The University of Texas Publication No.4824 December 15, 1948 GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES OF THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA IN OKLAHOMA AND TEXAS Edited by A. E. WEISSENBORN AND H. B. STENZEL Prepared by United States Department of the Interior Geological Survey and The University of Texas Bureau of Economic Geology Bureau of Economic Geology John T. Lonsdale, Director PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AUSTIN Publications of The University of Texas PUBLICA'fIONS COMMITTEE E. J. MATHEWS A. MOFFIT C. F. ARROWOOD E. S. REDFORD C.D.LEAKE W.P. WEBB C.H. EADS Administrative Publications E. J. MATHEWS F. L. Cox R. C. ANDERSON J. A. FOCHT L. L. CLICK B. GONZALES The University publishes bulletins twice a month, so numbered that the first two digits of the number show the year of issue and the last two the position in the yearly series. (For example, No. 4801 is the first publication of the year 1948.) These bulletins comprise the official publica­tions of the University, publications on humanistic and scientific subjects, and bulletins issued from time to time by various divisions of the University. The following bureaus and divisions distribute publications issued by them; communications concerning publications in these fields should be addressed to The University of Texas, Austin, Texas, care of the bureau or division issuing the publication: Bureau of Business Research, Bureau of Economic Geology, Bureau of Engineering Research, Bu­reau of Industrial Chemistry, Bureau of Public School Service, and Division of Extension. Communications con­cerning all other publications of the University should be addressed to University Publications, The University of Texas, Austin. Additional copies of this publication may be procured from the Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas Austin 12, Texas TH! UNIVUSITT OF TEXAS PRISS Loading fire clay near Henry's Chapel in northeastern Cherokee County, Texas. Pit of General Refractories Company, Troup works. Photograph taken in September 1947 by H. B. Stenzel. The University of Texas Publication No. 4824: December 15, 1948 GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES OF THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA IN OKLAHOMA AND TEXAS Edited by A. E. WEISSENBORN AND H. B. STENZEL Prepared by United States Department of the Interior Geological Survey and The University of Texas Bureau ·of Economic Geology Bureau of Economic Geology John T. Lonsdale, Director PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY TWICE A MONTH. ENTERED AS Sl!COND• CLASS MATTER ON MARCH 1Z, 1913, AT THI! POST OFFICE AT AUSTIN, TEXAS. UNDER THE ACT OF AUGUST z4, unz The benefit.s of education and of useful knowledge, generally diffused through a community, are essential to the preservation of a free govern· ment. Sam Houston Cultivated mind is thf! guardian genius of Democracy, and while guided and controlled by virtue, the noblest attribute of man. It is the only dictator that freemen acknowledge, and the only security which freemen desire. Mirabeau B. Lamar FOREWORD This report was prepared as a cooperative project of the United States Geological Survey and the Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas. It was designed originally to be an open-file report, available in a few places for consul­tation by those interested, and not to be printed for general distribution. Because of the great size and importance of the Trinity River tributary area in Texas, the value of the report as a reference work, and its relation to the comprehensive pro­gram of conservation and development planned in the area, the Director of the United States Geological Survey authorized publication by The University of Texas. In the final preparation of the report, chapters were added on surface water and underground water. Certain stati3tical data were revised to bring them up to date and an effort was made to make each section as complete as possible in a compilation of this kind. Throughout the preparation of the report officials of the Trinity Improvement Association have been very helpful. The publication of the volume was aided through a generous contribution by the Trinity Improvement Association to the Udden Publication Fund of the Bureau of Economic Geology. It is gratifying that this revolving publication fund, through this and other contributions, will aid in making available information on the geology and mineral resources of Texas which will advance industry in the State. JoHN T. LONSDALE, Director Bureau of Economic Geology CONTENTS i§:!f.