Browsing by Subject "Qualitative research"

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An evaluation of the feedback report for the preventive resources inventory
(2019-09-18) Murphy, Susan Laura; McCarthy, Christopher J; French, Karen D; Keith, Timothy Z; Lambert, Richard; Sanchez, Delida
Research on how individuals cope with stress has spanned numerous academic and scientific disciplines, including the fields of counseling and psychology. Investigations have more recently focused on preventive coping, or the coping strategies used by individuals to manage existing stressors and prepare for future demands. The Preventive Resource Inventory (PRI) was developed to assess coping resources for mitigating or preventing stress, rather than withstanding it. The PRI was recently revised to reflect more current theoretical perspectives in stress and coping research, including the influence of positive psychology. This revision process involved developing and testing new items and later conducting a factor analysis to create an updated measure. The present study used the updated version of the PRI to assess the utility of a feedback report for PRI users. This study also examined how individuals understand preventive coping in the context of their own personal coping efforts. Qualitative methodologies used in this study drew on principles and procedures of phenomenology. A total of 25 graduate students and 26 undergraduate students taking a course in the College Education participated in the study, completing short answer questionnaires intended to address the study’s research questions. 11 undergraduate students also participated in follow-up interviews with me to provide more depth and clarify their responses. The short answer questionnaires and interview transcripts of 27 participants (27 short answer questionnaires and 11 transcripts) were analyzed before data saturation was achieved. Based on analyses of these data, I identified specific aspects of both the report and the overall feedback process that students found to helpful and unhelpful in augmenting their understanding of their results. I was also able to identify several recommendations for improving the PRI feedback report in the future. Regarding participants’ understanding of preventive coping, I used quantitative data from the short-answer questionnaires to identify and further inquire about specific preventive coping resources (i.e., Maintaining Perspective, Scanning, and Self-Acceptance) about which participants demonstrated discrepancies in their understanding and comprehension. Analyses also demonstrated ways in which participants contextualized their personal coping efforts, including the development of their coping efforts through dispositional and/or skill-based pathways.
Communicative strategies for organizational survival : an analysis of stereotype threat of women in petroleum engineering
(2012-05) Heller, Abigail A.; Stephens, Keri K.; McGlone, Matthew; Ballard, Dawna; Riegle-Crumb, Catherine; Berkelaar, Brenda
This study investigated stereotype threat of women in petroleum engineering, a traditionally male-dominated industry. There were two main purposes to understanding communicative aspects of stereotype threat: 1) the creation of a typology of stereotype threats received and 2) the elaboration of coping strategies used to mitigate threats. This research examined contextual factors that influence women’s coping, including socialization, psychological inoculations, and memorable messages. This work is a contribution to communication research as it examines these components through the lens of scripts, which considers stereotype threat from a new perspective that suggests people are active participants in mitigating threats. To complete this study, I performed 61 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with current or former female petroleum engineers. Through constant comparison (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) I analyzed the data and produced an initial set of 13 different stereotype threats and 11 distinct coping strategies. Upon further comparison, the threats and coping strategies were each consolidated further to five core categories. This typology aligns threats on a spectrum that runs from passive actions to overt actions, and threats closely adhere to the underperformance benchmarks of previous stereotype threat research (Aronson & McGlone, 2009). The coping strategies address specific actions women take to mitigate threats, and the strategies align with the long-term responses to stereotype threat proposed by Block, Koch, Liberman, Merriweather, and Roberson (2011). In addition, the coping strategies execute problem- and emotion-based coping (Folkman and Lazarus, 1980). A distinctive feature of coping is dualistic subversions, which is when women use a subverted stereotype threat to mitigate it. Finally, this study suggests that stereotype threats and coping strategies result from childhood socialization practices, a process that writes scripts workers rely upon throughout their careers. This study is a contribution to organizational communication in how it examines ways messages are communicated in male-dominated careers and how women can use communication to mitigate negative expectations that arise in those environments. In addition, it looks at communication events that encourage women to enter male-dominated careers. Finally, it adds to communication theory because it uncovers additional ways that people use scripts to mitigate stereotyping.
