd District 10 67 3011 44 3807 4th District 6 42 1976 47 2777 Total 39 264 12178 17190 Negro Schools 1st District 5 14 1001 71 1725 2nd District 3 12 542 45 871 3rd District 3 12 626 52 882 4th District 5 14 646 39 899 Total 16 52 2815 4378 Grand Total 55 316 14993 21568 Name of City Year A.D.A.* Number of Teachers Total Total Average Salaries Annual Salary M F. New Orleans 1867-68,12,178 32 284 316 $213,329.56 $675.00 San Francisco ” ” 10,177,33 220 253 209,874.75 829.52 St. Louis ” " 10,029,27 250 277 167,07]..15 603.15 Chicago " " 15,413,27 292 319 227,524.97 713.24 *A.B.A. me schools. ans average daily i attendan ce of punils in the Table 44 1/2 A comparative study of nubile schools of four of the 35 largest cities of the United States in 1867-1868 Municipal No. of Districts Schools No. of Teacher No. of s Pupils Average Pupils No. Registered per Teacher Pupils Tor Whites High Schools 3 18 329 * 417 1st District 10 78 4101 52 6758 2nd District 9 62 2983 48 4236 3rd District 10 67 3217 48 4024 4th District 7 44 2260 51 2944 Total 39 269 12890 18379 For Colored 1st District 4 13 877 67 1052 2nd District 3 12 621 52 707 3rd District 3 14 858 61 1037 4th District 4 14 579 41 830 Total 14 53 2935 2626 *A11 the pupils pass under instruction of the respe ctive teachers. Table 45 Table showing number and distribution of schools, teachers and punils in the Public Schools of New Orleans for the year Officers ; Employees and Teachers Porters Rents Repairs Total and Supplies $4,073.40 $293,927.65 $20,001.15 $25,004.60 $30,803.15 $373,809.95 Salary of Supt. from May 1, 1870 to December 31, 1870 1,666.65 Salary of Secretary Board of School Directors, April ■ to December 1,240.00 Grand Total $376,716.60 Table 48 Statement of expenses of the Public Schools of New Orleans for the year 1870. 52 1 Superintendent, #4,000 2 Men teachers $9 60.00 1 Assistant Supt. 3,000 1 Man teacher 900.00 1 Secretary 1,800 31 Women teachers, 1,200.00 1 Assistant Secty. 600 8 Women teachers, 1,020.00 1 Custodian 2,100 19 Women teachers, 1,000.00 1 Librarian 2,300 7 Women teachers, 960.00 1 Man teacher 2,500 1 Woman teacher, 942.00 5 Men teachers, 1,800 31 Women teachers, 800.00 3 Men teachers, Men teachers, 1,200 1 Woman teacher, 720.00 4 1,000 63 123 Women teachers, Women teachers, 660.00 600.00 Total Salaries for the New Orleans Schools,1781, $248,442.00 Table 48 1/2 Statement of salaries paid Superintendent and teachers in the New Orleans public schools, 1871. Schools for Colored Children Up to September Ist 1867, no provisions had been made by the State authorities for the education of the children of freedmen, the existing State laws providing only for the education of white children. The city of Jefferson took the initiative in this matter by assuming the charge of the two schools formerly established there by the Freedmen 1 s 39 Bureau. The city of Jefferson was followed by the city of Nev; Orleans in an Ordinance of the Common Council, promulgated 40 October 3rd, 1867, as follows: An Ordinance To amend an Ordinance entitled, "An Ordinance for the administration of the Public Schools of New Orleans," number 154, approved July 11, 1866. Article 1. Be it ordained by the common council of the city of New Orleans, That in furtherance of the Act of the legislature approved March 27, 1867, the term of office of one-third of the Board of Directors of the public Schools shall expire on the first Tuesday in July, 1867, one-third on the first Tuesday of duly 1869; that upon the passage of this ordinance, it shall be the duty of the board of school directors to determine by lot the three classes above mentioned, and all vacancies arising from expired terms shallbe filled by election of the common council on the third Tuesday of Tune of each year. Article 2. The Board of School Directors as above organized shall have the power to establish public schools for the education of colored children; to appoint the teachers thereto, and to perform such other acts as shall be necessary for the adiminstration and government cf the same; and that for the maintenance and support of such schools for colored children, the sum of #70,000 is hereby appropriated, the same to be over and above the appropriation already made for the support of the public schools of the city of New Orleans, during the current year. Article 3. The committee on teachers elected by the board of school directors shall consist of five members instead of four only, as prescribed by Article 5, of Ordinance No. 154. Article 4. All parts of said Ordinance No. 154 of which this is amendatory, in conflict with the foregoing, are hereby repealed, and all parts of said Ordinance not in conflict with the foregoing are continued in force. On. Cit. , 1868. 38 Ibid. 40 Laws and General Ordinances of New Orleans, October 3, 1867. 39 Conway, o£. Cit. , 1867-68, p. 10. Mixing the Schools in New Orleans The General School Act of the legislature in 1869, carried out the spirit of the Constitution of the previous year. The most objectionable feature of the general act to the people of the State was the provision for Mixed Schools. During 1869 and 1870, the State Superintendent made a desperate effort to mix the races in the public schools. The legislature passed a law imposing severe penalties upon any person who refused to admit to any public school of the State, a pupil on account of'"race, or color or previous condition . n Ihe attempt to enforce this lav; in the public schools of New Orleans was immediately and emphatically resisted. Colored children, instigated to apply for admission to white schools, were firmly refused admittance by the teachers, under the directions of the city school board. In several instances, where the colored pupils had been admitted, upon a concerted movement, large companies of parents visited schools and required the obnoxious classes to withdraw. Great excitement prevailed in the city, and it seemed for a time as if serious trouble would result. By degrees, the excitement subsided, and colored children were placed in their own schools. An equitable distribution of school funds and buildings was made, and the arrangement has since 41 existed to the satisfaction of both races. This does not mean that the effort was not tried again; it was, but with no appreciable success. Lieutenant Governor, Pinchback, who was a member of the New Orleans school board, forced his son into one of the white schools, and it is probable that a few other influential negroes did likewise. Moreover, it is reported that one negro teacher named Edmonds, was placed in charge of the department of mathematics in the Boys’ High School, with the result that the boys would not report to his classes, and he had no pupils to teach. The general school Act of 1869 was only slightly modified the following year. That part of the Act which pertains to New Orleans, provided for a Board of School Directors for the city, six of whom were to be selected by the State Board of Education, and five members to be chosen by the Common Council of the City of New Orleans; the tenure of office to be two years. It was further stated that this board would have complete charge of educational affairs in their territory; that the Superintendent of the sixth Division, which included New Orleans and Orleans Parish, should be appointed by the Governor, and at a salary of $2500. The city board was also given authority to select a Secretary to be employed by the School board at a salary of SIBOO per annum. The City Directors of the Board of Education in New Orleans 42 to. serve without compensation. In 1871 another Act was passed by the legislature which repealed the one of the previous year, concerning the organization of the New Orleans School Board and the management of the schools. 43 The principal provisions of this Act were: That the State Board of Education should appoint the New Orleans Board of School Directors to be composed of one member from each Representative district of the city: that these Directors should be divided into three classes, and all to hold office for a period of three years, except that in the case of the first Board appointed: one-third to be appointed for one year, one-third for two years, and onethird for three years; that this board so appointed should have control of the public schools in the city, and should be a body corporate and politic. The board "was empowered to employ a secretary at a salary of $2OOO per annum, payable on the warrant of the president of the board, out of such funds as might come into the hands of the board of directors Furthermore, that the board of school directors should ascertain at the beginning of the year the amount of fhnds necessary to carry forward the schools for the year; report this amount to the Board of Administrators of the City, and this board in turn to levy and collect the amount needed. The salary of the Superintendent of the Sixth Division who was also Superintendent of the New Orleans City schools, to be increased from $2500 to $4OOO per annum; also, that the Superintendent be allowed a secretary and one or more messengers, at an aggregate expense of not more than $2500 per annum. We shall present the statistics first, dealing with the schools in 1869 and 1870. Perhaps, but very little discussion is needed, as figures speak loudly for themeslves to him who is able to read them intelligently. Moreover, it is assumed that he who has patience sufficient to peruse these pages should like to discover the facts in a space whose dimensions are as small as possible. Practically all of the above appropriation was raised by local taxation--only a meager amount came from the State treasury. Mr. Rogers, in commenting on this point states that with the exception of about $25,000, the City was entirely neglected in the distribution of the State fund. One explanation of this action on the part of the State Board is the fact that there was at this time, a suit pending in the courts, the purpose of which was to determine the legal controling board of the New Orleans Schools; whether the State or the City should control. Moreover, the amount received from the State always went directly into the General treasury of the City, and formed no part of the appropriation for the city schools, directly. Rogers makes an interesting comment on his High Schools 46 at this time, as follows: In the three city high school-s, there are now 540 pupils in attendance. The course of instructio,n is extended through four years in the New Orleans Central High School,, which is exclusively for males, and through three years in the two high schools for young ladies. At the end of the last annual term, December 23, ultimo, diplomas were conferred upon 70 graduates who,had honorably completed the full course of study. About of the admissions to these schools remain to the end of the course; a fact entitled to consideration in estimating their usefulness, and not to be overlooked in forming a correct opinion of their success, under present administration. 41 Fortier, Op. Cit., p. 268. 42 "Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1870, Act No. 6. 4 3lbid., 1871, Act No. 8. 44Rogers, , 1869 45 Rogers, Op. Cit., 1869. Municipal Number Number Number Average Pupils No. Pupils Districts Schools Teachers Pupils per Teacher Registered For White: High Schools 3 18 424 * 510 1st District 12 78 4405 57 6579 2nd District 9 61 2863 47 3821 3rd District 10 62 3029 49 3902 4th District 8 50 2451 49 3247 269 13172 51 18059 Table 46 Table showing the number and distribution of schools, teachers, and punils in the public schools of New Orleans for the year 1869. 44 For cola? ed 1st District 5 16 910 51 1553 2nd Di stri ct 3 10 574 57 915 3rd District 5 18 899 49 1563 4th Distri ct 3 15 59 2 33 1194 Total 16 59 2975 48 5225 Grand Total 58 328 16147 48 23284 Table 47 The appropriation for 1869 for the support of all the schools in the City was $350,000. The monthly nay rolls show the following classification of disbursements: 45 Salaries of Officers 112,280.15 Salaries of Teachers 261,997.45 Custodians of Buildings 17,971.50 Rents of School houses 29,771.45 School house repairs 16,890.10 School furniture 3,990.65 Books and Stationery 4,356.00 Printing and Advertising 935.85 Coal 1,199.20 Supplies for depository 607.65 Total $350,000.00 Teachers Convention 1872 The first State Teachers’ Convention ever held in Louisiana convened in New Orleans, May 23 to 26, 1872. This was the first effort on the part of the teachers to get together on a state-wide scale, for the purpose of discussing their common problems. This gathering was well attended by both white and negro teachers from the various parts of the State. Ex- Governor Hahn, at that time a member of the New Orleans School Board, presided at the meeting, and Lieutenant-Governor Pinchbeck (negro) was vice chairman. Mr. Hahn made an excellent address in which he made a plea for harmony and a restoration of good feeling between the races, and an honest and efficient administration of the schools. Retiring Superintendent Conway was also present, and made a considerably exaggerated report of public school conditions over the State, and especially in New Orleans. Speaking of this city, Conway stated that four hundred or more teachers were employed and that these instructed some 20,000 children. The New Orleans school fund amounted to a little more than $200,000, and as the city council would not support the school properly, Conway points out the fact that the school board overcame the obstacle by issuing warrants to the teachers. But he failed to remark that the teachers carried these same warrants around formonths and months, attempting to get them cashed at their face value, and that finally, because ef absolute necessity, they sold them for as little as thirty cents on the dollar. Presently, we shall present a gist of the newly elected State Superintendent’s report for this same year, in which we shall point out a number of discrepancies. Concerning the Teachers 1 convention, we observe that Honorable Horace Greeley, Editor of the Nev/ York Tribune, was invited to speak to this convention, but for some unexplained reason he never attended. One rather singular thing happened at this first State Teachers 1 Convention. The newly elected State Superintendent Brown, colored, was present, hut was not even introduced to the convention. One might surmise that he was unaccustomed to apearing in public, but perhaps an explanation which comes nearer the truth is that this convention was ashamed of the superintendent. 53 United States Commissioner of Education. Report, 1871 p. 406. Division Superintendent Carter, makes the following observation concerning the New Orleans Schools in 1872. There is no doubt that our schools are believed in and cherished by the people, and that ample pecuniary provisions for them will be generally sustained. It is doubtful if ever before, in any part of the country there has been an instance of a school establishment so extensive as ours, going on in its great work with accustomed regularity and system, from the commencement to the end of the year; with absolutely no reliable revenue and with the salaries of the 400 teachers engaged paid only in certificates, at a heavy discount. Carter makes a plea for the introduction of technical studies in the boys* high school. He acknowledges the fact that only introductory courses in mechanical arts can be offered in the high school, but had an idea that the so-called practical courses were more beneficial to high school boys than the language courses. Moreover, an introduction of Military exercises was urged on the part of the Superintendent, for the Boys’ high school. Just to what extent the superintendent’s recommendation was complied with, we shall see in our discussion dealing with the Curricula. *The grades of these 71 schools were primary, Intermediate, Grammar, and High Schools. **There were 9,760 males, and 10,059 females; ***There were 35 male teachers and 370 female teachers. A commencement program of the Central High School, boys, for 1872 is herewith presented, in order that we may appreciate the type work manjr of these youngsters were doubtless 56 majoring in, and the large emphasis laid upon it. 1. Salutatory, Fred V/. Parham 2. Is honesty the best policy? (Original debate) Hugh S. Wright, Charles A. Franke, Thomae C. Caufield, and Thomas W. Judge. 3. Imitation, (Original, declamation) John A. Anderson 4. The Pearl, (English Composition) Thomas P. Currey 5. Enlightened Government, (Original, declamation) Beni. W. Hirsch. 6. Choice of a Profession (Original, declamation) Robert G. Hadden. 7. Absalom, (recitation) C. p. Ellis, (Second Year) 8. Money (Original poem) John A. McLean 9. Conceit, (English Composition) H. Govan 10. Signs of the Times (Original, declamation) Max Stern 11. L f Amour de la Patrie, (Original declamation) William J. Daunoy. 12. Parting Address to the Seniors, (Original) Master Bres (Junior). 13. Valedictory, A. J. Edmund From the above program, one may be able to get a little insight into the type of work in which these youngsters were engaged during their high school days. They were long in their debates and declamations of an original sort; and, per haps, it would do no violencd to say that larger stress was laid upon the creative type of thinking and learning than upon purely memoritor activity. Op. Cit. , 1872. 