~~~~=;~:~====~~~~:~~:~:~=~:~::: PAGE :l Summary of geologic resources of the Trinity River tributary area, by A. E. Weissenborn._______ ____ 17 Fuels and other hydrocarbons------------------------------~--------------------------------------------------------------17 Non-metalliferous deposits----------------·----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18 Metalliferous deposits ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20 Fuels and other hydrocarbons: Asphalt and related bitumens, by H. B. Stenzel, H. C. Fountain, and T. A. Hendricks______________ 21 Bituminous coal and lignite, by H. B. Stenzel, H. C. Fountain, T. A. Hendricks, and R. L. Miller ------------------------------------------------------------·----------------------31 Peat, by H. B. Stenzel and H. C. Fountain----------------------------------------------------------------------45 Natural gas, by R. L. Miller----------------------------------------------·---------~---------------------47 Petroleum, by T. A. Hendricks-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------53 Non-metallic deposits: Natural abrasives, by H. B. Stenzel, H. C. Fountain, A. L. Jenke, and A. E. Weissenborn________ 56 gra~=~epeb~es --=====--=~==========:==-~==--:---===:==~-====::=::::: ~ Abrasive sand and sandstone______ ·--------------------------------------------------·--------------------------60 Volcanic ash ------------------------------·--------------------------62 Pulverulent limestone and chalk.____:______________________________________________________________ 65 ­Millstones ________ : _________________________________________:________________________ 65 Novaculite ------~-------------------------------------·---·---------·--------------------65 Barite, by A. E. Weissenborn-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------67 Celestite, by H.B. StenzeJ, H. C. Fountain, and D. M. Kinney___________________________________ 72 Clays, by H. B. Stenzel and A. E. W eisscnborn--------------------------------------------------------------------------75 Bleaching clays, by A. L. Jenke___ ------------------'----------------------------76 Burning clays, by H. B. Stenzel, H. C. Fountain, A. L. Jenke, and A. E. Weissenborn.___________ 82 Drilling clays, by A. L. Jenke-------------------------------------------------------------------89 Dolomite and magnesian limestone, by H-B. Stenzel, H. C. Fountain, and D. M. Kinney.___________ 93· Gypsum and anhydrite, by D. M. KinneY---------------------------------·---------------------------------. 100 Helium, by D. M. Kinner---------------·------------------------------·-------------------105 Limestone, caliche, and shell deposits, by H. B. Stenzel, H. C. Fountain, and D. M. Kinney _____ 109 Phosphate rock, by A. L. Jenke---'----·----------------------------------------------------------------------120 Portland cement materials, by D. M. Kinner-----·----------·-----------------------------125 Sand and gravel, by D. M. Kinner-------------------------------------··---------------------------132 Glass sand and other special sands, by D. M. Kinner--------------------·--------··-------------------------------------143 Soluble salts, by D. M. Kinney ______ -----------------------------·------------------------------148 Potash '---------------·------------------·-------------------------------148 Common salt -------------·----------------------------------------------------152 Calcium chloride -----------·------------------------·---------------------------------------157 Magnesium chloride -------------------------------------------------·-·-------------------160 Bromine __ ---------------------~------------------------160 Magnesium sulfate -----------·----------------~---·------------------------------------161 Sodium sulfate -----------------·------------------------------------------------------------------------162 Stone, by H.B. Stenzel, H. C. Fountain, and D. M. Kinner------------------------------------------164 Dimension stone ------------------------------------------··--------------------------164 Granite -----------------------·----------------------------------------·--------------------------165 Limestone· and dolomite·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------~------169 Marble------------'------------------·----------------------------------170 Sandstone -------------------------------------------------------------------------------· 170 Glauconite rock --------------·--·----·-----~-----------------------------------·-·-·---------------------------------172 Silicified wood ----------=------------------------------------------------------------------------------------172 Crushed and broken stone--------------------------------------------------------------------------------173 Suliur, by D. M.