Costuming across borders : a cultural costuming database
(2020-05-09) Gashette, Samantha Jo Lynn; Glavan, James
Globalization has increasingly connected societies around the world. This connection has sparked a renaissance within theatre and encouraged designers to take a closer look at representation of cultural dress onstage. Where in the past costume designers and audiences relied on stereotypes to portray a specific culture, we now look for accurate historical information to inform our choices on color, silhouette, fabric selections, and construction techniques. As cultural consciousness grows, there is an ever-increasing need for peer-reviewed research that is easily accessible and reliable. To answer this need, I wanted to explore the methods traditionally used to research cultural costume pieces and how we could improve accessibility and reliability for costumers and the general public. I started by researching what sources existed for cultural costuming research as I took on investigations of the Jalisco ribbon dress from ballet folklórico of Mexico and the South Korean hanbok from the late Joseon Dynasty. I found that what information does exist is scattered across various libraries and web platforms, is often unverified, or is distant from our topic, which may have never been researched. Consequently, many costumers turn to unreliable sources of information. These issues within the research process led me to explore the usefulness of a cultural costume online database which would host peer-reviewed literature, images, interviews, and how-to instructional videos on cultural costumes. I interviewed professionals who identify with the cultural pieces represented and extensively examined the existing literature. I finished my exploration by using my newly acquired knowledge to make a how-to informational video that introduced the construction methods and historical significance of the Jalisco costume. I constructed a version of both costumes myself and documented the experience. The culmination of my thesis exploration was the creation of the web database itself. I tested the effectiveness of the website in two stages. First with cognitive interviews conducted by a costume designer, a costume technician, and a web developer, then with a survey conducted through the website. This data was used circularly to improve the webpage and establish it as an ever-growing source of reliable cultural costume information for theatre professionals.
Envisioning a sociocultural digital reading curriculum : exploring teachers' collaborative professional learning online
(2022-02-25) Nash, Brady Lee; Skerrett, Allison; Kim, Grace MyHyun; Mosley Wetzel, Melissa; Schallert, Diane L; Coiro, Julie
This dissertation study examines the experiences of five middle school English language arts teachers as they engaged in inquiry-based, online professional learning (PL) over the course of one semester. Their purpose in this PL was to develop understandings of online reading and to create curricular materials about online reading for their middle school English language arts classes. The participants came to this project with experience teaching English and literacy from a sociocultural, workshop-based tradition, and the expectation at the outset of the PL was that teachers would draw both from their own pedagogical knowledge as well as from new knowledge gained during the PL as they designed curriculum. The PL was collaboratively designed by the researcher and the team’s instructional coach; within the original design, participants were afforded a great deal of flexibility in determining the direction of their learning within the parameters of the shared topic and goals, and opportunities to facilitate PL activities themselves. Findings focus on (a) how participants learned during the semester, (b) the ideas about online reading they developed, and (c) the curricular approach and materials they constructed.
Exploratory study on factors impacting job satisfaction among ethnic minority employees
(2011-12) Koo, Lamont Bon-gul; Lewis, Kyle, 1961-; McCann, Bruce
As organizations are being confronted with the pool of people seeking employment that are increasingly diverse in terms of ethnicity (Oerlemans et al. 2008), and as job satisfaction has been one of the important drivers for work-related well-being in employees, there have been a number of studies about job satisfaction among ethnic minorities (Spector 1997). Although there is a growing body of research on job satisfaction and ethnic minorities at work, there is still a paucity of studies regarding factors impacting job satisfaction among ethnic minorities specifically. The present study explores contributing factors impacting ethnic minorities’ job satisfaction, using qualitative method based on Motivator-Hygiene Theory (Frederick 1966, 2003) and Job Characteristics Theory (Hackman and Oldham 1976). Three Hispanic/Latino Americans and three Asian Americans, all workers in construction sites in Samsung semiconductor in Austin, Texas, were individually interviewed with open-ended questions by the author in the summer of 2010. Participants reported professional development opportunities and appropriate and well-deserved compensation as the main factors impacting job satisfaction, while heavy workload, not being recognized, time constrains, and stressful work environment were reported as factors in dissatisfaction. Family, personal goals and money were the three most important personal values that participants considered when making decisions about their career paths. It is important to continue to examine other predictors of and contributing factors to job satisfaction of ethnic minority employees, so that their employers and managers in the work place can form a better understanding of these populations and work effectively with them. It is also important to educate human resources professionals about ethnic minorities’ needs and how those needs can be met for work-related well-being.