55 Brown, Op. Cit,, 1872, p. 182. sS Carter, Op. Cit., 1872. Number Number Number Grade of Number Number Average Districts Educables Schools Schools Pupils Teachers Monthly Salary 13 90,166 71 71* 19,819** 405 *** #72.86 Table 49 Recapitulation of general statistics of public schools in the Sixth Division, New Orleans, 1872 Public Schools in New Orleans, 1873 A school Bill which passed by the legislature in January, 1873 and received the approval of the Governor, February 21, following, placed the New Orleans Public School System directly under the General supervision of the State Superintendent, and the State Board of Education. The chief features of the Act, relative to the New Orleans situation 57 are: That the board ofschool directors for the city of New Orleans shall be in the future composed of 20 directors, to with: one from each representative district, as at present constituted, and one additional director for each municipal district, the administrator of Finance of the City, who shall be ex-officio a member, and the superintendent of the sixth division, who shall be ex-officio a member, with the right to speak but not the right to vote in the board. Thet the State Board of Education shall appoint all the directors; That the city council shall, upon receipt of an estimate for school support from the board of directors, make provision for the support of the public schools. For said support, the city council shall lay a tax of not less than one-fourth of one per cent on the taxable valuation of all property in the city of New Orleans; That there shall be appointed by the board of school directors a committed on teachers, who shall examine applicahts for employment, as teachers. The superintendent of the sixth division shall be required to attend and assist at all the examinations of said committee; That the teachers and employees of the board of directors of the public schools of the city of New Orleans shall be appointed by the said board at such rate of annual salary as may be fixed, and to continue until otherwise ordered by the board. Teachers 1 Certificates In compliance with the provision of the foregoing Act 36, which has to do with the certification of teachers, a committee was appointed by the New Orleans school board to examine applicants who desired to teach in the New Orleans schools. This committee of examiners reported in October 58 to the Board, as follows: The examination for the teachers lasted four days. There were present for the teachers’ examination, 180 applicants, out of which number, 63 were successful. These were divided into three classes. All those receiving a percentage of 86 and upward were placed in class One; those receiving from 81 to 85 were placed in class Two; while the Third class consists of those having obtained a percentage of from 75 to 80. The classes were equal in number —21 in each class. The successful candidates were awarded certificates. Those of the First class received Principal’s certificates; those of the Second class, first Assistants’, and those of the Third class received third assistant’s certificates, which entitle them to teach either as second or third assistants. The average salary per month for high school teachers was $139.63; of the grammar school teachers, $67.86; of the intermediate school teachers, $66.68; of the primary school teachers, $74.98; or an average salary for the entire system of the City of $87.28. If these data are to be relied upon,,we shall have to say that the salaries, especially, were very good, when we consider the conditions which obtained in New Orleans at that time. From the tabular statements preceding, it appears that there was a considerable increase in the number of pupils enrolled and attending over that of the previous year. These pupils were in charge of 32 male and 384 female teachers, making a total of 416 teachers. Seventy three school buildings were occupied for public school purposes, containing 396 rooms. The average number of pupils to a teacher was 40; the total number of scholars enrolled for the year was 20,263; daily attendance, 13,388; the average roll 16,382. Salary Schedule The committee on grading of schools and equalizing of salaries of the teachers in the New Orleans schools, which was appointed by the City school board, in 1873, arranged the schools into two grades, grammar and primary. These were subdivided into two divisions each—class A and class B. Schools —Grammar grade, Class A Grammar Grade, Class B Schools"-Primary grade, Class A Primary grade, Class B The following salaries•were affixed to different grades 61 and subgrades as per above schedule. CLASS A Grammar grade, A, Principals, rate per annum $l5OO Grammar grade, A, First assistants, 1000 Grammar grade, A, Adjunct, rate per annum 900 Grammar grade, A, Second assistant 780 Grammar grade, A, All below second assistants 600 GLASS B Grammar grade, B, Principals, rate per annum 1200 Grammar grade, B, Firstaassistants * 900 Grammar grade, B, Second assistants 720 Grammar grade, B, All below second assistants 600 CL AS3 A Primary grade, A, Principals, rate per annum 1000 Primary grade, A, First assistants 780 Primary grade, A, Second assistants 660 Primary grade. A, All below second assistants 600 CLASS B Primary grade, B, principals, rate per annum 900 Primary grade, B, First assistants ' 720 Primary grade, B, Second assistants 660 Primary grade, B, All below second assistants 600 The result of the foregoing arrangement was that sone salaries were increased considerably, while others were lowered a little. However, there were fewer reductions than increases. The committee endeavored to make the classification on the basis of scholarship and teaching load. Financial Statement of New Orleans Schools, 1873 The enactment of the legislature of 1373 made it possible for the City of New Orleans to levy a school tex of one-fourth of one per cent upon all property valuations. It was estimated that if collected, this would give the school board about $340,000 additional for the support of the public schools in the city. However, at the end of the first year, only $93,00) had been received; the collections were very, very slow. 62 Receipts of School Funds 1873 From State From Corporate Authorities Grand Total Apportionments $6,311.62 22,541.50 19,836.52 45,083.52 $575.00 50,529.29 25,495.31 33,668.80 46,831.63 3,563.41 $285,436.60 Disbursements of the School Funds: Salaries of teachers and employees $352,960.16 Salaries of porters and porteresses 23,928.15 Rent of school houses 36,933.55 Repairs on school houses 10*738.85 Stationery and printing 2*290.60 Fuel 3*967.50 Books and charts 2 584.35 School furniture 10 Sanitary and Fertilizing Company 79 Attorney and Court fees 1 1.861.15 Supplies--hrooms, buckets, soap, et. 3 125 20 Indi dentals * 1*659’.20 Total “$454,783.00 Paid in School Certificates 169,346.40 Paid in United States Currency Total The Curricula of High Schools It is interesting to observe the nature of the curricula found in the High Schools in New Orleans in 1873. There was quite a lit ole difference between the programs for boys and girls; therefore, they are both presented herewith for 63 our study. First Year Central High School for Boys Composition, Arithmetich, Natural First lessons First Drawins general (reviewed) Philosophy in Latin; Lessons and History Algebra Latin reader; in French Bookkeeping Second Year Rhetoric, Ancient and Modern History Geometry Chemistry Caesar, Latin Grammar, Greek First Year Continued First Year Continued Third year Rhetoric, (Completed) Mental Philosophy Trigonometry, and Surveying Organic Chemistry, (Completed) Astronomy Virgil, Greek Reader French Grammar Second Year Continued Fourth Year Moral Phil- osophy, Elements of Criticism Mechanics, Civil Engineering Geology- Virgil, (Completed) Cicero, Xenophon 1 s Anabasis Third Third Year Year Continued Continued 64 Girls’ High Schools First Year Engli sh Grammar reviewed, Elements of Composition, Rhetoric, Elements of General History Arithmetic reviewed, Tower * s Mental Algebfa Botany, Physiology Beginner's French Reader Exercises Abstracts Music (Undercharge of Special Teacher) Junior or Second Year Rhetoric, (Completed) Gen. History, (Completed) English Literature Robinson’s University Algebra Natural Philosophy French ■ Grammar First Year Continued First Year Continued English Literatur e Intellectual Philosophy Senior or Third Year Chemistry, Astronomy, Moral Philosophy Literary and Exercises, Paper edited by pupils Elements of Geometry French Grammar Reader First Continued Entrance Examinations We could hardly afford to pass from the first report of Division Superintendent Boothby’s administration of the New Orleans schools, without making some mention of the type of examination which was required of every boy or girl who entered one of the high schools. In other words, this examination was a high school entrance examination —no one got in without successfully passing it. Some sample ques-65 tions and problems of this examination, follow: United States History 1. What discoveries and settlements did the French make in North America, and what wars arose in consequence? 2. By whom was Louisiana settled, and how did it become a part of the United States? 3. When, where, and by whon on the part of the Americans, was the treaty of peace concluding the Revolutionary War signed? State the causes of the war of 1812 Geography 1. What imaginary lines would be removed from the surface of the earth if its axis were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit; and what would be the effect upon the seasons and the length of the days and nights? 2. Give the width in geographical miles, of the Torrid zone, and in degrees, of the South Temperate zone. 3. Mention two of the leading States in each of the following particulars: size, population, manufactures, coal, gold, cotton, tobacco, number of good harbors. Arithmetic 1. Mention all the Prime Numbers up to 23; all composite numbers up to 16. What do you understand by the- Least Common Multiple of two or more numbers? 2. Required the value of 3 1/2 over 5 1/3 of 7/8 times 15 divided by 2/3 minues 3 5/6. 3. Change J to a decimal fraction; multiply by five tenths, and divide by two hundredths. English Grammar 1. Give three important rules in Orthography, and words to illustrate each. Give three rule s for the use of capital letters. 2. Write the plural of the following, giving both forms where there are two: wharf, pea, Mr., handful, folio, focus, index. 3. Define a relative pronoun. What relative is never used when the antecedent is expressed'? Numerous other examples of examination problems might be cited, but these will suffice for our purpose. Special Law of 1874 In 1874, the legislature enacted another law which disturbed somewhat, the school organization in New Orleans. It seems that for several years, from 1869 forward, the legislature kept passing laws which modified more or less, the organization each time. Perhaps this was one large cause of the instability of the organization. This last law provided that in all future appointments to fill vacancies upon the board of school directors, the State Board of Education should appoint from the City at large; that the competitive system established by section nine of Act 36, of 1873 be continued in force, except so far as modified herein; that special examinations be held for professors or teachers of the High and Normal schools; that the teachers of the district schools should be of three grades, and should be so classified in fixing the results of their examinations. Those of the first grade to be entitled to election to any position up to and including that of principal; those of the second grade to be entitled to election to any position up to.and including that of first assistant, and those of third grade to be appointed to positions inferior to that of a first assistant . That an assistant division superintendent be appointed by the State superintendent at a salary of per annum; said salary to be paid out of the city school fund; that the State superintendent to have the right to certificate 66 prospective teachers in the New Orleans schools. 57 Acts of Louisiana Leg!stature, 1873, Act No. 36. 58Brown, Op. Cit., 1873, p. 326. 59lbid., p, 299. 60 Brown, Op. Cit., 1873, p. 302 Al New Orleans School Board, Reports, 1873 Op. Cit«, p. 331. 63 Boothby, Charles, W., Report of Sixth Division Superintendent, 1373 • 64 Boothby, Op. Cit. ap; °Boothby, Cit., 1873. 66 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1874, Act No. 123, p. 217 Grade of Number Number Average Average Per cent. Number Punils School: Schools High School: Enroled Holl Attend. Attend. Teachers "per M. F. Teach er Central (Boys) 1 207 169 164 97 6 0 28 Girls’ (Upper) 1 211 192 189 97 6 32 Girls’(Lower) 1 98 95 92 92 5 19 Total H. S. 3 516 456 445 97 11 26 Grammar Schools: Total Number 32 12990 10448 8741 84 16 238 41 Intermediate Schools: Total Number 18 4896 39 27 2981 76 6 9 6 35 Pr imary Schools: Total Number 20 1861 1551 1221 79 4 39 36 73 20 263 16382 13388 83 32 384 40 Table 50 Table showing statistics of schools, arranged according to their grades, as high, grammar, intermediate, and primary for 1872-73.59 > . j Grade of 6 years Eight Ten Twelve Fifteen Sixteen Years School: & under Years Years Years Years And Over Total High Schools: Central (Boys) 49 102 207 Girls 1 (Upper) 2 52 103 211 Girls 1 (Lower) 34 44 98 135 249 516 Table 51 Table showing the number of pupils of different ages 60 registered in the New Orleans schools for the year 1872-73. District Schools: Primary, Intermediate Grammar Total Grand Total 2902 2382 2205 1967 587 314 19747 2902 2382 2205 1967 587 314 19747 Condition of New Orleans Schools, 1875 In his report to the State Superintendent in December, 1875, the last report made under the Congressional Reconstruction regime, Division superintendent, Boothby sounded a deep note of optimism for the schools in his division. At this time, there were 73 district schools within the territory, and in nearly every case the school was making splendid progress, under the leadership of a fairly competent principal and a staff of assistants. Boothby gives a much detailed report of each institution in his division, a gist of which we shall furnish in another paragraph. It is stated that in most of these schools, buildings were modern (a statement much to be doubted), equipment of the best for that day, and teachers and pupils happily working together for the general welfare of all. Much emphasis was laid upon the character of the McDonogh schools. These were described as being new brick buildings, furnace heated, an abundance of large windows for natural light, much playground space, and up-to-date equipment of every sort. These schools of an elementary type, which were provided by John McDonogh, an account of such action is given in another section, constituted a genuine contribution to the educational system of the New Orleans System in that early development period. Many of these buildings are yet in existence, and are being used for school purposes. Several photostats of the McDonogh schools are distributed throughout this division of the general educational account. In the following paragraphs will be presented statistics and statements which clearly reveal, according to the Superintendent, the healthy condition of the New Orleans schools in this last year of the so-called carpet-bag rule in the State. The population of the Sixth division, according to the census taken by the State in 1875, was 203, 439; this was the size of the city of New Orleans at this time. Of this more than two hundred thousand, there were 70,093 educables 68 between six and twenty-one years of age. The City was divided into seven school districts. Tyne and Number of Schools Central High School, for boys Girls’ High School, (upper division) Girls’ High School, (lower division) 1 1 3 1 Grammar Schools Grammar schools, grade A Grammar schools, grade B 39 14 53 Primary Schools: Primary schools, grade A Primary schools, grade B 13 7 20 Schools for Boys: High Schools 1 Grammar schools, grade A 14 Grammar schools, grade B Primary schools, grade A Primary schools, grade B 15 Schools for Girls: High schools 2 Grammar schools, grade A 17 Grammar schools, grade B Primary schools, grade A primary schools, grade B 19 Schools for Boys and Girls: High schools Grammar schools, grade A 8 Grammar schools, grade B 14 Primary schools, grade A 14 Primary schools, grade B 6 42 Schools According to Districts: Number of schools in first Municipal district 15 Number of schools in second ” ” 13 Number of schools in third " M 17 Number of schools in fourth ” " 11 Number of schools in fifth " ” 6 Number of schools in sixth M " 12 Number of schools in seventh " n 2 76 Total Number of Schools in New Orleans School Houses School houses for high schools belonging to the city 1 School houses for high schools rented by the board 2 3 School houses for grammar schools belonging to city 33 School houses for grammar schools rented by the board 20 53 School houses for primary schools belonging to city 3 School houses for primary schools rented by the board- 17 20 One unoccupied building belonging to city in Carrollton 1 One unoccupied building rented, unexpired lease 1 2 Whole number of school houses belonging to the city 38 Whole number of school houses rented during the year 40 78 Teachers Number of teachers in boys 1 Central High School 7 Number of teachers in girls 1 High, upper division 6 Number of teachers in girls’ High, lower division 619 Number of teachers in Grammar Schools A: Principals 39 First assistants 68 Second assistants 132 317 Third assitants Number of teachers in Grammar Schools B: Principals 14 First assistants 17 Second assistants 19 Third assistants 19 69 Number of teachers in Primary Schools A: Principals 14 First assistants 17 Second assistants 3 Third assistants 7 32 Number of teachers in Primary Schools B: Principals 5 First assistants 1 Second assistants 1 Third assistants 1 8 Special Teachers —Music Whole number of teachers in Public Schools, Session of 1872-73: Males 32 Females 384 416 Whole number of teachers in Public Schools, Session of 1873-74: Males 32 Females 410 442 Whole number of teachers in Public Schools, Session of 1874-75: Males 33 Females 417 450 Total Increase for the last two years 34 Pupils Average whole number enrolled in schools of all grades during the year 18,719 Average daily attendance of pupils in all schools 15,785 Average daily absence of pupils in all schools 2,934 Average percentage; of. attendance in all schools 84 Average whole number of pupils enrolled in the High Schools: Boys 139 Girls 351 490 Average daily attendance at high schools 473 Percentage of attendance at high schools 96 Average number of pupils to a teacher in high schools 26 Whole number of pupils enrolled in grammar schools: Boys 11,654 Girls 11,359 23,013 Average daily attendance at grammar schools 13,777 Percentage of attendance at grammar schools 84 Average number ofpupils to a teacher in grammar school 36 Whole number of pupils enrolled in primary schools 2,773 Average daily attendance at primary- schools 1,535 Percentage of attendance at primary schools 82 Average number of pupils to a teacher in primary schools 38 Financial Statement 69 Sixth Division 1875 Receipt s City school tax $261,987.32 State apportionments 54,789.62 $316,776.94 Collection of back taxes of 1871 and 1873 37,141.70 Total Receipts During the Year 353,918.64 Disbursements Salaries of teachers and employees 377,030.14 Portresses 24,828.15 Rents 30,752.95 Miscellaneous 27,517,59 Total Disbursements for the Year $460,128.83 Balance due and uncollected 106,210.19 Cost of tuition per pupil on average number belonging $20.14 Cost of incidentals per pupil on average number belonging 4.44 $24.58 Cost of tuition per pupil on whole number enrolled $14.37 Cost of incidentals per pupil on whole number enrolled " 3.16 $17.53 67 Boothby, On. Cit., 1875 ■ a Ibid. , p. 9f. A Great Disturbance in the New Orleans Schools Should one read only the reports of the City board of education, and those of the Division and State superintendents, and draw his conclusion from them, he would be forced to say that New Orleans had an excellent school system. But, if on the other hand, he reads at all carefully, some of the contemporaneous newspapers and periodic literature, he will find himself modifying, at least, his first judgment. Proof of corruption and mismanagement is not wanting. It seems that a highly respected, white woman school teacher had been dismissed from her position by a negro school board member, without just cause or without any explanation. In the course of the disturbance which followed, however, it was developed that the said school board member had been exacting a percentage of certain teachers salaries, in exchange for his vote in the board meetings. The daily press thundered long and loud against the rottenness of the Public School Board, and demanded that there be a thorough renovation. A mass meeting was held in a public square, as another protest on the part of the people in general, against such an unworthy administration as was being inflicted upon them. The principal speakers at this mass meeting were Charles F. Buck, a very prominent lawyer of the city, and the eloquent Presbyterian Minister, Dr. B. M. Palmer. We quote 8 portion of one article which appeared in The New Orleans Bulletin, under the cantion, "The Public TO School Shame:" A statement made by a friend who withheld his name, as referred to in our issue of Monday evening, respecting the manner in which a lady teacher was insulted by a negro member of the Board of Directors of the city schools, has been corroborated by the lady herself. We will not give her name nor that of the director, but the facts are that one of the white teachers, a lady, who has been in our city schools for many years, discharging her duties industriously, faithfully and without complaint, was dropped from the rolls, in the recent action of the board. To one of the members, a colored man, she had been in the habit of paying a certain percentage of each month’s salary to secure her situation. She called on this colored director to learn the reason why she was dismissed. The interview took place in a public office, in the presence of many witnesses. It ended in a very gross and profane insult to the lady, with an order to leave the office. This is only one case out of hundreds. This colored blackguard had long been in the habit of making these exactions, to be paid out of salaries which the teachers could not collect, but were obliged to sell at a great discount. This director did no more than what was probably done by the majority of the board. 