· Kinner---------------------·----------------------·---------------------------------176 Metalliferous deposits: PAGE Copper, by A. E. Weissenborn -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------180 Iron, by H. B. Stenzel, H. C. Fountain, and D. M. Kinney..----------------------------------------------------------185 Manganese, by D. M. KinneY---------------------------------------------------------------------------------~----------------------194_ Zinc and lead, by A. L. Jenke_____ _ _______ _______________________________________:__ ___ ___________________~----------------------198 Water: Surface water resources, by Trigg Twichell______________________________ _____ _ _________________________ 200 Ground-water resources of the Trinity River tributary area in Texas, by W. N. White________ 227 Index ---------------------:------------------------------------------------------------------------:--------:--------239 ILLUSTRATIONS Fr~ntispiece. Loading fire clay near Henry's Chapel in northeastern Cherokee County, Texas. Pit of General Refractories Company, Troup works. FIGURES-- pAGE I. The Trinity River Tributary Area, as determined by Corps of Engineers in 1939_ _ _ 8 2. Distribution of asphalt and related bitumnes in the Trini_ty River tributary area _________22-23 3. Distribution of bituminous coal, lignite, and peat in the Trinity River tributary area:_ _36-37 4. Distribution of oil and gas fields m the Trinity River tributary area _______ ________________ _48-49 5. Distribution of natural abrasives in the Trinity River tributary area _____________________:______58--59 · 6. Distribution of barite and celestite in the Trinity River tributary area_ __________________ 68----69 7. Distribution of bleaching clays in the Trinity River tributary area _________ ___ :___________ _______78--79 8. Distribution of burning clays in the Trinity River tributary area _________ _______________________ _84-85 9. Distribution of drilling clays in the Trinity River tributary area._________________ ___ __ _________ _ 90-91 10. Distribution of dolomite and magnesian limestone in the Trinity River tributary area ....94-95 11. Distribution of gypsum and anhydrite in the Trinity River tributary area___ _____________l02-103 12. Distribution of helium in the Trinity River tributary area·----------------~-----------------~~--106-107 13. Distribution of limestone, caliche, and shell deposits in the Trinity River tributary area ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------110-111 i4. Distribution of phosphate rock in the Trinity River tributary area -----,-------:__ __ ___________ __ 122-123 15. Distribution of Portland cement materials in the Trinity River tributary area__________ l26-127 16. Distribution of sand and gravel in the Trinity River tributary area ____________:________ _134-135 17. Distribution of glass sand and other special sands in the Trinity River tributary area..144---145 18. Distribution of potash in the Trinity River tributary area______ _•_______________ _ _ _ 150-151 19. Distribution of common salt in the Trinity River tributary area_________ _______ __ _________ l54---155 20. Distribution of calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, magnesium sulfate, sodium sulfate, and bromine in the Trinity River tributary area___________________________ _ _ _ ____ _________lSS--159 21. Distribution of stone in the Trim~y River tributary area.____________________ _____________________ 166-167 22. Distribution of sulfur in the Trinity River tributary area __________ __ _ ____________________ _ __ _ ______ l78--179 23. Distribution of copper in the Trinity River tributary area________ __ _____ _ ___ _______ _ _ _____ l82-183 24. Distribution of iron in the Trinity River tributary area _________________ _______ __________________ _____ l86-187 25. Distribution of zinc and lead and manganese in the Trinity River tributary area________l96-197 26. Average annual rainfall in the Trmity River tributary area___ _ ______ _ __ ___ _________________________ 203 27. Stream flow and quality gaging stations in the Trinity River tributary area __ ___ _ ______ ___ 204---205 28. Extremes of yearly runoff, depth in inches, at Romayor, Texas, and comparable upstream runoff of the Trinity River--------------------------------------------------------------~--:___ _ _________ 208 _-29. Extremes of yearly runoff in acre-feet at Romayoi;, Texas, and c,omparable upstream run-_ off of the Trinity River__·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------209 30. Average annual discharge in second-feet of the Trinity River at Dallas and at