Institutional changes supporting students with pre-college credits : a collective case study approach
(2022-12-01) Aldape, Michael Edward; Somers, Patricia (Patricia A.); Kameen, Marilyn; Justiz, Manuel; Canales, Luzelma
As the number of high school graduates enrolling at universities with pre-college credit continues to grow, institutions must recognize this population’s unique educational experiences and transitional needs. Previous studies have primarily focused on quantitative measures of dual enrollment students’ academic success while ignoring how universities have changed to support these students’ transition experiences, thus creating a significant gap in the literature. This collective case study explored how three similarly attributed public universities in Texas support their students by elevating the voices of nine postsecondary practitioners tasked with helping students achieve personal and academic success. Findings identify areas where dual enrollment programming creates issues for students and institutions, while recognizing its utility for opening access and supporting completion. Moreover, findings support ongoing collaboration between K-12 and postsecondary partners to address these issues. This study provides a starting point for practitioners to rethink approaches for serving this student population.
The meanings behind the screens : a qualitative study of the Screen It! program
(2013-08) Gleixner, Alison Marie; Bain, Christina
This case study examined the Screen It! Program and focused on how this program benefitted the students. This study focused on students’ perceptions and in order to have a holistic understanding of the phenomenon, it was important to understand the viewpoint of museum educators, teachers, and students. In these types of museum-school partnerships, students’ voices are rarely heard and considered when creating curricula. Therefore, consideration of students’ voices may help museum educators craft these partnership programs in the future. Three themes emerged emphasizing the importance of expectations and program goals, curricular relevancy to student life and community, and meaningful learning outcomes. Along with utilizing relevant learning theories during classroom instruction, by actively responding to the voices and needs of the students in these areas, museum educators can provide more meaningful learning experiences for students.
Navigating diversity, equity, and inclusion : a journey to academic scholarship
(2021-06-11) Gutierrez, Denise, M.S. in Health Behavior and Health Education; Castelli, Darla M., 1967-
Introduction: The purpose of this study is to explore and identify contemporary approaches to interacting and engaging students with a diverse, equitable, and inclusive (DEI) lens among academic scholars. The research question that guided this study was: “What is the journey to develop competence in diversity, equity, and inclusion that fosters equitable teaching and interactions with college students?” Methods: Narrative analysis was conducted with The Hero’s Journey theoretical framework to showcase five participant stories and their journey towards equitable teaching. Results: The Hero’s Journey was applied and adapted to five individual stories. Each theme presented is defined and operationalized and showcases the individual under that theme. The results are presented in five-themed journeys in narrative form. Conclusion: Drawing on in-depth qualitative interviews with five faculty members at tier 1, research-intensive higher education institutions in the southern United States, this study has implications for higher education best practice and future research. These learnings include the importance of a growth mindset, the cyclical nature of multiple journeys and multiple returns, and the importance and significance of mentorship.
Negotiating open science : structuring scientific integrity and legitimacy through persuasive infrastructure
(2022-07-26) Cohoon, Johanna; Howison, James; Acker, Amelia; Dillon, Andrew; Nosek, Brian
The open science movement promotes use of digital technology to increase the efficiency, inclusivity, and quality of scientific research. Developers of these platforms often advocate for open science on the grounds that it is in keeping with scientific values, specifically referencing Mertonian norms. However, many scientists are agnostic toward open science; as policies and technology enforce the movement’s aims of sharing openly, they seek to protect the research they view as their own. This dissertation work studies the enactment of open science by a variety of stakeholders in the Open Science Framework (OSF)—its developers, its users, and also its non-users. Through remote interviews; trace data and document collection; and observation of these various populations I examine the enactment of open science. In approaching this work, I adopt a theoretical framework built on structuration theory and technologies-in-practice. This framework encourages the researcher to consider how human agents draw on their material and social contexts to affect change. By taking the open science platform OSF not as a given, but as a technology whose purpose and effects are affected by the constraints and resources of its stakeholders, I explore how developers’, users’, and non-users’ behavior is contextually structured. I generate a grounded theory of the enactment of open science via persuasive technology. I do so by iteratively collecting and analyzing data to produce an abstract, conceptual account of the studied phenomenon. My results show that open science infrastructure (OSI) developers are primarily concerned with the structuration of scientific integrity while OSI users are concerned with establishing their own scholarly legitimacy. Party to these activities are other structural influences on OSI stakeholder behavior that both complicate and facilitate their actions. This analysis revealed that OSI developers align their technology to meet user needs, often leveraging data to strategically inform design. However, using the case of preregistration on OSF, I show these data sometimes do not accurately represent the use of OSI. In my discussion I note what this data shadow might mean for researchers and OSI developers. The results of this dissertation have further implications for science policy and open systems. Drawing on my grounded theory, I show that sustainability plans for OSI conflict with researchers’ primary activity of establishing scientific legitimacy. I relate this tension to the undervaluing of software work in science and suggest it shows an undue limitation in our current conceptualization of universalism, a Mertonian norm. Furthermore, I discuss the possible future of OSI as a tool for lay-people. By leveraging the insights of my grounded theory, I argue that ongoing issues with distinguishing spam from legitimate content on OSI demonstrate the need to assist lay-people with their evaluation of open science materials. Finally, I discuss how these conclusions signal that future research should focus more on who can affect OSI.