69 Boothby, Op. Cit., p. 12 New Orleans Bulletin, September 15, 1875. The John McDonogh School Houses In an earlier section of this chapter, we gave an account of the philantrhopist, John McDonogh. In that section, mention was made of his life in general, and of his last will and testament, and the final disposition of his estate; bare mention was made of the school buildings which were later erected to his memory. It is' omr purpose at this time, to give some account of those grammar school buildings, which stand today, as a monument to the benevolence of John McDonogh. When the battles had all been fought over the estate of McDonogh, and the smoke had cleared away, it was dis- covered that the city of New Orleans had to her credit approximately three-quarters of a million dollars. From this amount, some 18 or 20 public school buildings were erected in the city. The entire number of schools so constructed were all of the Grammar grade type, and ranked as among the very best in the school system. A brief description together with photostats of two of these school buildings, follow: McDonogh No. 2--Grammar A. This school house was completed in Tune, 1874. It was a grammar school for girls. The lot on which this building was erected measures fifty-four feet and six inches front by a depth of 144 feet and six inches. The length of the building itself is 108 feet and six inches; the width, front and rear, 49 feet and two inches: the height from the ground to the top of the cornice is 44 feet and one inch. This is a two-story frame building, containing 12 school rooms which were well lighted and ventilated. Six of the rooms were located on the first floor and six on the second floor. A hall eight feet in width ran through the middle of the building on both stories. Eight of the rooms were 29 feet by 19 feet six inches; two, 24 feet eight inches by 19 feet six inches, and two, 28 feet eleven inches by 19 feet six inches. Each room was supplied with a wardroom. In addition to all these rooms, there was a teachers’ room which was supplied with apparatus for hanging hats, cloaks, etc., as well as with water from a cistern near by the building. This McDonogh Number two was heated with hot air blown through flues which lead to each class-room. The number of pupils which the building would accommodate was 720, of which number, it was claimed, 586 were enrolled. McDonogh No. 6--Grammar A This school building v/as completed in 1875, and is yet being used for school purposes. It is located on the corner of Camp and Berlin Streets; constructed of brick. The lot measures 150 feet on Camp street by 130 feet on Berlin Street It is a two-story building, containing twelve.class-rooms, six on each floor, an eight foot corridor on each floor, a teachers 1 room, and eight hat rooms, four for boys and four for girls. This building cost approximately $17,000. As in the case of the earlier McDonogh buildings, Number Six was heated with hot air which was blown through flues leading into each room. The exterior of this building was very attractively designed, and the interior appointments were considered as being thoroughly modern for carrying on grammar school work in that day. In order that those who read these brief descriptions of school buildings may not obtain an erroneous impression concerning public school buildings in Louisiana during the reconstruction period, I hasten to state that outside of New Orleans, there was rarely a public school building to be found of any consequence; a few of the larger towns had erected fairly substantial buildings, but these were very scarce. Rural Louisiana had no school buildings, in the true sense of the term. MoDonogh 2SFo. k 2 Ihihlic School. XI < • I ><»n ><_.•! । x < >. (J I *i 11 >1 i< • S>< -h< >< >l. CHAPTER VII PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS IN LOUISIANA DURING THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD Introduction The teacher, by all odds, is the most influential factor in public school education. Curriculum, organization, equipment, important as they are, count for little or nothing except as they are vitalized by the living personality of the ’*As the teacher, so the school, n is a trite but true saying. It is stated over and over again that one of the great drawbacks in the public educational system in Louisiana was inefficient teachers. In the New Orleans schools, the weak est group was the primary teachers; this statement might be made of the State as a whole. It seems that the majority of the people had an idea that almost anyone could teach children in the primary grades; that it was not necessary to have much preparation in order to ieach the small children. As a matter of fact, some people hold this opinion at the present time. A careful study of the entire teaching enterprise, however, seems to show that the very best teachers in a given school system should be found working with the children in the lower grades. If there are to be poor teachers in the schools at all, perhaps it is less damaging to the pupils for these inferior nnes to work with the older children. The problem of selecting teachers engaged the attention of educational leaders in Louisiana from the beginof constitutionally authorized public education in the State. A definite plan, however, by which those desiring to teach could be certified evolved very slowly. It has always been a very difficult matter moreover, to decide upon the qualifications best suited for a given group of children, and it has been a much more difficult problem to decide just how to discover these greatly desires qualifications on the part of the teacher. Through out the reconstruction period, and up until comparatively recently, the method used in Louisiana, as perhaps in most of the States was a competitive examination. As has already been suggested, those conducting the competitive examinations did not always know just what they were attempting to test. Furthermore, it is altogether probable that they did not use materials in their testing program that would necessarily reveal the splendid qualities for which they so earnestly sought. It is exceedingly interesting to observe the extent to which the leaders of the sixties and seventies considered the matter of supervision of instruction, and the general status of the teaching profession. Another item of special interest relative to the teachers of reconstruction days, as of some other periods of our educational history, is their tenure in one and the same school. For various and sundry causes, the public school teachers were constantly changing positions. It was no strange occurrence for one position to be supplied with four or five different teachers during a brief school term of about as many months. It is our purpose therefore, in this discussion of the public school teacher during the reconstruction period to deal with (1) the facilities for training teachers, (2) the certification of teachers, (3) the supervision of instruction, and (4) the status of public school teachers, including the (a) number, (b) training and (c) salary secured. own, J. F., The American High School, p. 193. Facilities for Training Teachers Nearly a half a century elapsed after Orleans Territory became the State of Louisiana before any legislation was enacted providing for teacher-training facilities. Institutions of this character made their first appearance in the State in 1858, at which time the legislature made provision for the establishment of normal school departments in the two girls’ high schools in the city of New 2 Orleans. In the following year, a legislative appropriation of $5,000 to be drawn at the rate of $5O for each normal school pupil, was awarded. In 1860, $lO,OOO was appropriated for buildings, conditioned on the city’s raising an equal amount. The Governor was authorized to select 48 pupils who were to be admitted free of charge 3 into the teacher-training departments. In 1862, the legislature allowed these schools |3,000 more. This was the last year in the life of the normal departments in the high schools. The war came on, and finances for education in general grew smaller and smaller. In 1869 however, another institution similar in nature was established to carry on the work, even in a much larger and better way than had been done in the New Orleans high school. This second school was known as the Peabody nor* mal seminary for advanced white students. During the first three years of its existence, the school was supported out of the Peabody Sducational Pund. The amount which the institution received from this source was $1,500 per annum. During the ten subsequent years, $2,000 per an* 4 num was donated for its support. From 1870 to 1880, Mrs. Kate K. Shaw was the principal of this Peabody Normal Seminary, and Ulric Bettison was the professor of mathematics and natural sciences. A preparatory department was conducted for about eight years with Miss Josephine Falconer in charge. The best educated students were very carefully advanced so that they could be admitted to the junior class, into which primarily, had been admitted only graduates of the high school for young ladies 5 m New Orleans. In the junior year of the normal seminary, students were required to review all the branches of knowledge studied in the elementary public schools of New Orleans and the State at large. In the senior year, they acquainted themselves fairly well with rhetoric, literature, physical geography, general history, algebra, higher mathematics, physiology, chemistry, natural philosophy, and methods of teaching. Students desiring to understand French and Latin were taught those languages by the principal, Mr. Hobert M. Lusher. Pupils more than 16 years of age were trained in the best known methods of teaching in elemen s tary and in high schools. The Pqabody Normal School for colored students was begun in New Orleans in December 1877. Up to the close of 1883, this normal school was supported with $l,OOO per annum from the Peabody Bducation Fund. Luring the first year, forty students enrolled in the institution. The school was for either sex over seventeen years of age. Five scholarships of $l2O each from the Peabody Fund, were annually tendered five advanced colored students of rural Louisiana, who were willing to dwell in New Orleans, and regularly and diligently attend the ten months’ session of the normal u -I 7 school. Perhaps it is not too much to say that the teachertraining courses which were had in the high schools, and in the white and colored normal schools did more for the welfare of the teachers, and in the long run, for the public schools over the State than any other agency. a Acts of Louisiana Legislature, Act No. 16, 1858. g lbid., Act No. 44, 1860. 4 Board of Trustees Peabody Education Fund, Proceedings, 1870. A Fay, Op. Cit., p. 112. Certification of Teachers As regards teacher certification, there is not very much information on this point prior to 1900. The fact is, the certification of teachers received but very little emphasis until late in the reconstruction period. As a general rule, examinations for license or certificate to teach school, when required at all, were usual ly oral and nominal, and never pretended to be more than an attempt to pass on the applicant’s moral character and his ability to conduct or manage a school. The minimum requirements in these respects were not difficult to meet. An ability to teach meant primarily the ability to maintain order in the school; high moral and intellectual standards were not often demanded or expected. The earliest law to be observed relative to certification of teachers was enacted by the general assembly of 1847. One section of this law states that each teacher must be qualified to teach reading, writing and arithmetic and French in parishes where it was required. Another section states that no teacher should receive any pay for services rendered except he first pass a satisfactory exam 8 ination, and be granted a certificate or license. It might well be inferred from the last statement above that there were those who taught without certificates of any sort. In 1870, the State Board of Education made a ruling to the effect that no person would be employed to teach in the public schools without a certificate of qualification 9 from the State or Division Superintendent. In Section 45 of the General School Act of 1869, we have the following, regarding the certification of teachers 10 Be it further enacted, That no person shall be employed to teach a common school which is to receive its distributive, share of the school fund, unless he shall have a certificate of qualification signed by the division superintendent of the division in which the school is located; and no certificate shall be valid more than one year from the date thereof; and any teacher who commences teaching without such certificate shall forfeit all claim to compensation for the time during which he teaches without such certificate. The teacher shall keep a correct register of the school, which shall exhibit the sub-district, ward, parish and State in which the school is kept; the day of the week, the month and year; the name and age, and attendance of each scholar, and the branches taught; the register to be after the form supplied by the Board of Education. An Act of 1873 provided, among other things, that the school directors of New Orleans appoint a committee on teachers, whose business it was to examine applicants for employment as teachers. It was stated that the superintendent of the sixth division should attend and assist at all the examinations of said committee. The law further provided that the teachers and employees of the board of directors of the public schools of the city of New Orleans should be appointed by the said board; also, that the city board should be charged with the responsibility of fixing a salary schedule. In compliance with the provision of the foregoing Act 36, a committee was appointed by the New Orleans school board to examine applicants who desired to teach in the City’s schools. This committee of examiners re-12 ported to the board in October, 1873 as follows: The examination for the teachers lasted four days. There were present for the teachers’ examination 180 applicants, out of which number, 63 were successful. These were divided into three classes. All those receiving a percentage of 86 and upward were placed in class One; those receiving from 81 to 85 were placed in class Two; while the Third class consists of those having obtained a percentage of from 75 to 80. The classes were equal in number —21 in each class. The successful candidates were awarded certificates. Those of the First class received principal’s certificates; those of the Second class, first assistants’, and those of the Third class received third assistant’s certificates, which entitle them to teach either as second or third assistants. In 1870, the superintendent of the second division observed that no difficulty was being experienced in selecting competent teachers for the public schools in his district. During the year, 67 teachers were examined for the common schools of which number 59 received certificates; eight were rejected as incompetent. Of the teachers receiving certificates, 40 were employed. In addition to these 40 certificated and employed by the division superintendent, two others were employed who 13 held State superintendent’s certificates. As has been stated elsewhere in this chapter, teachers might secure under the law, a teaching certificate either from the State superintendent or from a division superintendent. In the fourth division in 1870, the superintendent issued teaching certificates to about 45 teachers, but a very small number were given teaching positions. The record states that less than ten of those certificated 14 actually taught that year. An exhibition of a set of examination questions and problems for teachers will assist the reader in forming his judgment as to the qualifications of the teachers employed in the State generally and in the second division in particular, in 1872. The applicants were examined in seven different branches of study, the value of each branch being reckoned as ten. It was necessary that the appi leant make a grade of in order to be entitled to a certificate of any grade. The subjects were reading, writing, spelling, geography, arithmetic, English grammar, and United States history. 15 A list of examination questions follows: Spelling. In spelling, ten words were pronounced from the following list: intellect separate control seize traveler grandeur judgment receive believe resurrection tyrannygrammar fiery science mattress offense defense fashion passion murmur Geography. 1. Define geography. 2. What is an isthmus? 3. Define latitude. 4. Why are the tropics placed 23% degrees from the equator? 