Romayor, Texas -------------------------------------------------'-----------------------------------------------------------212 31. Maximum record experience of flood peaks in Texas and similar areas -------------------------218 · 32: Reservoirs of 10,000 acre-feet or more capacity in the Trinity River tributary area ____222-223 33. Distribution of strata in the Trinity River tributary area_______ __________________________________ __,____228--229 GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES OF THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA IN TEXAS AND OKLAHOMA INTRODUCTION A. E. Weissenborn, United States Geolcgical Survey HISTORY OF PROJECT Proposals for the improvement of navi· gation on the Trinity River in Texas .have been under consideration for many years. In 1902, the Congress of the United States of America authorized the construction of a navigable channel from the mouth of the river to Dallas. Under the terms of this Act and subsequent legislation, seven navigation locks and dams and one auxil­iary dam were constructed by the Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, but the project was never completed. The River and Harbor Act of September 22, 1922, repealed all prior acts insofar as they related to lock and dam construction but provided for the maintenance of a 6-foot channel from the town of Liberty, Texas, to the mouth pf the river. The River and Harbor Act of March 2, 1945 (Public Law 14-79th Congress, Chapter 19-lst Ses­ sion) included the following: The improvement of the Trinity River and trih· utaries Texas for navigation, flood control, and allied ~urpose~ is hereby approved and authorized in accordance with the reports contained in House Document 403, 77th Congress. In effect, this Congressional action, quoting from House Docm:?e!1t ~03, adopted for the basin of the Tnmty River a "comprehensive plan of improvement" and authorized the construction by the Corps of Engineers of a number of reser­voirs and the improvement of other flood control works on the upper ~rinity Basin. Included also was the construction of a 9-foot channel from the town of Liberty to the Houston Ship Channel in Galveston Bay. The 1945 law ?id .not authoriz~ t.he improvement for nav1gat10n of the Tnmty River above Liberty. Subsequently, the Corps of Engineers received Congressi~~al . directives to review reports on the Tnmty Rivet and its tributaries contained in House Document 403, with a view to determine whether any modifications should be made in the recommendations therein with respect to works for naviga· tion, flood control, and allied purposes. In March 1945 Colonel George R. Goethels, Chief of the Civil Works Division of the Corps of Engineers, War Depart­ment, requested the Director of the Geo­logical Survey, United States Department of the Interior, to prepare a report on the geological resources of the area that, according to economic studies made by the Corps of Engineers, would be affected by the canalization of the Trinity River to Fort Worth. As a consequence, the staff of the Geological Survey in the Regional Office at Rolla, Missouri, was assigned the task of preparing the desired information. Mr. A. E. Weissenborn, acting Regional Geologist, called on Major H. R. Norman, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, Director of Engineering Division, Galveston Dis­trict, Texas, and discussed with him the purpose, scope, and form of the proposed report. Following this discussion, Dr. John T. Lonsdale, Dire::tor of the Bureau of Economic Geology of The University of Texas, at Mr. Weissenborn's request, agreed that the Bureau of Economic Geol­ogy should participate in the preparation of the report. Mr. Weissenborn also called on Mr. Robert H. Dott, Director of the Oklahoma State Geological Survey at Norman, Oklahoma. The Oklahoma Geo­logical Survey was unable to participate in writing the report but was very helpful in supplying published and unpublished or out-of-print information on the mineral resources of Oklahoma. DEFINITION OF TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA Traffic studies completed in 1939 by the U. S. Engineers in connection with the reports published as H.D. 403 indicate that, if the Trinity River were made navi­gable for barges from its mouth to Fort Worth, appreciable savings in freight rates would accrue in an area far beyond the limits of the basin drained by the river. The area in which savings would accrue for the shipment of any one commodity over the proposed waterway has been termed by the U. S. Engineers "the Trmity River tributary area." The tributary areas vary in size for different commodities; the term "tributary