Online community building by autistic adults
(2013-05) Bierer, Lydia Nicole; Schallert, Diane L.
One diagnostic criterion to identify individuals as having an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is that their communication patterns, social reciprocity, and interactional competence show qualitative impairment (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). And yet, my experience as an individual who was once diagnosed as ASD and my investigations of Internet websites run by and for autistic individuals led me to see that individuals who identify as ASD are not only interested in communicating with others but highly articulate in self-advocating through the affordances of online communication. My research was focused on exploring the communicative experiences of individuals who participated in two websites designed by and for autistic individuals as a means of self-advocacy, WrongPlanet and AspiesforFreedom. The method used to study the two websites was that of participant-observer. Having joined the online groups by introducing myself, I was able to peruse archived postings and current threads available on the websites. I analyzed threads of postings for themes being discussed and for features showing evidence of what Herring (2004) described as online community. Some of the postings were triangulated by interviewing participants. These interviews revealed more personal information about how one chooses to self-advocate and create community online. Results indicated that the forum posts of these two autistic-run websites demonstrated evidence of shared community and self-advocacy through the topics discussed. The autistic individuals I studied seemed to want to be seen as having a difference not a deficit. They acknowledged their struggles, but posited that individuals with ASD have strengths that are uncommon and are currently being under-utilized by society. Their use of the Internet demonstrates how autistic individuals are capable of communicating about a wide variety of topics, and are capable of contributing to the conversation about what makes them similar and different from those whom they call Neurotypical. The significance of this study is that insights I present have a different validity than other studies of autistic individuals conducted by non-autistic researchers. Also, by challenging stereotypes of the capabilities of autistic individuals, a path is created whereby all may benefit from the strengths, talents, and insights they are able to provide.
The prop metaphor : how consumers and socially-visible brands connect
(2011-05) Schulz, Heather Marie; Stout, Patricia A.; Drumwright, Minette; Eastin, Matthew; Maxwell, Madeline; Falbo, Toni
Post-purchase consumer behavior is an area of consumer research that is underdeveloped. One new phenomenon that can be used to study post-purchase consumer behavior is the individual behavior related to “socially-visible brands.” A socially-visible brand (SVB) is a brand located on or near a person’s physical body while they are out in the public atmosphere. Understanding consumers’ use of their socially-visible brands sheds light onto this form of post-purchase behavior. From a theoretical standpoint, impression management theory from the field of social psychology and consumer culture theory from the field of consumer research were juxtaposed and applied to the topic of socially-visible brands. An organizing framework is presented which adapts the dramaturgical concepts from impression management theory to the field of consumer behavior. Two studies are then presented which look at consumer behavior through this organizing framework. Study one delves into the consumer culture surrounding consumer behavior associated with socially-visible brands. Study two shows how market segmentation factors predict consumer behaviors associated with socially-visible brands. The overall argument being made here that socially-visible brands are a “prop” or tool consumers use during their presentation of self to others.