5. Start from the prime meridian and travel westward 195 degrees; on what meridian would you then be? 6. What are the principal vegetable productions of South America? 7. What animals abound in Asia? 8. What cities of the world number 1,000,000 inhabitants and upwards? 9. Bound Kentucky. 10. Bound England. Arithmetic. 1. Define arithmetic. 2. Express by figures one billion seventy million four thousand and eleven. 3. Express by letters fourteen hundred and ninety two. 4. Why do you place the subtrahend under the minuend in performing operations in subtraction? 5. What are fractions? 6. What is one-half of nine and one-third? 7. Give the table for long measure. 8. How many pints in a barrel of beer? 9. What would be the interest on $1,256 for three years five months and 18 days, at seven per cent per annum? 10. What is the cube root of 24,389? Grammar . 1. Define grammar. 2. Name the parts of speech. 3. Compare little and lovely. 4. Give the principal parts of the verbs get and catch. 5. I did not speak. What part of speech is not? 6. Give the form the verb drive would take in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, singular number and passive voice. 7. The apple fell from the tree, parse fell. 8. Give the rule in syntax for the adverb. 9. I saw him strike the boy. Parse strike. 10. What is language? History. 1. When and where was the first settlement made in the United States? 2. When and where was the first English settlement made in the United States? 3. When and where was the first battle of the Revolution fought? 4. What were the grievances that led to the war of the Revolution? 5. How many and which were the original States of the Union? 6. Name the Presidents in their order? 7. What were the boundaries of Louisiana at the time of the annexation to the United States? 8. From whom was Louisiana purchased by the United States, and what was the price paid? 9. Mention several of the most distinguished Americangenerals and the war in which they figured. 10. Mention five or more each of the most eminent American statesmen and authors. The number of teachers in 1873 to whom certificates or licenses to teach were issued by division superintendents or their representatives in the various parishes (counties), was 252. The record does not reveal the percentage of white and colored teachers, but the grade of certificate earned and issued is indicated. The number receiving first grade certificates, usually secured only by those making 85 or above on examination, was 73; the number receiving second grade certificates, issued to those making an examination grade of 75 to 85, was 114; and the number receiving dertificates of the third grade, issued to those making an examination grade of 70 16 to 75, was 65, There is nothing further stated concerning teacher certification during the reconstruction period. 6 Peabody Normal Seminary, Course of Study, 1876. 7 Superintendent of Public Bducation, Report, 1877, p• 325• 8 Acta of Louisiana Legislature, 1847, Act No. 225. 9 State Board of Education, Proceedings, 1870, Bule 17. of the Louisiana Legislature, 1869, Act No. 121, p. 182. 11 of Louisiana Legislature, 1873, Act No. 36. 12 New Orleans School Board, Proceedings, 1873. 13 Lacy, J. W., Op. Git., 1870. 14 Mayo, Claudius, Op. Cit., 1870. 15 Stoddard, Op. Cit., 1872. Supervision of Instruction Supervision of instruction is a topic which has been given no small amount of consideration in Louisiana especially, since the beginnin of public education as a system in the State. The legislative Act of 1847 which provided for a State superintendent of public education also made provision for the selection of a superintendent of each 17 parish. It was a very difficult matter to secure competent supervisors for the parishes at that time, and as a result of the employment of a number of men who had neither a real interest in public education, nor sufficient qualifications for the undertaking, the entire parish supervisory program had a short life. The excuse rendered by the legislature in 1852 for enacting legislation which provided for the abolition of the office of parish superintendent of public education was to the effect that the #3OO annual salary paid each of these superintendents was more than 18 the State was able to bear. These parish offices were not revived again until after reconstruction days, 1877. In 1868, at the beginning of Congressional Reconstruction, a New Constitution provided for the division of the State into six educational supervisory districts, with a division superintendent in each district. The following year, the legislature enacted the necessary legislation for putting into operation the new plan. This supervisory program was followed until the end of the reconstruction period. During the next eight years, we have a number of comments by the two State superintendents, as well as remarks by the division superintendents relative to supervision of instruction. It would be natural to expect those occupying these positions to say fine things about their work, and the wholesome influence which emenated from their offices. As a matter of record, it appears that supervision of instruction was practically nil; the major work of the superintendents being of a routine, office type. After they were once appointed, the teachers rarely ever saw the superintendent again until the end of the session. Superintendent Brown claims that much and effective supervision was done throughout the State, from 1872-1876. He made an earnest plea before the legislature in 1874 that this body not heed the appeals of the pessimists to withdraw funds for supervisory purposes, but rather that the appropriation for this purpose should be considerably 19 increased. In support of his plea for additional funds to carry on his supervisory program over the State, the superintendent brought to the attention the legislature a number of statements from leading educators over the country who were in high favor of both division and parish supervision! 16 Brown, Op. Cit., 1873, p. 154. 17 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, Act No. 225, 1847. 18 Ibid., Act. No. 1852 19 Brown, William G., Op. Cit., 1874, p. 27. Status of Public School Teachers In discussing the status of public school teachers in Louisiana during the reconstruction period, we shall consider (1) their training, (2) number of teachers employed, and (3) salaries received. Training. Notwithstanding the fact that the general school Act of 1847 which provided machinery for the first system of public education in Louisiana specifically declared that all individuals desiring to teach in the public schools should be properly certificated, the universal complaint was to the effect that teachers were illy prepared for their work. Superintendent John McNair in 1864, observed that the two outstanding difficulties in the way of public educational development in the State were lack of funds with which to operate the schools, and the lack of qualified teachers. The teachers, he remarked, were usually "igno-20 rant of subject matter, and of a low moral grade." This general charge of Mr. McNair’s would except, in a large measure, the situation in New Orleans. It is obvious, as has been pointed out in other sections of this production, that the schools over the State at large were in no sense comparable with those in the city of New Orleans. This is what one would normally expect however, since the schools in the cities have always taken the lead in all lines of educational development. In City superintendent Rogers r report for the year 1867-68, we find the following paragraph concerning the 21 qualifications of teachers in his school system; The teachers are very generally competent and faithful. Many of them have gained the most ample experience by years of successful labor. It is required of all applicants for teacherships, that they possess certificates of qualification from the committee on teachers, or diplomas as graduates of our city high schools or other institutions of the same grade. Our high schools annually send forth those who desire to become teachers and who require only experience to insure success. Mr. Rogers goes on to say that the success of his teaching force was not attributable so much to the excellent buildings and equipment, as to the moral and mental worth of his teachers. In point of time, the next information that we have been able to find relative to educational qualifications of teachers was furnished by the division superintendents in 1870. These reports were so brief that it is possible to summarize, in a few lines, the content of each, to .. 22 wit: The persons at present employed as teachers in my division bear the most unimpeachable characters, and the schools under their charge all promise well. (First Division) No difficulty has been met with in procuring teachers There have been plenty of applicants and much care has been exercised in selecting the best from among them, and thus far as good a grade of teachers has been secured as can be found employed in almost any State. (Second Division) Teachers in the third division are, for the most part, very competent, and willing to sacrifice for the sake of the schools. Instead of commenting upon the qualifications of his teachers in general, the superintendent of the fourth divi sion signled out one lady teacher whose loyalty and work he greatly praised. Single and alone, through evil and through good report, through persecution and outrage, through scenes that would have appalled a heart less brave or a spirit less determined, Mrs. A. J. Collis has steadily performed her missionary work of teaching the freedmen of the neighborhood in which she lives. She has been a pioneer in our school work in De Soto parish, and she is entitled to a world of praise. The fifth division superintendent failed to make any report concerning qualifications of teachers. In the report of sixth division superintendent Carter we have a one sentence statement relative to the qualifications of teachers in New Orleans, 1870: In our corps of teachers there are many of decided ability and faithfulness. All of the foregoing statements relative to public school teachers in 1870, may or may not mean very much. Should a strict interpretation be placed upon them a conclusion would likely be drawn to the effect that teachers were very poorly qualified for their work. If, on the other hand, one’s interpretation is rather loosely constructed he may conclude that in some sections of the State at least, teachers were very well qualified. From the general account to the legislature of educational affairs in 1872, we find that according to the report, the primary teachers particularly, had been somewhat improved during the past year. The report states that at the beginning of the session of 1871-72, considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining teachers of any teaching qualifications to go into the country parishes to teach. It is further observed that in order to secure a sufficient number of primary teachers it was necessary to lower the requirements to such an extent that the grades made on examinations scarcely represented any 23 teaching qualifications at all. We may conclude from this report that in certain instances where teachers were badly needed, if the prospective teachers were not able to meet the requirement under the law, the requirement was ac commodated to the ability of the teachers. We come now to a close of our discussion of teacher qualifications with a consideration of data bearing on the problem recorded in 1875. We have selected a number of parishes which seem to be typical of the entire situation in the State. These data were recorded by the division superintendents who had oversight of school affairs in the 24 vaiious parishes. Brief summaries follow: Orleans Parish The great drawback upon the efficiency and progress of our New Orleans schools is found in the inexperience and many elements of weakness which characterize the efforts at teaching of many of our primary teachers. It seems that many teachers have the idea that it does not require any preparation to teach a primary school. East Baton Rouge Parish. In this parish it is stated that the standard of qualification of teachers was raised each year after 1872. Gradually the pporer teachers were retired, and their places filled by other more competent. In 1875, the teachers of East Baton Rouge were comparable in point of efficiency, with those of other parishes in the same division. Iberia Parish. A corps of very good teachers has been employed by the board and they have labored faithfully, and with gratifying success. Natchitoches Parish. The record reveals the fact that the people in this parish were greatly pleased with the public schools located therein, principally because competent teachers were employed. St. Martin Parish. The corps of teachers is generally competent. Among them, I wish to mention especially Prof. Monge, of St. Martinville, whose school is well conducted, under good discipline, and is very popular among the residents of this city. Calcasieu Parish. The report from this parish is to the effect that a great deficiency in the school system for the years 1872 to 1875 was due to the incompetency of a number of the teachers employed. Caddo Parish. Caddo is one of the North-west parishes of the State, the parish site of which is Shreveport. In 1875 there were 12 teachers busily engaged in the art of teaching for a term of eight months in this area. The record states that each of these teachers was fully competent to do the work required. 20 McNair, Op. Cit., 1864, p. 7. 21 Rogers, William 0., Op. Cit., 1868. 22 Excerpts from division superintendents reports, 1870 p/X Brown, Op. Cit., 1872, p. 108. 24 Reports of the division superintendents for 1875 Number and Salary. There were two universal, justifiable complaints made relative to public education in Louisiana throughout the reconstruction period. The teachers complained of insufficient salaries, and patrons complained of incompetent teachers. One cause of the general compalint may be traced to the fact that a large number of both sexes who presented themselves as teachers in the schools were not interested in this work as a profession, but rather as a stepping-stone to something which they thought they would like better; a convenient means to an end. In many cases, this fact was found out by those in charge of school affairs, and as a result, salaries were seldom increased. A further result was disloyal teachers to the extent that they did not care whether they rendered any service of a worthwhile nature or not. Another major factor in the matter of low salaries was the fact that conditions were such that it was impossible to collect sufficient funds to pay large salaries, except in very rare cases where someone was doing an outstanding piece of work as a teacher. The first year of the war 1861, an amount of $165,082.00 was paid public school teachers in the city of New Orleans. As far as the remainder of the State is concerned, the amount is not given. The records are not clear as to the number of teachers employed in Nev/ Orleans at this time, but the best sources available seem to indicate that there were approximately 200, many of whom had only secured a third grade certificate. Calculating the salary on a basis of Nine months which was the length of the school session, the average salary for teachers in New Orleans in 1860 was 26 approximately $9O a month. According to the City Superintendent’s reports, the salaries for teachers were a little better during 1862-63 and 1863-64. The following statistics reveal the facts in 27 the case: In 1863-64 the number of teachers of all grades employed in the New Orleans public schools was 228. On the basis of a nine months session, we find that the average monthly salary received by this group of teachers was approximately $lOO. Considering the purchasing power of a dollar this was a very good salary. Superintendent Rogers of the New Orleans schools, in making his report for the year 1867-68, observed as fol-28 lows relative to salaries of teachers in his schools: Of the annual appropriation, about $215,000 were paid for the salaries of teachers in the schools for white children, and about $45,000 to teachers in the other schools (colored). The salaries are uniform for teachers of the same grade throughout the city. Male principals of grammar schools receive $l5OO per annum; female principals, $l2OO. First assistants of male schools receive $lOO, and of schools for girls, $BOO per annum. Second assistants or first primary teachers, receive $660 per annum, and third assistants or second primary teachers, receive $6OO per annum, being the lowest salaries paid to teachers in our schools." The number of teachers employed in New Orleans during this first year of congressional reconstruction was 298; males, 25, females, 273. The report does not divide the teachers into white and colored groups. As to number and salaries of teachers in 1867-68 over the State generally, the records are practically blank. These items are so nearly universally omitted that it would be absurd to record here the few scattering ones that do appear. It should be remembered, moreover, as was emphasized in chapter three, that the majority of the public school teachers employed in the State during the reconstruction period hailed from other sections of the country# principally from the North. Statistics for 1870 relative to teachers, are complete with two exceptions, from all sections of the State. Table 53 furnishes the number and salaries of teachers through- OQ out the State. *No reports from these two divisions on these two points. **This was approximately the average salary throughout the State. It should be stated here that the salaries in New Orleans generally, ranged from $4O to $75 per month, with only five teachers receiving higher or lower salaries than these amount. The principals of the two largest schools received $lOO per month. A committee on grading of schools and equalizing salaries of teachers appointed by the New Orleans School Board in 1873, arranged the schools into two grades—grammar and primary. These grades were subdivided into two divisions each —class A and class B, as follows: Schools —Grammar grade, class A Grammar grade, class B Schools —Primary grade, class A Primary grade, class B The following salaries were affixed to the different , n - J . ~ . J 30 grades and subgrades as indicated: Class A Grammar grade, A, principals, rate per annum $l5OO Grammar grade, A, first assistants, rate per annum 1000 Grammar grade, A, adjunct, rate per annum 900 Grammar grade, A, second assistants, rate per annum 780 Grammar grade, A, all below second assistants, 600 Class B Grammar grade, B, principals, rate per annum $l2OO Grammar grade, B, first assistants, rate per annum 900 Grammar grade,- B, second assistants, rate per annum 720 Grammar grade, B, all below second assistants 600 Class A Primary grade, A, principals, rate per annum $lOOO Primary grade, A, first assistants 780 Primary grade, A, second assistants 660 Primary grade, A, all below second assistants 600 Class B Primary grade, B, principals, rate per annum $9OO Primary grade, B, first assistants 720 Primary grade, B, second assistants 660 Primary grade, B, all below second assistants 600 At a meeting of the National Education Association at Peoria, Illinois, 1873, among a group of educators who were called upon to make a brief statement of educational conditions in their section of the country was William 0. Brown of Louisiana. In a series of loosely connected sentences, the State Superintendent made the following observation concerning the status of teachers in the State at 31 large, and in the city of New Orleans: We pay all teachers alike in primary and secondary departments. Louisiana white people are entering the common school feeling faster than they are in any other State, I believe. In one school in New Orleans, the best in the State, there are children of both colors; all twelve of the teachers are white. We have not forded colored children into white schools; the laws forbid, but General Beauregard says they must be mixed. The majority of our 408 teachers in the City are white. They are at my office, 40 or 50 at a time, and pay all deference any officer can expect. There is no jar. The writer has made no small effort to ascertain the name of the school in New Orleans to which the superintendent referred in his Peoria, Illinois talk as having enrolled both white and colored children, and having twelve white teachers, but the available records fail to produce the information sought. To the contrary, the results of our investigation clearly reveal two things; first, an overwhelming majority of colored parents preferred that their children attend their own schools; second, the few instances in which negro children were forced into white schools as in the case of Lieutenant Governor Pinchback’s son, they were immediately driven away by the white children and teachers, or else the white children withdrew from the school. It appears to be reasonably certain therefore, that the superintendent’s statement on this point is not well founded. As to the number of teachers employed in the city schools, his statement corresponds very well with our findings. In order that a correct concept may be secured as to the status of public school teachers in Louisiana at the close of reconstruction, we present in Table 54, a recapitulation of statistics bearing upon this point. Parishes (counties) not included in the recapitulation failed to furnish 32 the necessary information. *West Baton Rouge. **The median salary paid public school teachers *** The complete spelling is T. John Baptist. From the 44 parishes reported in Table 54, we observe that the highest monthly salary paid any of the 691 male and the 704 female public school teachers in Louisiana, 1875, was received by the teachers in New Orleans, the average being $67.82. The teachers of Washington parish received the lowest average salary, the amount being only $25.14 per month. The median salary for the entire State was $43.65 per month. When these salaries are considered in the light of what was being paid teachers in other States at the North, and particularly other American cities with approximately the same amount of population as New Orleans, for example, San Francisco, Chicago, Louisville, St. Louis, and Philadelphia, we find that the salaries in Louisiana were about as high as in other sections of the country. 25 New Orleans Advocate & Journal of Edueation, June 29. 1870. 26 Avery, Op. Cit., 1861, p. 41. 27 Carter, Op. Cit., 1864. 28 Rogers, William 0., Op. Cit., 1868. 29 Statistics taken from division superintendents reports for 1870. 30 New Orleans School Board, Reports, 1873 31 National Education Association, Proceedings, 1873. 32 Brown, Op. Cit., 1875, p. 302 f From September 1st, 1862 to September 1st, 1863: For teachers For books, stationery, rents, $171,297.46 repairs, etc. 50,033.96 Total W H 03 03 • Table 52 Expenditures for schools from September Ist 1862 to September Ist 1864, From September 1st, 1863 to September 1st, 1864: For teachers For books, stationery, rents, 203,645.99 repairs, etc. 23,516.58 Total 229,162.57 Division Number of Parishes Number of Teachers Average Monthly- Salary M. F. First 7 7 7 $53.00 Second 7 35 27 60.00 Third 14 51 28 55.00 Fourth 10 * • • * Fifth 14 Sixth 1 25 350 65.66 Total 53 118 412 $57.00** Table 53 No. of Teachers No. of Teachers Average Parish Male:Grade of Cert. Female:Grade of Cert. Monthly 1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd Salary Ascension 11 2 7 2 5 3 2 ... $50.00 Assumption 12 5 7 6 2 3 1 36.85 Avoyelles 11 3 8 1 1 52.08 Bossier 66 20 24 22 16 6 4 6 59.00 Caddo 23 9 9 5 30 14 9 7 54.00 Calcasieu 19 4 15 4 1 2 1 43.50 Cameron 6 2 4 4 . .. 4 30.00 Carroll 13 7 5 1 1 1 48.66 Catahoula 34 6 11 17 6 6 ... 28.22 DeSoto 22 9 9 4 7 3 4 ... 45.00 E. Baton R.* 10 3 4 3 11 1 4 6 36.15 E. Feliciana 9 5 3 1 9 2 2 5 50.00 Grant 10 5 3 2 3 1 2 ... 35.08 Iberia 12 3 9 5 2 1 2 40.00 **L.B Iberville 23 5 5 13 8 5 2 1 45.00 .Jefferson 1 1 • • • 2 1 1 ... 61.76 **R.B .Jefferson 5 2 3 13 7 3 3 57.91 Lafayette 3 1 2 6 5 1 50.00 Lafourche 30 3 10 17 4 1 3 51.33 Madison 18 10 6 2 2 2 ... 55.00 Natchitoches 12 6 5 1 1 1 ... 50.82 Orleans 33 29 4 • • • 417 68 89 260 67.82 Ouachita 18 16 2 • ♦ ♦ 8 4 4 ... 45.00 Plaquemines 5 2 3 5 2 3 45.00 Pointe Coupeel 12 4 6 2 2 1 ... 1 30.00 Rapides 23 5 11 7 2 1 1 ... 43.65 Red River 3 1 2 2 1 1 ... 52.00 Sabine 13 5 4 4 10 1 7 2 30.93 St. Charles 5 1 3 1 11 4 5 2 44.35 Table 54 Recapitulation of general statistics relative to the status of public school teachers in Louisiana at the close of session of 1875. Table 54 , Cont. St. Helena 11 3 6 2 15 • • • 8 7 41.37 St. James 32 10 8 14 4 1 3 47.19 St.Jno.Bapt*** 2 1 1 7 1 3 3 47.63 St. Landry 22 1 7 14 8 • • • 3 5 47.83 St. Martin 4 2 1 1 1 1 45.00 St. Mary 20 5 7 8 11 6 3 2 45.00 St. Tammany 4 1 3 5 1 4 40.00 Tangipahoa 9 2 2 5 8 2 3 3 40.00 Terrebonne 25 10 12 3 4 2 • • • 2 54.64 Vermillion 11 2 5 4 4 1 ♦ • • 3 39.33 Washington 19 3 3 13 7 • • • • • • 7 25.14 Webster 11 8 3 • • • 20 7 12 1 35.00 W. Baton R.* 4 4 2 2 • • • 35.00 W. Feliciana 14 3 6 5 6 2 2 2 30.00 Winn 41 2 24 15 1 • • • 1 ♦ • • 29.70 Total 691 223 254 216 704 152 202 350 #43.65*** CHAPTER VIII CURRICULA AND TEXTBOOKS USED IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF LOUISIANA DURING THE RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD Importance of Curricula Organization The organization of curricula is one of the most important phases of public school administration. Upon this phase of school procedure depends to a large extent, the ultimate success or failure of the institution. Leading educators in all sections of the country are urging the formation of curricula in terms of the interests and needs of the individual and the community, and not in terms of the intrinsic content of the subject itself. In studying the cirricula of public schools in Louisiana during the reconstruction period, we observe that those who prepared courses of study did not have a very clear conception as to what should be included. They were thoroughly willing to endorse some sort of a program, but it did not seem to make much differenct what subjects were offered. The lack of a well defined purpose for the school’s existence was chiefly responsible for this looseness in curricula organization. The courses of study offered in both the elementary and secondary departments were designed, according to present day standards, to prepare a few individuals for a higher of learning rather than the masses for the more practical activities of life. This point was strongly emphasized by the principal daily paper of New Orleans in 1860. A brief quotation relative to the boys’ high 1 school of that city follows: The greatest objection to the high school program in New Orleans is not so much the manner in which the work is carried on, but rather the studies to which the young men are subjected. A large number of courses offered to the sons of our citizens are wholly impracticable. One.of the chief subjects of study in our high school for boys is Latin, a subject which has no practical value whatsoever, unless one is going on to higher institution of learning and acquire more than our boys are getting here in the high schools ...A change in the course of study in our boys* high school as set up at present is very badly needed. Public School Curricula During the War In considering the curricula employed in the public schools in Louisiana during and immediately following the civil war, we find that outside of New Orleans, the grade levels on which the courses were employed were not always clearly differentiated. Especially was this true prior to 1870, at about which date the matter of grading in public schools was more seriously considered. The curricula of the schools in general over the State in 1861, New Orleans excepted, included reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, geography, English and trench grammar, history, dictation and composition; in a few grammar schools a little algebra, geometry, Latin, and Greek were offered. A large number of the schools, in reporting the type of curricula being employed, indicated that the only subject being taught was either Latin or French; sometimes both of these were taught. In many cases, no report at all was 4 4. 2 made on this point. The courses of study in New Orleans for the same year, 1861, was as follows: Primary Department. Alphabet, spelling, reading, and arithmetic, writing in English and French, and the elements of geography. Intermediate Department. Arithmetic, geography, French and English grammar, history of the United States, modern and ancient history, composition, writing and elocution. High School. Boys. Elocution, rhetoric, history, composition, mathematics, bookkeeping, natural philosophy, French and Latin. Girls. Elocution, rhetoric, history, composition, mathematics, natural philosophy, French and Latin. It will be observed that there was no stated time or grade within the department or school in which the subjects listed were to be pursued. In the boys’ high school, for example, we are not certain which came first, French, Latin or Bookkeeping, or whether all the courses listed were taken along together, from the beginning to the end of the high school period. Moreover, we are not certain from these courses of study, as to the duration of the school session in any of these schools. Je conclude therefore, that the situation relative to the public school program in this State was a very loosely organized. The year 1864 marked the beginning of a new era in Louisiana, from a governmental standpoint. It was in this year that the State was restored to her place in the Union, under President Lincoln’s plan of general amnesty. In order to meet the conditions as set forth in the President’s plan, a new constitution was devised and ratified; a new group of State officials were elected. As far as the records reveal, there was very little done in an educational way in 1864. In making his report to the legislature in October, 1864, the State Superintendent of Public Education very heartily apologized for his meagre account of school affairs throughout the State, due to the fact that the parish directors unanimously refused to send him any record at all of the work 4 done during the year. The New Orleans situation however, relative to a program of work, had improved considerably by 1864. I am not sure that the materials adopted for use in the various departments and grades were particularly suited to the needs of the children, but the fact that the schools throughout the system were fairly well graded indicates a forward step in general educational procedure. The Superintendent’s report furnishes the following interesting course of study 5 for the public schools of the City: 1 The Daily Picayune, February Ist. 1860. 2 Avery, Op. Pit., 1861, p. 23. John Butler, Superintendent Public Schools of New Orleans, Report. 1861. High Schools Male Department First Year-Third Class Reading exercises, English grammar Universal history Natural- philosophy Arithmetic fifth reader; Algebra French Latin Composition and declama tion —semi-monthly. Second Year —Second Class Rhetoric Ancient geography History Chronology Chemistry Algebra Geometry Trigonometry French grammar Latin Greek Composition and declamation monthly Third Year —First Class Mental and Moral philosophy Chemistry Astronomy Surveying and navigation Bookkeeping French grammar; also classical readings; Latin grammar and reading Greek General review of studies before final examination Female Department First Year —Third Class Reading exercises--fifth reader; English grammar Rhetoric Universal history Arithmetic Algebra French syllabication, orthography, and pronunciation; Composition—monthly Second Year —Second Class Select readings Rhetoric Natural philosophy Botany Algebra French —colloquial and dictation exercises, grammar and telemaque; Composition—monthly Third Year —First Glass Select readings and composition English literature Mental and moral philosophy Ancient geography—history and chronology; Astronomy-J- Geometry Chemistry French —colloquial and dictation exercises; French into English and fice versa; classical reading; General review of studies before final examination 4 McNair, John, Op. Cit., 1864, p. 1. 5 Carter, Op. Cit., 1864. Primary and Intermediate Schools Fourth Department Division A Alphabet and spelling; Formation of letters and figures on the slate and blackboard; Elementary tables or arithmetic . Third Department Reading—third reader Spelling--Webster 1 s speller Geography Second Department Reading—fourth reader Orthography—definitions and dictations, daily; Geography First Department Reading—fourth reader, orthography and definitions; English grammar United States history Arithmetic Division B Reading—second reader Spelling—Webster * s speller Writing —elements of writing on a slate; Geography Arithmetic Arithmetic Penmanship—slates and copy books Arithmetic —to percentage ; Penmanship—copy books Geography Composition and declama tion, semi-monthly Penmanship. It is interesting to observe that the public school system of New Orleans was composed of primary and intermediate schools of four departments and eight divisions or grades, and of high schools with male and female departments of three years each. The foreign languages offered in the high schools were Latin, Greek and French. In all three years of the high schools for both boys and girls, the French language was emphasized. In commenting on this point, the city superintendent had this to say: In the course of study assigned to the high schools, special provision was made for thorough instruction in the elements of the French language, so fondly cherished by a large and respectable portion of our community, and so much appreciated abroad as a medium of international intercourse. By 1869 the enrollment in the high schools in New Orleans had increased to 540. The course of instruction in the Central (boys) high school had been extended to include four years of study; the courst of study for the two girl's 7 high schools remained three years in length. The superintendent goes on to say that about 25% of the admissions to these high schools remained to the end of the court, a fact entitled to consideration in estimating the worthfulness of the institutions. 6 Carter, Op. Cit., 1864. 7 Rogers, William 0., Op. Pit., 1869. Public School Curricula During Reconstruction The first meeting of the State Board of Education, appointed under the new school law of 1869, was held in the State superintendent’s offices April 6, 1870. After a brief address by the State superintendent, the president of the board appointed a number of standing committees one of which was the committe on rules and regulations. The function of this committee was to recommend the grades of schools and the courses of study to be employed throughout the State for the year 1870. The third day of the meeting of the board, the committee on rules and regulations made its report, which was unanimous-8 ly adopted, as follows: Rule 1. —The grades of schools in the State of Louisiana shall be designated as primary, grammar, high, and normal schools. Rule 2. —In the primary schools there shall be’ taught: Rudiments of Reading Spelling Writing Arithmetic In the grammar schools there shall be taught: Reading English grammar Writing Geography Arithmetic History of the United States and where practicable, vocal music and drawing. Rule 3. —The primary and grammar schools shall contain four grades of departments, known as first and second primary, and first and second grammar departments; but in sparsely settled districts of the country, the primary and grammar schools may be united, at the discretion of the local boards. Rule 4. —The high schools shall be for the education of all children who are competent to pursue the branches taught therein. It will be observed from the foregoing report, that the committee did not make any recommendation at all relative to the course of study to be followed in the high schools. There were only three high schools in the State in 1870, and these were in the city of New Orleans. Since the New Orleans schools were operated practically independent of the State department, probably the committee did not deem it necessary to make any recommendation on this point. In 1872, the Nev/ Orleans superintendent of education made the following observation relative to enriching the 9 curricula in the high schools: A new and appropriate prominence should be given in connection with the boys’ high school to agricultural, manufacturing, and minig science; to such study as may aid in acquiring a knowledge of the mechanical arts. In short, to technical education. ... The department of languages in the high schools should comprehend in addition to the Ancient classics and the French language, the German and Spanish tongues. The utility of this change will be readily admitted in a city whose population is so largely composed of citizens speaking those languages, and embracing so many connected with German and Spanish mercantile houses. In regard to the central boys 1 high school, I would recommend the introduction also of military exercises and drill; that is, the preliminary physical training practiced in military schools and gymnasiums of this country and Europe. Among the many changes in personnel of State and city officials, as a result of the elections of 1872, was that of superintendent of the New Orleans schools. From the beginning of his administration, superintendent Boothby emphasized the enrichment and extension of the course of study of the New Orleans schools; especial emphasis being placed upon the enrichment of the high school program. By comparing the types of curricula employed in the high schools during the years 1873 and 1875 with