area" as used in this report comprises the sum total of the trib· utary areas for all commodities considered to be potential tonnage for the proposed waterway, according to the studies previ· ously made by the U. S. Engineers. The Trinity River. tributary area, which is shown on the accompanying map (fig. 1), includes approximately 184,000 square miles and covers all or parts of 144 coun­ties in Texas and 68 in Oklahoma. For convenience, the Trinity River tributary area will be referred to as the "Trinity tributary area" or, more. simply, as "the tributary area." Q~ ~ ~\> c, Scale ~ 0 20 60 100 150 200 I Miles 100· Fig. 1. The Trinity River Tributary Area, as ·determined by Corps of Engineers in 1939. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF REPORT ~~oponents of the canalization of the Tn!11ty. from its mouth to Fort Worth m:imtam that the mineral products of the tributary area would provide a consider· able part of the traffic moving over the proposed wat?rway. They further argue that the openmg of the Trinity River to barge navigation would result in the development of resources not now being used, or in increased output from pits and mines .a.lrea~y active and from plants processmg mmeral products, thus creating additional tonnage for the waterway. The geological resources found in· the Tri?ity River .tributary area are many and ~aned. Re~at1vely speaking, a great deal is known and much has been published about the fuels, as well as the non-metallic and metallic n,rinerals found in the area, and on the subject of surface and ground waters, but the information is scattered ·through a vast vol11me of technical liter a· ture. At present, the information relative' to the Trinity River tributary area can be obtained only through a laborious and time-consuming culling of a great deal of irrelevant material from numerous publi­c~tion.s, some of which are out of print and difficult to obtain. The purpose of this report is to summarize all available infor. mation in a factual, concise account of the geological resources of the Trinity River tributary area in Texas and Oklahoma, thus presenting all the available pertinent facts in 6)onvenient form, and assisting the U. S. Engineers in appraisal of the tonnage that mineral products would contribute to the proposed waterway. The report discusses each geological commodity fourid in the area and give8 a brief description of its uses in industry, methods of exploitation, economic factors involved, occurrences in the Trinity River tributary area, reserves, producing com· panies, and, where available, records of output. A bibliography listing the signifi· cant references to the technical literature is included with each commodity. In describing the geological resources of the tributary area, all the mineral commod­ities that are known to occur in the area are considered, whether they are being successfully exploited at present or not. Because a given deposit is not now being worked does not mean that it could not be profitably worked under changed economic conditions, or even under ·present condi­tions. Likewise, the fact that the known deposits of a given commodity are of too low a grade to be worked does not preclude the P.ossih~lity that other, higher grade deposits might he found. The inclusion of a given commodity in the list of geological resources of the Trinity River tributary" area does not necessarily mean however . ' ' t at h deposits of this commodity that can· :µot now he worked economically could be profitably worked if the Trinity were canalized as an integral part of the national system of inland waterways. Bulky, low-priced, non-perishable min· eral commodities such as sand and gravel, CTlJ.Shed stone for riprap and other purposes, building stone, and · similar materials are the products that would hene· fit most. directly from river transportation, and an mcrease in the pro~uction of these products in at least part of the Trinity River tributary area can he ~xpected. Part of the crude oil and other petroleum products from the tributary area might move to markets through a canalized Trinity and over the lntercoastal Water· way, with considerable saving in transpor­tation charges, although this change in mode of transportation does not necessarily mean that any actual increase in production wo.ul.d result from the opening of the Trm1ty waterway. Other commodities, such as salt, would benefit indirectly, through a general in­crease in industrial activity in the tribu­tary area. There are enormous deposits of salt in the area--enough to take care of the requirements of this country for many years to come-hut salt can he produced cheaply in a