Teachers’ and center leaders’ sensemaking of inquiry-based professional learning in early childhood education and care programs : a multiple case study
(2019-04-17) Englehardt, Joanna Sue; Brown, Christopher P., Ph. D.; Nxumalo, Fikile; Salinas, Cinthia; McMullen, Mary
Professional development (PD) in early childhood education and care (ECEC) is at a critical juncture within the current accountability and standards movement. Various stakeholders position PD as a necessity to ready children within a neoliberal framing of the education process and posit universal training/PD as a solution. Conversely, many scholars continue to call for more critical approaches such as inquiry-based professional learning (IBPL) to better support the linguistically and culturally diverse early childhood landscape and address larger social-justice inequities. Yet, little is known about the mechanisms responsible for sustaining such IBPL practices. This research, therefore explores how center leaders and teachers of three ECEC programs made sense of enacting and engaging in varying forms of IBPL. Specifically guided by two research questions: 1) How do school leaders and teachers make sense of PL and their experiences within them and their school community? 2) How do school leaders and teachers make sense of IBPL and their experiences within them and their school community? Chapter 1 introduces my research questions and framing of this study. Chapter 2 reviews four stands of the literature pertinent to this study. First, it explores how PD has been defined and understood by identifying current best practices as well as exploring critical understandings within ECEC. Next, the chapter synthesizes relevant literature in the areas of teacher development research and highlights how teachers learn. Then, the chapter explores IBPL specifically by first defining then illuminating the differences between PL and IBPL as well as the varying ways IBPL has been enacted in ECEC programs. Chapter 2 then closes with a review of the theoretical framework that informs this study, sensemaking. Chapter 3 details the methodology that guided this instrumental multiple case study including data collection and analysis. Chapters 4 and 5 present the findings from this research. Chapter 4 looks at how teachers and center leaders made sense of PL and Chapter 5 looks at how they made sense of IBPL specifically. Chapter 6 addresses the significance of these findings and concludes with a discussion of implications and suggestions for future research
“There’s beauty in the struggle” : findings from the first-generation CORE (cultivating opportunities, resources, and equity) project
(2024-05) Vielma, Ana Guadalupe; Cawthon, Stephanie W.; Dr. Veronica Yan
The First-Generation CORE Project: Cultivating Opportunities, Resources, & Equity was designed to better understand and support first-generation college students. First-generation college students are defined as individuals whose parents have not yet attained a four-year college degree and are considered an underrepresented student population in higher education. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, first-generation students faced unique challenges in higher education with limited institutional support. The pandemic has further exacerbated these hardships and these impacts have yet to be examined in-depth. First-Gen CORE sought to fill this gap. Through a series of focus groups, a diverse cohort of 14 first-generation college students shared experiences regarding academic, financial, and social challenges at their university. Informed by counter-storytelling, community cultural wealth, and cultural mismatch theories, this study used a qualitative, asset-based approach to explore educational inequities through the voices of first-generation students. Five main themes emerged from the data: 1) The Emotional Complexity of the First-Generation College Student Identity, 2) The Academic Adaptation and Awareness of First-Generation College Students, 3) The Multifaceted Identities of First-Generation College Students, 4) The Financial Trials and Triumphs of First-Generation College Students, and 5) Navigating the Social Landscape in Academia as First-Generation College Students. Results demonstrate the need for tangible institutional support so first-generation college students can continue to overcome educational obstacles during the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings also discuss specific protective factors and barriers the CORE collaborators experienced during their time as students at the university.
Those who entered through the back door : characterizing adult ESL teachers and their knowledge
(2010-05) Lin, Fu-An; Schallert, Diane L.; Horwitz, Elaine K.; Svinicki, Marilla; Walters, Keith; James, Peter
Elucidating the knowledge base of those who teach adult learners in ESL (English as a Second Language) programs, this research is a qualitative study incorporating multiple data collection techniques and involving practitioners with various backgrounds from different program settings. Although educational opportunities targeting adult ESL students play an essential role in equal and extensive participation in society and academia, the status of teachers who assist these learners achieve their goals is rather marginalized, often because the students themselves are marginalized and ESL teaching is considered an undertaking that does not require special preparation. One way to enhance the professionalization of those involved in ESL is through an explication that the task of providing instruction to ESL learners is indeed an endeavor filled with complexity and requiring a strong knowledge base. This study was an attempt to contribute to this effort in fostering such professional recognition. Data were collected via a series of focused interviews, consecutive classroom observations, and a stimulated recall procedure with each of 10 teacher participants. Analysis of the data revealed that ESL teachers possessed an intricate knowledge base with multiple categories of knowledge that they called upon to deliver instruction effectively and efficiently, particularly through the management of student responses and the management of learning. The interconnection among the seemingly discrete knowledge categories further highlighted the complexity and difficulty involved in the provision of instruction to adult ESL learners. By comparing the teacher participants’ instructional effectiveness and various backgrounds, the study also illuminated the impact of ESL teachers’ professional preparation and language learning experience. Implications derived from the findings are offered for theorists and researchers, and for practitioners and administrators of programs that serve adult ESL learners.