those of previous years, we shall be able to appreciate more fully Boothby’s attitude toward this extension program. Courses of study in the New Orleans central high school 10 for boys, 1873: First Year English Mathematics Natural Classics French Bookkeeping Sciences Composition Arithmetic Natural Latin Begin- Drawing and philosophy grammar ning Bookkeeping French Second Year Rhetoric Geometry Chemistry Caesar Above Above Ancient and contin- contin- Modern ed ed history Third Year Rhetoric Trigonom- Organic Virgil Elemen- Above Mental etry and Chemistry Greek tary contin- philosophy Surveying Astronomy Reader French ed Grammar Fourth Year Moral Mechanics Geology Virgil Above Above philosophy civil en- Cicero com- com- Elements of gineering Xeno- pleted pleted criticism phon's Anabasis Course of study in the two girls 1 high schools, city of New Orleans, First Year English Mathematics Natural French Exer- Music Science cises English gram- Arithme- Botany French Abstracts Under mar, Elements tic Physio- grammar Composi- charge of composition, Algebra logy Reader tions, of spe- Rhetoric, Gen. Elocu- cial" History tion teacher Junior Year Second Year Rhetoric Advanced Natural Above Above Gen. His- Algebra philoso- contin- continu- tory, Eng. phy ed ed literature Senior Year Third Year English Elements Chemistry Above Literary Literature of Astronomy Continued exercises, Intellec- Geometry Physiology Paper edit- tual phi- Moral phil- ed by pupils losophy osophy Course of studies in the New Orleans central high school , x _ 12 (boys), 1870. First Year Second Year Third Year Fourth Year English Rhetoric Rhetoric Moral Composition Ancient and Mental Philosophy General Modern His- philosophy Elements of History tory Trigonometry criticism Arithmetic Geometry Surveying Mechanics Algebra Chemistry Organic Chern- Civil Engineer- Natural Caesar istry ing philosophy Greek Astronomy Geology Latin French Virgil Virgil French Bookkeeping Greek, reading Cicero Bookkeeping and Drawing French, reading Xenophon's and Drawing Bookkeeping Anabasis and Drawing French Bookkeeping and Drawing Course of studies in the New Orleans girls’ high schools, 1875. First Year Second Year Third Year Eng English Gram- Rhetoric and English literature mar composition Intellectual philosophy Elements of Abstracts Literary exercises composition Elocution Paper edited by students Abstracts English Liter- Journals daily Rhetoric ature French, reading Elocution General history Chemistry General history French grammar and reader Botany Physiology Arithmetic Algebra Advanced algebra Natural Philosophy French grammar and reader Astronomy Physiology Moral philosophy Elements of geometry In our study of the development of the curricula, especially in the New Orleans high schools, during the reconstruction period, we observe that two phases were emphasized, viz., (1) the lengthening of the program and (2) the enrichment of it. The courses of study in the primary and grammar schools were sorely neglected. The three r’s practically V I constituted the program of work in these schools. 8 State Board of Education, Proceedings, April 8, 1870. 9 Carter, Op. Cit., 1872. —— Boothby, Dp. Cit., 1873. 11 Ibid., 1873. 12 Boothby, Op. Cit., 1875. Public School Textbooks From the beginning of formal education down to the present, selecting proper textbooks has been one of the large problems of the educator. Elementary and high schools have always made large use of textbooks, and colleges and universities at various stages of their development, were slavish in their use. The purpose of this discussion is to point out the various types of textbooks used in the public schools in Louisiana during the reconstruction period. In every possible instance, the title of the book, author, and publisher are given. During the first year of the war of the civil war, we find that the following books were recommended and adopted as texts for academies and normal schools in the 13 State: Name of Book Author Publisher Essentials of Whitney G. Ellis & Brothers English grammar Composition and Rhetoric Hart " n n n English Literature Johnston & Browne J. C. Eyrich Fifth Reader Wilson's Family Series G. Ellis & Brothers Literary Reader Cathoart " " " w Etymological Reader Sargent & May " " " " Physical Geography Maury J. c. Eyrich Elements of General History Carter * " ~ ” r First Book of Anatomy Cutter Stevens & Seymour 14 Weeks of Geology, Zoology, Chemistry, Philosophy, Astronomy, Steele M. V. Calvin Higher Analytical Arithmetic Sanford J. C. Eyrich Elementary Algebra Robinson M. V. Calvin Elements of Geometry Venable " " " Comprehensive Dictionary Worcester J. C. Eyrich Drawing Books Bartholemew " " " Bookkeeping Bryant & Stratton M. V. Calvin Music Readers and Charts Mason & Eichberg " " " The publishers of textbooks used in the public schools of New Orleans in 1864 are not given, but the authors and 14 titles of the texts follow: 13 State Board of Education, Proceedings, 1861 Primary and Intermediate Schools Fourth Department Title of Book Author Normal Cards for Alphabet Webb Elementary Speller Noah Webster Primary Arithmetic Perkins Primary Geography Monteith (Writing done on slate and blackboard) Third Department Elementary Speller Noah Webster Elementary Geography Monteith Primary Arithmetic Perkins (Penmanship--slates and copybooks) Second Department Entire Geography Practical Arithmetic (Penmanship—copybooks) McNally Perkins First Department English grammar Q.uackenbos United States history Practical Arithmetic Geography Perkins McNally There was a reader suitable to each department, but neither the title nor the author of these books is given. Composition and declamation were given semi-monthly in the first department. 14 Carter, Ojo. Cit., 1864. High Schools Male Department First Year Title of Book Author Reading exercises, National series English grammar Universal history Natural philosophy Practical arithmetic Algebra Quackenbos Willard Quackenbos Perkins Davies’ Bourdon Levizac French grammar Arnold’s Latin lessons Harkness Second Year Rhetoric Algebra Quackenbos Bourdon Legendra geometry and trigonometry Davies French grammar Latin-Caesar Greek grammar Telemaque Arnold Bullion Third Year Mental and Moral philosophy Abercrombie Astronomy Burritt Burritt Elementary surveying and navigation Davies Elements of bookkeeping Bryant & Stratton French grammar Telemaque Greek Lessons Bullion Latin-Virgin Arnold Female Department First Year Reading exercises, National series English grammar Quackenbos Rhetoric, Part third Title of Book Universal history Algebra French grammar Second Year Select readings Rhetoric Natural philosophy Botany Algebra French grammar and dictation exercises Third Year Select readings and composition English literature Mental and moral philosophy History and Chronology of Ancient geography Astronomy Geometry Chemistry French dictation exercises and classical readings Author Willard Davies Levizac Quackenbos n Wood Davies Levizac Cleveland Abercrombie Burritt Davies Levizac A legislative Act of 1865 gave the Governor authority to purchase and distribute elementary school books for the benefit of the children of elementary grades throughout the State. Those who were financially able to pay the publication cost of books used were required to do so. To indigent children, school books were issued gratuitously. The Act is given 15 in the following paragraph: Be it enacted, That the Governor is hereby authorized to draw his own warrant the sum of #lOO,OOO or so much thereof as may be necessary, out of the school fund, and to expend the same in the purchase of suitable elementary school books, which he will deliver to the treasurer, who shall distribute the same to the several polica juries of the several parishes, to be by them in turn distributed equally among the children thereof between the ages of six and sixteen years, upon payment by such children of the cost of publication there. Books to be given gratuitously in case of necessity. The State board of education in regular session, April 6, 1870, acting under special authority from the legislature, appointed a committee of its members to examine textbook publications, and recommend a series of texts to be used in the public schools of the State. In its investigations, the textbook committee discovered that the lack of uniformity in the use of textbooks had become not only an embarrassment to both teachers and pupils, but also a hinderance to the harmonious working of a State school system. Books of every sort were found in use in the schools throughout the State. On April Sth the report of the textbook committee was received and unanimously approved by the board. The following books were recommended by the committee for use in the 16 elementary schools: Books Authors Readers Willson’s Series Spellers Willson’s Series Grammars Harvey’s Series Geographies (for elementary classes) Mitchell’s Series Geographies (for higher classes) Guyot’s Series Arithmetics Robinson’s Series History Willson’s Series Penmanship Spencerian System Drawing Bartholomew’s Scholars’ Companion Respectfully submitted, R. K. Diossy James MeCleery R. C. Richardson J. B. Carter Committee. At a meeting of the State board of education in New Orleans, January 20, 1871, the committee on textbooks recommended a series of offerings for the high schools and academies of the State. The report was unanimously adopted with the exception of Hunt’s Literature, action on which was 17 deferred. The recommendation included the following: Books Authors Physics Steele Astronomy ” Philosophy w Chemistry " G-eology n Mathematics n Books Authors New Universal Algebra Steele New Geometry and Trigonometry ” New Surveying and Navigation n Literature of the English Language Hunt Elements of composition and rhetoric n Science of common things Wells Physiology Parvis How plants grow Gray Botany Wood Bookkeeping Bryant & Stratton Complete etymology Smith Physical geography Mitchell Moral science Wayland Improved style of slates Harper It is interesting to observe the reaction of the various district school boards relative to the adoption of textbooks recommended by the State board of education. A brief quotation from the division superintendents reports clearly reveals their attitude. From the report of the first division superintendent, 18 we have the following: Very generally, the series of textbooks recommended by the State Board of Education are in use and give satisfaction to the parents. The superintendent of the second division has this to say: l9 With but two exceptions, the textbooks used are those recommended by the State Board of Education. Some fiificulty has been experienced in obtaining them, but generally the schools are well supplised. The boards generally seem to accord very readily with the State Board's desire, as far as possible, to secure uniformity, and often direct the teachers to procure the books without even going through the formality of adopting them. Parents and guardians are very prompt in seeing their children and wards properly and promptly supplied. Mr. Diossy of the third division made the following obser- , 20 vation, concerning textbooks: It has been found extremely difficult in some places to induce the parents to supply their children with necessary textbooks. Teachers a-e perplexed constantly by the attendance week after week, of children who have no books of instruction. The excellent series of textbooks recommended by the State Board of Education has been very general ly introduced into the schools of my division. Reference was made in our discussion of the public school teachers in Louisiana to the prejudice on the part of many Southern people relative to the employment of Northern teachers and the use of textbooks written by men at the North or East in Southern schools. An advertisement, bearing on the textbook phase of the issue, appeared for several weeks in one of the New Orleans papers, in 1871. The title of the advertisement was, "Southern Books for Southern Schools". The thing which makes this advertisement most interesting is the fact that the Company of publishers advertising under the above title had their offices in New York City. The notice is of sufficient interest to quote in full. 21 Southern Books for Southern Schools School books which are unsectional, unpartisan, and unpolitical; prepared by the most eminent Southern scholars, and entirely acceptable to Southern teachers and parents. Our offerings follow: Maury’s Geographical Series —>of the Virginia Military Institute Holmes’ Readers and Spellers —University of Virginia Venable’s Arithmetical Series —University of Virginia Holmes’ History of the United States' —University of Virginia DeVere’s Erench Grammar, Readers, etc., —University of Virginia Gildersleeve’s Latin Series —University of Virginia Carter’s Elements of General History—Baltimore, Maryland Holmes’ English Grammar —University of Virginia LeConte’s Scientific Series —University of South Carolina. Johnson’s English Classics —University of Georgia University Publishing Company, 155-157 Crosby Street, New York. With every change in State school administrators there followed more or less change in textbooks and courses of study in the schools. At a meeting of the State board of education in the city of New Orleans, July 18, 1873, a committee report on textbooks was read and the following list of books was ap-22 proved for use in the public schools in the State. Readers —Wilson’s series of readers, or Harper’s United States readers; Wilson’s reading charts; Wilson’s object teaching charts. Spellers—Wilson’s series, consisting of primary and larger spellers. Arithmetics —Robinson’s series of arithmetics, algebras, and higher arithmetics, consisting of progressive table books, progressive primary arithmetic, progressive intellectual arithmetic, first lessons in mental and written arithmetic, rudiments of written arithmetic, progressive practical arithmetic, progressive higher arithmetic, new elementary algebra, new university algebra, new geometry, and trigonometry, new surveying and navigation. Grammars —Butler’s practical grammar; March’s parser and analyzer; Brown’s grammar, and grammar of grammars . Geographies—Mitchell’s new primary geography, new intermediate geography, new school geography and atlas, new physical geography, new outline maps and histories. Histories--Barnes ’ United States histories. Physiologies—Cutler’s series, consisting of his first book of analytic anatomy, physiology and hygiene; Cutler’s analytic anatomy, physiology and hygiene with questions; Cutler’s physiological charts. Composition & Rhetoric —Kerl’s Bookkeeping—Bryant & Stratton’s Botany—Bray’s ”how plants grow;” Wood’s ’’object lessons.” Writing books —Harper’s series, and Payson, Denton & Scribner’s. Etymology--Butler ’s "scholar’s companion.” Drawing books —Wilson’s drawing books and drawing guide. Astronomy—Steele 1 s Philosophy—Steele ’s Chemistry—Steele ’s Ge ology—Steele ’s Dictionaries—Worcester’s series. Speakers, etc. —Deford’s junior and senior speaker; Hutching’s national school festival. Miscellaneous—Wickersham’s methods of instruction; Wickersham’s school economy. A slight change in the textbook law was made in 1874 to the effect that the State board of education should designate what textbooks to be used in the public schools of the several parishes (counties) of the State, but with the specific understanding that when textbooks had been designated, no change 23 could be made for a period of two years. 15 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1865, Act No. p. 26. 16 State Board of Education, Proceedings, April 8, 1870 17 State Board of Education, Proceedings, January 20, 1871. 18 Richardson, R. 0., Division Superintendents Report, 1870 19 Stoddard, E. S., Division Superintendents Report, 1870. 20 Diossy, R. K., Division Superintendent *s Report, 1870. 21 New Orleans Christian Advocate, October 26, 1871. 22 State Board of Education, Proceedings, July 18. 1873. 23 Acts of Louisiana Legislature, 1874, Act No. 122, p. 215. CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary Seven years before Louisiana became a State, the Territorial legislature made liberal provision for a system of public education throughout her domain. At this early date however, the inhabitants of this newly acquired terri tory were not particularly interested in public school edu cation, but rather chose to educate their children in private institutions, a type of school in which they had received their own training. As a result of this lack of interest in public schools, together with the further fact of sparsely settled communities, poor means of communication and travel, unbridged rivers, dense forests and swamps with their lurking wild beasts, and a general dearth of educational facilities, public education made meagre headway in the State during the first half of the 19th century. In 1845, however-, acting largely upon the urgent appeals of a group of public spirited citizens, among whom was Governor Henry Johnson, a constitutional convention was held in which a new State constitution was adopted. Among the chief provisions of this instrument was an article relative to public education. Machinery for a fairly complete system of elementary and high school was provided, but the proper legislative enactments had scarcely been completed and the system set in working order when the civil war came on. On account of the poverty-stricken condition of the people, there was not much done in an educational way in the State during the larger portion of the war period. Near the end of the conflict however, under the Presidential reconstruction program, the citizens of the commonwealth began in great earnest to rebuild their educational instituions which had fallen into decay during the conflict. A semblance of a public school program, open and free to all children regardless of race or color, was just getting under way Mhen the unfortunate break between President Johnson and Congress occurred. As an immediate result of this breach between the executive and the legislative departments of the national government, Louisiana, along with other Southern States, was declared ineligible for membership in the Union of States, and was forced to adopt a new constitution, in order to satisfy the requirements of Congress. During the eight years, 1868 to 1876 in which Louisiana was being reconstructed by Congress, the econimic, political and educational coridiUons of the State were in a more or less chaotic condition. There were many factors which might be cited as constituting the cause cf this general unstable condition, seme of which were (1) ignorance on the part of the masses, (2) prejudice against outside influences, such as (a) military interference, (b) office seekers from among the late immigrants into the State and (c) public school teachers from other sections of the country. Moreover, the organization and operation cf certain secret societies such as the Ku Klux Klan, the Flaming Sword and the Knights of the White Camelia played no small part in creating and maintaining a chaotic situation. With such conditions as are here suggested obtaining, it is but natural to conclude that educational matters received minor consideration, or at the most, attained but meagre achievements. With the single exception of the New Orleans schools, this was the case. In this city however, a fairly well conducted system of public education has been in operation since 1841. Generally speaking, the public school teachers were very poorly qualified for their work, due to the fact that teacher?, training institutions were tardy in being established. The general complaint over the State was to the effect that the children were being taught by inadequately trained teachers. Salaries of teachers, by and large, however, were relatively high. There were a number of general public school enactments by the legislature, from time to time, many of which were never very well enforced. A notable example of these was the famous Article number 135 of the general school act of 1869, relative to mixed schools. Attempts to enforce this enactment resulted in much strong opposition by white parents. In the Majority of instances neither the white nor the colored parents sought mixed schools for their children; they preferred to operate on the customary principle of separate schools for the two races. Textbooks and curricula employed during this period were of the lock-step type. Books were usually very poorly written, and the program of studies was correspondingly narrow, Usually, a single-track course of study was employed, the pupil having no choice whatever in the matter of subjects Conclusions On the basis of our findings, we fell justified in making the following deductions: 1. That one of the major obstacles in the way of public school development in Louisiana during the reconstruction period was the attempt to enforce the legislative enactment of 1869, providing for the establishment of mixed schools for white and colored children throughtout the State. Wherever theenf or cement of this lav/ was attempted, it resulted in a serious disruption of the program of work, tended to discourage the white parents who were interested in public schools, and in a few cases was the direct cause of the school being closed. 