number of other localities· therefore, the market for salt from th~ Trini~y tributary area is limited by the location of other producing centers. Devel· opment of some commodities may have bee!1. ~etarded by lack of transportation fac1ht1es, or by high cost of transportation· but transportation, or the lack of it ha; had little influence on the developme~t of other commodities. For example the potash deposits of Texas, although iarge, are of too low a grade to compete with higher grade deposits in New Mexico. Development of a potash industry in Texas depends on the finding of better deposits than those already known, and would he influenced to only a slight degree by lower transportation charges. The general lowering of freight rates that is anticipated if the Trinity were opened to navigation would doubtless have a stimulating effect on the mineral ·industry in the Trinity River tributary area, hut many other factors besides transportation costs are involved. An appraisal of the effect of the proposed canalization of the Trinity River for barge navigation on the mineral industry of the tributary area would require thorough study of the existing and estimated future freight rates and would involve the con· sideration of many factors that are outside the field of the geologist. The present report, therefore, attempts to describe ade­quately the actual and potential geological resources of the region hut does not attempt to forecast in any detail the economic effect of the proposed canaliza­tion of the Trinity River on the mineral industry in the area~ ·· PREPARATION OF REPORT It is fo~tunate that both the United States Ge'ological Sur~ey and the Bureau of Economic Geology· of The University of T~xas were in a position to prepare the report cooperatively. · Dr. H. B. Stenzel of the Bureau, aided by Mr. H. C. Fountain,· wrote the chapters on the fol~owiilg resources in . Texas: asphalt and related bitumens; bituminous coal and lignite; peat; natural abrasives; celestite; burning clays; dolomite and magnesian limestone; limestone, caliche, and shell deposits; stone; iron. Each of these chapters except the one on peat has been supplemented by descriptions pre· pared by members of the United States Geological Survey of corresponding occur­rences in the Oklahoma part of the area. The chapters on ground-water and surface water . resources were written respective! y by Mr. W. N. White of the Texas State Board of Water Engineers, formerly of the United States. Geological Survey, and Mr. Trigg Twichell, of the United States Geo­logical ~urvey. The chapters on petroleum and natural gas in the entire Trinity River tributary area, and the descriptions of the occurrences of asphalt and coal in Okla­homa, were prepared by Mr. T. A. Hen­dricks and Mr. R. L. Miller, of the Fuels Section of the United States Geological Survey. The remainder of the report was prepared by Mr. A. L. Jenke, Mr. D. M. Kinney, and Mr. A. E. Weissenborn, at that time members of the Regional staff of the Central Region, United States Geologi­cal Survey. . Messrs. Jenke, Kinney, and Weissenborn spent about two weeks in a reconnaissance of the Trinity River tributary area, in com­pany with Mr. James A. Cotten, engineer­in-charge, Fort Worth sub-office, Galveston District, Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, and Mr. Forrest L. Park, Engineer, Trinity Improvement Associa­tion; but aside from this, very little field work was done specifically for the report. Much of the report is based on information contained in the numerous publications of the Bureau of Economic Geology, the Okla­homa State Geological Survey, and the United States Geological Survey, although many other publications were also con­sulted. The report, however, is by no means based entirely on published informa­tion; the geologists of the Bureau of Eco­nomic Geology are thoroughly familiar with the geology and mineral deposits of the Texas part of the area, and Mr. Hendricks has done much field work in the Oklahoma part of the area over a period . of many years. In addition, the iftdividual sections of the report have been criticized by members of the Geological Survey in Washington, who are familiar with the different commodities discussed. It is believed, therefore, that the report givei> an accurate summary of the geological resources of the Trinity River tributary area, insofar as they are known at the present time, and that the information can be used with some confidence in making economic studies to assist in determining whether the canalization · of the Trinity River is justified. TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES · Adequate transportation· is