"Wanna hang out with friends??? Okay but it’s gonna involve candy, cookies, and every other fear food” : exploring challenging communication interactions for people with eating disorders through storybridging
(2024-05) Lazenby, Braidyn S. ; Donovan-Kicken, Erin E.; McGlone, Matt; Tenore, Mallary; Dailey, Rene
Eating disorders are considered high-risk, with one of the highest mortality rates of all psychiatric diagnoses. Despite this risk, recovery and prevention of eating disorders is difficult to achieve and not widely understood. When analyzing the socially oriented risk factors that contribute to eating disorders, variables such as fat talk, stigma, and messages from parents, peers, and media are often described. However, these communication influences are rarely addressed in clinical and educational resources. Given the extent to which communication occurs on a daily basis, understanding communication challenges that emerge for people with eating disorders is an important step in patient care and clinician education. The purpose of this study was to better understand communication challenges that people with eating disorders experience and to utilize the method of storybridging to create more evidence-based educational materials for medical and public health settings. A data set of 794 posts from five Subreddits was scraped to analyze communication challenges and create storybridged narratives. Phase one of data analysis included a phronetic iterative analysis, coding data for behavior change intention and emerging themes. Results suggested that Reddit users experienced communication challenges related to eating disorder management, emotional management, and relationship management. In addition, Reddit users were predominately unknown intenders (n=104), followed by nonintenders (n=60) and intenders (n=48). Phase two of data analysis began with the recreation of nine narratives to illustrate the communication challenges with different behavior change intentions. The reconstructed narratives were pre-tested and revised in accordance to feedback. Results suggest that Reddit users experience various communication challenges while managing an eating disorder and support previous work that suggests that communication plays a role in the risk of eating disorder development and illness management. In addition, these results explore the need for an additional intention category to be included in storybridging theorizing: the unknown intender. Using storybridging as a data analysis method, recommendations for practical applications include the use of storybridged narratives as an alternative to case studies or to be used as a resource in simulated patient and clinical realism activities.
What is it like to experience sound while playing educational games? : an interpretive phenomenological investigation
(2014-12) Rosenblum, Jason Allen; Hughes, Joan E.
I took an interpretive phenomenological approach to examine what it is like to experience sound while playing educational games. I asked six people to play three educational games, for a total of 18 interview sessions. I analyzed 603 pages of interview transcripts and 22.68 hours of video recording using phenomenological research techniques to derive. I used NVivo to identify and code 1,738 meaning units across the three games studied. I organized these meaning units into related clusters and identified constituents of meaning for each game studied. I derived 27 constituents of meaning for Fate of the World, 22 constituents of meaning for Hush, and 27 constituents of meaning for Salamander Rescue. I wrote textural-structural descriptions to describe participant experiences in each game and performed imaginative variation to further provide a context to describe participant experiences. From these results, I derived essential meanings to situate a discussion about sound in each of the games studied and I discussed eight essential meanings that were shared across the three games studied. According to my analysis of these participants’ responses, sound conveyed a sense of the game’s interface in addition to the environment in which play was situated. Sound also supported the presentation of characters in the game and worked to communicate the game’s narrative to the player. Music in the games studied helped to provoke thought and also conveyed an emotional context for play. Sound supported players’ overall engagement in these games, but the absence of sound removed this engagement. Critically, people noticed when the visuals that they saw did not match the sounds that they heard. I present an applied phenomenological framework for sound in educational games to illustrate these essential meanings and to reflect how participants’ experiences were affected by the ways they used game interfaces, interacted with game characters, experienced game narrative, and described the game’s environment. This framework further illustrates the possibility space for potential experiences of sound in gameplay as determined by the choices players make, the game’s state of play, and the degree of synchresis present between what players hear and what they see as they play.