2. Outside of New Orleans, the public schools were very noorly organized and administered, due to the fact that the great majority of white peonle who might have been fairly well qualified to look after tie schools, refuesd to have anything to do with them. 3. Excepting the New Orleans schools, the matter of supervision of instruction was practically nil. There were no supervisors except the State and six division superintendents, any of whom rarely ever visited the schools within their jurisdiction to ascertain what was going on. 4. The status of the teaching staff by and large, was very low, especially from the standpoint of educational qualifications, owing to the fact that high qualifications were not uniformly demanded, and for the further fact that there was a dearth of teacher-training institutions . 5. Although teachers constantly complained of low salaries, the data seem to show that public school teachers were paid quite well, especially #hen we consider the purchasing power of a dollar in that day. The average salary paid teachers throughout the State in 1870, was $57.00 per month. In the city of New Orleans during the same year, the average was §65.66 per month. 6, In considering the Mew Orleans situation we find that a system of public primary, grammar and high schools was fairly successfully conducted during the reconstruction period. The principal reasons for the success of the New Orleans schools were (1) the fact that they were in a city, and (2) thet New Orleans was practically independent of the State in the operation of its schools. 7. A study of textbook materiels and courses of study employed reveals the fact that for the most part throughout this period, the program of work in the schools was very narrow and thoroughly classical in nature. The absence of proper objectives for schools included in the system probably accounts largely for the type of proram used. BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Source Material Acts of the Louisiana Legislature, Baton Rouge: State printing Office, 1847-1876. Bureau of Freedmen and Abandoned Lands, Report; New Orleans, 1865. Constitutions of Louisiana; Baton Rouge: State Printer, 1845, 1852, 1864, 1868. Divisional Superintendents 1 Reports; Baton Rouge, State Department of Education, 1868-76. House and Senate Journals, 40th Congress, Ist Session, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1868. House and Senate Journals, 40th Congress, 2nd Session, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1868. Laws and General Ordinances, City of New Orleans, 1866, 1867, 1870. Legislative Documents, I; Baton Rouge, State Department, 1846. McDonogh, John, The Last Will and Testament, New Orleans Office of Daily Delta, 1851. National Education Association, Proceedings, 1871, 1874. New Orleans Christian Advocate, 1871. New Orleans Advocate and Journal of Education, 1870. New Orleans Price-Current, June 1868. New York Times, 1866, 187 2, 1873, 1875. Peabody Education Trustees, Proceedings, Cambridge: Press of John Wilson & Son, 1867. Peabody Education Fund, Trustees, Proceedings, Cambridge: Press of John Wilson & Son, 1871, 1874. Sere te of the United States, Heports; 38th Congress, Second Session: Washington: Government Printing Office, 1865. Scribner’s Magazine, November, 1873. Superintendents of Public Education, Reports, Baton Rouge, 1845-1377 The Daily National Intelligencer, Washington: 1867. The Southwestern, Shreveport, Louisiana: 1865, 1866. The Daily Picayune, New Orleans: 1860. United States Census, Reports, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1868-1876. The New Orleans Courier, October 29, 1850. The New Orleans Republican, August, 17, 1873. The New Orleans Bulletin, September 15, 1875. United States Senate, Reports: 38th Congress, Second Session; Washington: Government Printing Office, 1865. United States Commissioner of Education, Report, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1871. 11. Secondary Sources Barnard, Henry, Barnard’s Journal of Education. Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, New York: The MacMillan Company, 1890. Brown, Elmer E., The Making of our Middle Schools, New York; Ginn & Company, 1905. Brown, Elwood E., The Making of our Middle Schools; New York: Longmans, Green & Company, 1905. Burgess, John W. , ’’Reconstruction & the Constitution,” Annual American Academy, 20:431-434, September, 1902. Burgess, John W., Reconstruction and the Constitution, 1866-76; New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909. Chambers, Henry E., A History of Louisiana; Chicago: American Historical Association, 1925. Curry, U. L. M. Southern States of the American Union, Nev/ York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1895. Dexter, Edwin G., History of Education in the United States, New York: The MacMillan Company, 1916. Dunning, William A., ’’Undoing of Reconstruction,” Atlantic Monthly; 88:437-449, October, 1901. Dunning, William A., Reconstruction-Political and Economic , 1865-77, New York: Harper Brothers, 1907. Fleming, Walter L., Documentary History of Reconstruction, Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1906. Fortier, Alcee, Louisiana Studies, New Orleans: F. F. Hansell Brothers, 1894. Fortier, Alcee, History of Louisiana, New Ycrk: Manzi- & Co., Vol., IV, 1904. Garner, J. W., Reconstruction in Mississippi, New York: The MacMillan Company, 1901. Goodspeed, Weston, A., The Province and the State s-Louisiana, Baton Rouge, 1924. Hart, Albert Bushnell, American History as Told by Contemporaries , New York” The MacMillan Company, Toll TV, 1901. Howe, William W., History of New Orleans," University Studies; 1889, Baltimore: Uohns Hopkins University Press. Herbert, H. , Reconstruction and Its Results, or Why. the Solid South, Baltimore: u.T? Woodward & Comnany, 1890. Knight, Edgar W., Public Education in the South, Atlanta: Ginn and Company, 1922. Knight, Edgar W., Education in the United States, Atlanta; Ginn and Comnany, 1929. Knight, Edwar W., The Influence of Reconstruction on Education in the South, Nev/ York: Columbia University Press, 1913. King, Grace E., & Ficklen, Uohnß., History of Louisiana, New Orleans: L. Graham & Son, 1905. Leckey, William E. H., Democracy and Liberty, New York; Longmans, Green & Company, Vol., I, 1903. McClure, A. K., The South--Industrial, Financial and political , Philadelphia: J. B. LippincotT Company, 1886. MacDonald, William, Dexaumentary Source Book of American History, New York: The MacMillan Company, 1911. Magruder, Harriet, History of Louisiana, Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1909. Mayo, A. D., "The Common School in Louisiana," Report of United States Commissioner of Education; Washington: Vol. I, 1901. Monroe, Paul, Cyclopedia of Education, New York, The Mac- Millan Company, Vol. IV, 1913. Page, Thomas Nelson, ’’Southern People During Reconstruction,” The Atlantic Monthly, 88:287-304, September, 1901. Pleins, Albert, "New Orleans & Reconstruction,” The Atlantic Monthly, 88:121-131, July, 1901 Rhodes, James Ford, History of the United States, 1850- 1877, New York: The MacMillan Company, VoI.IV, 1910. APPENDIX A The following is the order issued by Major General Banks, making provisions for the education of Freedmen, referred to in page 46. Headquarters, Department of the Gulf New Orleans, March 22, 1864. GENERAL ORDERS NO. 38 In pursuance of the provisions of General Orders No. 23 current series, for the rudimental instruction of the Freddmen of this Department, placing within their reach the elements of knowledge which give intelligence and greater value to labor, and reducing the provisions necessary therefor an economical and efficient school system: It is ordered that a Board of Education, consisting of three persons, be hereby constituted, with the following duties and powers: 1. To establish one or more Common Schools in each and every school district that has been or may be defined by the Parish Provost Marshals, under orders of the Provost Marshal General. 2. To acquire by purchase, or otherwise, tracts of land which shall be judged by the Board necessary and suitable for school sites, in plantation districts, to be not less than one half acre in extent; to hold the same in trust to themselves until such schools shall have been established, when they shall transfer all the right and title thereto that may have vested in them to the Superintendent of Public Institutions, or other competent State authority. 3. To erect upon said plots of land such school houses as they may judge necessary and proportioned to the wants of the population of the district, where there are no buildings available and proper for school purposes. And in this, as in all other duties, they shall exercise the strictest economy. 4. To select and employ proper teachers for said schools, as far as practicable, from the loyal inhabitants of Louisiana, with power to require their attendance for the purpose of instruction in their duties, one week at least at a Normal School, to be conducted by the Board. 5. To purchase and provide the necessary books, stationery and apparatus, for the use of such schools, and in addition thereto to purchase and furnish an outfit of a well-selected library, etc., for each freed person in the several school districts who is above the age of attending school duty, at a cost to each, including a case to contain the same, no exceeding two and a half dollars, which sum shall be included in the general tax hereinafter provided, but shall be deducted from the laborer's wages by his employer, when such books are furnished. 6. To regulate the course of study, discipline and hours of instruction for children on week days, and adults on Sundays; to require such conformity to their regulations and such returns and reports from their teachers as they may deem necessary to secure uniformity, thoroughness and efficiency in said schools. 71 To have generally the same authority and perform the same duties that Assessors, Supervisors and Trustees have in the Northern States, in the matter of establishing and conducting Common Schools. And for the full accomplishment of these purposes and the performance of the duties enjoined upon them, the Board shall have full power and authority to assess and levy a School Tax upon real and personal property, including crops of plantations, in each and every before mentioned School District. The said taxes so levied shall be sufficient in amount to defray the cost and expense of establishing, furnishing, and conducting for the period of one year the school or schools so established in each and every of the said districts; and said taxes shall be collected from the person or persons in the occupation of the property assessed 8. The taxes so assssed and levied in and for each district shall becollected and paid over to the Board by the Parish Provost Marshal, within thirty days after the tax list and schedule shall have been placed in his hands; and he shall forthwith report to the Board whether there are in the districts of his Parish any buildings available and suitable for school houses, and shall at all times, when required, assist by his authority the Board in carrying out the spirit of this order. The taxes, when collected, shall be forthwith deposited in the First National Bank of New Orleans, subject only to the order of the whole Board, which shall make a monthly exhibit of accounts and report of their doings to the Commanding General. 9. In the performance of all their duties the Board shall cooperate, as far as practicable, with the Superintendent of Public Education, recently elected. 10. The current school year shall be estimated from February Ist, 1864, to February Ist, 1865. 11. The following officers and citizens are appointed on this Board and will be obeyed and respected accordingly. *Col. H. N. Frisbee, Twenty-second Infantry, Corps d’Afrique Lieutenant E. M. Wheelock,Fourth Infantry, Corps d’Afrique Isaac G. Hubbs, New Orleans By Command of Major General Banks: Richard B. Irwin Assistant Adjutant General *Col. Frisbee was relieved soon after his appointment, and Major B. Bush Plumley, appointed Chairman. APPENDIX B The four Congressional Acts which provided for the organization of the Southern States into Military Districts, and for the general government of said districts, are herewith given in full. An Act to provide for the more efficient Government 1 of the Rebel States. (Passed March 2, 1867) Whereas no legal State governments or adequate protection for life or porperty now exists in the rebel States of Virginia, Ngrth Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas; and whereas it is necessary that peace and good order should be enforced in said States until loyal and republican State governments can be legally established: Therefore, Be it enacted, That said rebel States shall be divided into Military Districts and made subject to the military authority of the United States as hereinafter prescribed, and for that purpose Virginia shall constitute the first district; North Carolina and South Carolina, the second district; Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, the third district; Mississippi and Arkansas, the fourth district; and Louisiana and Texas, the fifth district. Section 2. And be it further enacted, That it shall be the duty of the President of the United States to assign the command of each of said districts an officer of the army, not below the rank of brigadier general, and to detail a sufficient military force to enable such officer to perform his duties and enforce his authority within the district to which he is assigned. Section 3. And be it further enacted, That it shall be the duty of each officer assigned as aforesaid, to protect all persons in their rights of person and property, to suppress insurrection, disorder, and violence, and to punish or cause to be punished all disturbers of the public peace and criminals; and to this end, he may allow local civil tribunals to take jurisdiction of' and to try offenders, or, when in his judgment it may be necessary for the trial of offenders, he shall have power to organize military commissions or tribunals for that purpose, and all interference under color of State authority with the exercise of military authority under this act, shall be null and void. Section 4. And be it further enacted. That all persons put under military arrest by virtue of this act shall be tried without unnecessary delay, and no cruel or unusual punishment shall be inflicted, and no sentence of any military commission or tribunal hereby authorized, affecting the life or liberty of any person, shall be executed until it is approved by the officer in command of the district, and the laws and regulations for the government of the army shall not be affected by this act, except in so far as they conflict with its provisions; Provided, That no sentence of death under the provisions of this act shall be carried into effect without the approval of the President. Section 5. And be it further enacted, That when the people of any one of said rebel States shall have formed a constitution of government in conformity with the constitution of the United States in all respects, framed by a convention of delegates eledted by the male citizens of said State, twenty-one years old and upward, of whatever race, color, or previous condition who have been resident in said State for one year previous to thedday of such election, except such as may be disfranchised for participation in the rebellion or for felony at common law, and when such constitution shall provide that the elective franchise shall be enjoyed by all such persons as have the qualifications herein stated for electors of delegates, and when such constitution shall be ratified by a majority of the persons voting on the question of ratification, who are qualified as electors for delegates, and when such constitution shall have been submitted to Congress for examination and approval, and Congress shall have approved the same, and when said State, by a vote of its legislature elected under said constitution shall have adopted the amendment to the Constitution of the United States, proposed by the Thirty-Ninth Congress, and known as Article Fourteen, and when said article shall have become a part of the constitution of the United States, said State shall be declared entitled to representation in Congress, and Senators and Representatives shall be admitted therefrom on their taking the oath prescribed by law, and then and thereafter the preceding sections of this act shall be inoperative in said State; Provided, That no person excluded from the privilege of holding office by said proposed amendment to the