essential to the proper development of the resources of any region. The Trinity River tributary area is provided with excellent facilities for transportation, of which a brief resume is given here. The Trinity River tributary area is traversed by nine major railroad lines: the Missouri-Kansas-Texas; the St. Louis· San Francisco; the Missouri Pacific; the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy; the Atchi­son, Topeka & Santa Fe; the Southern Pacific; the Kansas City Southern; the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific; and the St. Louis Southwestern. These lines, and branch lines from them, form a network that reaches into almost every part of the tributary area. · . The main north-south highways in the Trinity River tributary area are U. S. highways No. 59, 69, 75, 77, 81, 83, and 87. The principal east-west highways are U. S. highways No. 60, 62, 64, 66, 80, 82, 84, and 90. In addition to the above, many other improved highways and a · great number of secondary roads reach into almost every part of the tributary area, and no part of the area is very far from good railroad or truck transportation. In addition to the railroads and highways, numerous oil, gasoline, and natural gas pipelines and electric power lines serve the tributary area. These exceptionally numer­ous and conveniently located transporta· tion facilities of the Trinity tributary area would permit the mineral products pro­duced in the area to move cheaply and quickly to the proposed waterway. GEOLOGY OF THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA Rocks ranging in age from pre-Cambrian to Recent are found within the tributary area. Because of the size of the area, the diversity of the rocks that occur within it, and the complexities of the geologic struc· tures, only a brief and general discussion of the geology can be included in this report. The geologic structures and the stratig· raphy are so diverse in different parts of the Trinity River tributary area that it is convenient in this report to divide the area into a number of smaller, more homoge­neous divisions. Starting in the northeast corner of Oklahoma and working south­ward, the divisions chosen are: the Ozark dome; the Osage Plains; .the Wichita, Arbuckle, and Ouachita Mountains; the High Plains and the Permian basin; and the Gulf Coastal Plain. These will be described in the order given. OZARK DOME The southern half of Missouri and part of northern Arkansas together with asmall part of northeastern Oklahoma is geolog· ically a structural high known as the Ozark dome or uplift. Sandstones and dolomites of ·Cambrian or Ordovician age form the present surface over much of the Ozark region and dip gently away from the core of pre-Cambrian granite, which is exposed in the St. Francis Mountains in southeastern Missouri. On the southwest flank of the dome Mississippian limestone and shale, which once covered most of the Ozark area but have been largely stripped away by erosion, still are exposed in the northeastern corner of the tributary area in Mayes, Cherokee, and Sequoyah counties, Oklahon1e. About 550 feet of Mississippian rock is present, most of which is limestone ·belonging to the Boone formation. Isolated remnants of a former covering of Pennsyl­vanian rocks overlie the Mississippian in a few places on the lower flanks of the dome, and Devonian, Silurian, and Ordovician rocks, which underlie the Mississippian, are exposed in the deeper stream valleys. To the west and south the Mississippian dis­appears under a cover of Pennsylvanian rocks. OSAGE PLAINS The Osage Plains region is here consid­ered to be the large area extending from the Llano uplift in central Texa~ north­ward through Oklahoma. In' Texas it lies between the High Plains on the west and the Gulf Coastal Plain on the east; in Oklahoma it lies between the High Plains a.nd the Ouachita Mountains and Ozark dome. As here defined, it does not include the Arbuckle and Wichita Mountains in ~;outhern Oklahoma, which for convenience are discussed under a separate heading. In the Osage Plains area the surface formations are almost entirely of Pennsyl­vanian and Permian age. Except in the region bordering the Wichita, Arbuckle, and Ouachita Mountains, they are al­most horizontally bedded with a gentle regional dip slightly north of west over most of the area. The regional dip is disturbed in places by flexures over buried granite ridges. These major flexures, together with local, minor flexures and the local thickening and thinning of the beds, are structures favorable for the accumula­tion of oil and gas. The Pennsylvanian rocks vary consid­erably in different parts of the area, but