Constitution of the United States, shall be eligible to election as a member of the convention to frame a constitution for any of said rebel States, nor shall any such person vote for members of such convention. Section 6. And be it further enacted, That, until the people of said rebel States shall be by law admitted to representation in Congress of the United States, and civil governments which may exist therein shall be deemed provisional only, and in all respects subject to the paramount authority of the United States at any time to abolish, modify, control, or supersede the same; and in all elections to any office under such provisional governments all persons shall be entitled to vote, and none others, who are entitled to vote, under the provisions of the fifth section of this act; and no persons shall be eligible to any office under any such provisional governments who would be disqualified from holding office under the provisions of the third article of said Constitutional amendment. Second Reconstruction Act March 23, 1867 An Act supplementary to an Act entitled ”An Act to pro- vide for the more efficient Government of the Rebel States,” 2 passed by the United States Congress, March 2, 1867 Be it enacted..., That before September 1, 1867, the commanding general in each district defined by the Act of March 2, 1867, shall bause a registration to be made of the male citizens of the United States, twenty-one years of age and up wards, resident in each county or parish in the State or States, included in his district, which regi strationnshal 1 include only those persons who are qualified to vote for delegates by the Act aforesaid, and who shall subscribe to an oath or affirmation fixed by congress. Section 2. And be it further enacted, That after tie completion-’of the registration hereby provided for in any State, at such time and places therein as the commanding general shall appoint and direct, of which at least thirty days l public notice shall be given, an election shall be held of delegates to a convention for the purpose of establishing a constitution and civil government for such State loyal to the Union, said convention i n each State, except Virginia, to consist of the sane number of members as the most numerous branch of the legislature of such State,...in 1860, to be apportioned among the several districts, counties, or parishes of such State'by the commanding general, giving to each representation in the ratio of voters registered as aforesaid as nearly as may be. The convention in Virginia shall consist of ‘the same number of members as represented the territory now constituting Virginia in the most numerous branch of the legislature of said State in 1860, to be apportioned as aforesaid. Section 3. And be it further enacted, That at said election the registered voters of each State shall vote for or against a convention to form a constitution therefor under this Act. If a majority of the votes given on that question shall be for a convention, then such convention shall be held as hereinafter provided; but if a majority of said votes shall be against a convention, then no such convention shall be held unless a majority of all such registered voters shall have voted on the question of holding a convention. Section 4. And be it further enacted, That the commanding general of each district shall appoint as many boards of registratfcn as may be necessary, consisting of three loyal officers or persons to make and complete the registration, superintend the election and make return to him of the votes, lists of voters, and of the persons elected as delegates by a plurality of the votes cast at said election; and upon receiving said returns he shall open the same, ascertain the persons elected as delegates, according to the returns of the officers who conducted said election, and make proclamation thereof; and if a majority of the votes given on that question shall be for a convention, the commanding general, within sixty days from the date of election, shall notify the delegates to assemble in convention, at a time and place to be mentioned in the notification, and said convention, when organized, shall proceed to frame a constitution and civil government according to the -provisions of this act, and the act to which it is supplementary; and when the same shall have been so framed, said constitution shall be submitted by the convenntion for ratification to the persons registered under the provisions of this act at an election to be conducted by the officers or persons appointed or to be appointed by the commanding general, as hereinbefore provided, and to be held after the expiration of thirty days from the date of notice thereof, to be given by said convention; and the returns thereof shall be made to the commanding general of the district. Section 5. And be it further enacted, That if, according to said returns, the constitution shall be ratified by a majority of the votes of the registered electors qualified as herein specified, cast at said election, at least one half of all the registered voters voting upon the question of such ratification, the president of the convention shall transmit a copy of the same, duly certified, to the President of the United States, who shall forthwith transmit the same to Congress; and if it shall moreover, appear to Congress that the election was one at which all the registered and qualified electors in the State had an opportunity to vote freely and without restraint, fear, or the influence of fraud, and if the Congress shall be satisfied that such constitution meets the approval of a majority of all the qualified electors in the State, and if the said constitution shall be declared by Congress to be in conformity with the provisions of the act to which this is supplementary, and the said constitution shall be approved by Congress, the State shall be declared entitled to representation, and Senators, and Representatives shall be admitted therefrom as therein provided. Third Reconstruction Act July 19, 1867 An Act supplementary to an Act entitled "An Act to provide for the more efficient Government of the Rebel States," passed March 2, 1867, and the Act supplementary thereto, passed March 23, 1867 Be it enacted, That it is hereby declared to have been the true intentand meaning of the acts of March 2, and of March 23, 1867, that the governments then existing in the rebel States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, and Arkansas were not legal State governments; and that thereafter said governments, if continued, were to be continued subject in all respects to the Mill-’ tary commanders of the respective districts, and to the paramount authority of Congress. Section 2. And be it further enacted, That the commander of any district named in said act shall have power, subject to the disapproval of the General of the army of the United States, and to have effect till disapproved, whenever in the opinion of such commander the proper administration of said act shall require it, to suspend of remove from office, or from the performance of official duties and the exercise of official powers, any officer or person holding or exercising or professing to hold or exercise, any civil or military office or duty in such district under any power, election, appointment or authority derived from, or granted by, or claimed under, any so-called State or the government thereof, or any municipal or other division thereof, and upon such suspension or removal such commander, subject to the disapproval of the General as aforesaid, shall have power to provide from time to time for the performance of the said duties of such officer or person so suspended or removed, by the detail of some competent officer or soldier of the army, or by the appointment of some other person, to perform the same, and to fill vacancies occasioned by death, resignation, or otherwise. Section 3. And be it further enacted, That the General of the army of the United States shall be invested with all the powers of suspension, removal appointment, and detail granted in the preceding section to district commanders. Section 4. And be it further enacted, That the acts of the officers of the army already done in removing in said districts persons exercising the functions of civil officers, and appointing others in their stead, are hereby confirmed: Provided, That any person heretofore or hereafter appointed by any district commander to exercise the functions of any civil office, may be removed either by the military officer in command of the district, or by the General of the army. And it shall be the duty of such commander to remove from office as aforesaid all persons who are disloyal to the government of the United States, or who use their official influence in any manner to hinder, delay, prevent or obstruct the due and proper administration of this act and the acts to which it is supplementary. Section 5. And be it further enacted, That the boards of registration provided for in the act of March 23, 1867, shall have power, and it shall be their duty before alloing the registration of any person, to ascertain, upon such facts or information as they can obtain, whether such person is entitled to be registered under said act, and the oath required by said act shall not be conclusive on such question, and no person shall be registered unless such board shall decide that he is entitled thereto, and such board shall also have power to examine, under oath, any one touching the qualifications of any person claiming registration; but in every case of refusal by the board to register any applicant, and in every case of striking his name from the list, as hereinafter provided, the board shall make a note or memorandum, which shall be returned with the registration list to the commanding general of the district, setting forth the grounds of such refusal or such striking from the list: Provided, That no person shall be disqualified as member of any board of registration by reason of race or color; Section 6. And be it further enacted, That the true intent and meaning of the oath prescribed in said supplementary act is, (among other things), that no person who had been a member of the legislature of any State, or who has held any executive or judicial office in any State, whether'he has taken an oath to support the Constitution of the United States or not, and whether he was holding such office at the commence ment of the rebellion, or had held it before, and who has afterwards engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof is entitled to be registered or to vote; and the words "executive or judicial office in any State" in said oath mentioned shall be construed to include all civil offices created by law for the administration of any general lav; of a State, or for the administration of justice. Section 7. And be it further enacted, That the time for completing the original registration provided for in said act may, in the discretion of the commander of any district, be extended to October 1, 1867; and the boards of registration shall have power, and it shall be their duty, commencing fourteen days prior to any electionuunder said act, and upon reasonable public notice of the time and place thereof, to revise, for a period of five days, the registration lists, and upon being satisfied that any person not entitled thereto has been registered, to strike the name of such person from the list, and such person shall not be allowed to vote, And such board shall also, during the same period, add to such registry the names of all persons who at that time, be entitled to register or to vote by reason of any executive pardon or amnesty for any act or thing which, without such pardon or amnesty, would disqualify him from registration or voting. Section 8. And be it further enacted, That section four of said last named act shall be construed to authorize the commanding general named therein, whenever he shall deem it needful, to remove any member of a board of registration and to appoint another in his stead, and to fill any vacancy in such board. Section 9. And be it further enacted, That all members of said boards of registration and all persons hereafter elected or appointed tocffice in said military districts, under any so-called State or municipal authority, or by detail or appointment of the district commanders, shall be required to take and to subscribe to oath of office prescribed by law for officers of the United States. Section 10. And be it further enacted, That no district commander or member of the board of registration, or any of the officers or appointees acting under them, shall be bound in his action by any opinion of any civil officer of the United States. Section 11. And be it further enacted, That all provisions of this act and of the acts to which this is supplementary shall be construed liberally, to the end that all the intents thereof may be fully and perfectly carried out. Fourth Reconstruction Act March 11, 1868 4 An Act to Amend the Act of March 23, 1867 Be it enacted, That hereafter any election authorized by the act of March 23, 1867..., shall be decided by a majority of the votes actually cast: and at the election in which the question of the adoption or rejection of any constitution is submitted, any person duly registered in the State may vote in the election district where he offers to vote when he has resided therein for ten days next preceding such election, unon presentation of his certificate of registration, his affidavit, or other satisfactory evidence, under such regulations as the district commanders may prescribe. Section 2, And be it further enacted, That the constitu tional convention of any of the States mentioned in the acts to which this is amendatory may provide that at the time of voting upon the ratification of the constitution the registered voters may vote also for members of the House of Representatives of the United States, and for all elective officers provided for by the said constitution; and the same election officers who shall make the return of the votes cast on the ratification or rejection of the constitution, shall enumerate and certify the votes cast for member s of Congress. 3 TT House and Senate Journals, 40th Congress, Ist Session, 1867. and Senate Journals, 41st Congress. Ist Session, 1868. INDEX PAGE Appropriations, 1847-1860 23 Avery, Henry--Superintendent--1862 24 Appropriations 1861 24 Acts of Legislature Concerning Schools, 1869-1876 67 Appropriations 1876 76 Administration, Unit of: 81 Administrative Expense 1870 116 Alexandria ..High School 159 Appropriations, 1847-1876 165 Administration of New Orleans Schools 196 B Bossier Parish (County) 27 Baton Rouge--Authority to maintain schools 39 Bureau —The Freedmen’s 42 & 187 Brown, Wiliam G.--State Superintendent, 1872- 1876 118 " " Report of: 1875 150 Bolton High School 161 Butler, General Benmamin--New Orleans-- 183 c Carrigan, J. N., State Superintendent —1855 19 Curricula--New Orleans Schools 21,32,221 Constitution--State--1845 11 Constitution —State —1864 36 Constitution--State--1868 64 Congressional Reconstruction Acts 55 Conway, Thomas W.--State Superintendent 1868- 1872 76 Curry, U. L. M. —General Agent--Peabody Fund 99 Cross-Section of School Conditions —1870 110 Congressional Investigating Committee--1872 142 Coushatta Riot —The 145 Curricula —New Orleans Schools 182,191 Cost of Instruction —New Orleans 197 Comparative costs of city school instruction 197 Colored Children--Schools for: 200-207 Commencement program —New Orleans High School 214 Certification of teachers 216 D Dimitry, Alexander —Ist State Superintendent, 1847 14 w ” Salary of: 15 Division Superintendents--Provision for: 64 ” ” Heports 89 E Education during the Civil War 24 Economic condition in Louisiana 1868-1876 52 Enrollment 92 Educational Journal published 147 Examinations--entrance —1873 223 F Funds--public school-1848- 16 ” sources of: 16 Free School Books—lB6s 38 Freedmen 1 s Bureau, The 42,187 abolished 51 Financial conditions in Louisiana 1868-1876 52 Fund—School-1867-1868 84 Funds—Exploitation of: 134 Funds—The John McDonogh 175 Financial statement of New Orleans schools 1875 231 G Graded school-New Orleans 21 H Hahnville School, The 162 I Iberville Parish (county) report—lB6l 28 Illiteracy in Louisiana, 1873 132 Institutes, Teachers’ 148 J Journal —Scho&l, Published 147 K Kellogg, William Pitt, Governor —1872-1876 59 L Legislation—Public School--1847 13 Legal basis for public schools 64 Legislation relative to public schools 67 Lands, School 74,146 Lacy, J. W.--Divisional Supt. - Report 89 Lusher, Robert M. 101 M McNair, John —Supt.--1864--Report 40 Mixed Schools —Provision for: 65 " ” Discussion of: 86 Mayo, Claudius —Division Supt. - Reoort 94 Method, The 8 McDonogh, John--Fund 175 Last Will & Testament 178 Mixing Schools in New Orleans 202 N Nicholas, Robert Carter—Supt.—1852 17 Normal Training Departments 18 New Orleans, Schools 1841-1850 20 " ” Graded--Curricula 21 ” M Established city system 23 " ” Constituted a public school district 39 ” M School situation 170,189 ” " Riot 192 ” ” Teachers and qualifications 200 New Era in Education in Louisiana 72 0 Organization of Schools —New Orleans 171 P Parish (county) Supt.--Office created, 1847 13 ” abolished 18 Political conditions in Louisiana 1868-1876 52 pinchback, Lieutenant Governor, 1868-1872 59 Public Schodi condition of: 82 peabody Education Fund 98 --Distribution of (1867- 101 1868) 102 Political corruption 138 Problem, The 6 R Richardson, R. C.--Divisional Supt. - Report 93 Rapides Parish (count#)-- Report 95 s Schools--pub lie—lBso 17 State Superintendent—Dimitry—lB47 14 State Superintendent—Nicholas— 1852 17 Superintendent-Parish (county) created—lB47 13 State Superintendent—Carrigan—lBss 19 Superintendent—Parish (county) Abolished—lBs2 18 School Term-Length of: 1855-1860 19 State Superintendent--Henry Avery 24 S&te Superintendent—Office Abolished—lB6s 38 State'Superintendent—John McNair—lB64 40 Social Conditions in Louisiana—lB6B-1876 52 State Superintendent—Thomas W. Conway, 1868-1872 76 Sears, Dr. Barnas —General Agent—Peabody Fund 98 State Superintendent--William G. Brown—lB72-1876 118 State Department ofEducation Reorganized 119 Supervision of Instruction 121 School Situation in Louisiana —1873 131 Sources and Materials 5 School Lands 14g Stat istics—School—lB73, 1874, 1875 165 Salary Schedule—Teachers 219 School Houses —McDonogh 233 Supervising of Igst 249 T Teachers--Salary of: 1855 19 Treasurer-Parish, office of; 33 Teachers —During Civil War 34 Textbooks ” ” ” 34,267,280 Turner, T. M.--Division Superintendent-Report 96 Teachers’ Institutes 148 Teachers —Northern 167 Teachers--Comparative salaries 198 Teachers’ Convent ion—lB72 211 ” Certificates 216 ” Facilty for training 239 ” Certification of, 242 ” Examinations questions 247 M Supervision 249 n Status of: 252 ” Number and Salary U Unit of School Administration 81 ¥ Value of the Study 9 W Warmoth, Henry Clay--Governor, 1868 57 Wharton Union School 55