throughout the region consist essentially of a thick series of marine shales, sand­stones, limestones, and some conglomer­ates. Workable coal beds are found in both the Texas and Oklahoma parts of the area. In central and northeastern Okla­homa, red shales, sandstones, and con­glomerates are found near the top of the Pennsylvanian and mark the first stages of the change from the marine deposits of the Pennsylvanian to the continental deposits of the Permian. The Permian deposits are radi~ally dif­ferent in their lithologic character from the underlying Pennsylvanian, but despite · this the division between the two is transi­tional. Three distinct facies are recognized in the Permian deposits of the Osage Plains area. These are: (1) a marine facies com­posed of normrn, Unitf.G State& Geological Survey At the suggestion of the United States Engineers, the occurrences of the various mineral commodities in the Trinity River tributary area llave been classified into three groups which are: (1) Those in the areas subject to peri· odic flooding by the Trinity River, for use in connection with economic studies of flood control projects. (2) ThQse in the remainder of the Trin­ity River drainage basin, where mineral commodities would be most directly af. fected by the canalization of the river. (3) Those in the Trinity River tributary area in Texas and Oklahoma, but outside of the drainage basin, where mineral com­modities would be less directly affected by canalization of the river but where appre­ciable savings in transportation costs would still accrue. The following is a summary of the mineral resources wbich are found in the three area divisions into which the Trinity tributary area has been divided in, ~his report. Where one or more of the three divisions is omitted for any commodity, it is implied that the commodity has not been reported in the division omitted. A detailed description of the various mineral occur· rences will be found in the main body of the report, as indexed in the Contents. FUELS AND OTHER HYDROCARBONS Asphalt and related bitumens Trinity River drainage basin-Found in asphaltic sand stratum of Trinity • , age (Lower Cretaceous) in Cooke and Montague counties. Reported from oil seep in Tarrant County. No production at present. Tributary area outside of Trinity drainage basin- In Texas from oil seeps and impregnated sands in Permian rocks in Coke County; from Pennsylvanian rocks in Stephens County; from oil seeps and impregnated Eocene strata in Anderson and Nacogdoches counties. In Oklahoma from Permian beds east of the Wichita Mountains in Comanche County; in strata ranging from Ordovician to Cretaceous on north, west, and south flanks of the Arbuckle Mountains; from tar sands of Cretaceous age in Love, Marshall, Johnston, and McCurtain ce>unties. Also as vein-like deposits of grahamite and impson­ite in the Ouachita Mountain area,-in Stephens County, and in a few other places in the State. Production from Murray County, Oklahoma (Arbuckle Mountain area). Bituminous coal and lignite Area subject to periodic flood­Ligni.te -Lignite in Yegua formation (Eocene) crops out along Trinity River in Houston and Madison counties. Lignite belt in Wilcox group (Eocene) crosses river in Henderson, Anderson, Navarro, and Free­stone counties. Trinity River drainage basin­Coal-Bituminous coal of Pennsylvanian age found in Archer, Jack, Montague, Wise, and Young counties. Lignite -Found in Anderson, Freestone, Henderson, Houston, Leon, Limestone, Madi. son, Navarro, and Van Zandt counties in Eocene strata. Tributary area outside of Trinity drainage basin-Coal-In Texas, bituminous coal is found in those counties named above and in Brown, Coleman, Eastland, Erath, Palo Pinto, Parker, and Stephens counties. Abundant in Penn· sylvanian strata in east-central and north· eastern Oklahoma where it has been mined from ten different beds. Some of the beds are of minable thickness beneath hundreds of square miles. Lignite--From Eocene strata in those coun· ties named above and in Bowie, Camp, Cass, Cherokee, Franklin, Gregg, Harrison, Hop­kins, Marion, Morris, Nacogdoches, Panola, Rains, Robertson, Rusk, Smith, Titus, and Wood counties. Peat Trinity River drainage basin-Extensive undeveloped peat bogs in Leon, Houston, and adjacent counties. Tributary area outside of Trinity drainage basin-Peat bogs occur in Leon and Houston coun· ties and in a number of other east Texas • cou~ties, but there is no commercial produc· tion from the area. Natural gas Area subject to periodic flood-Several natural gas fields are found in the flood plains of the middle and lower part of Trinity River. Trinity River drainage basin-A number of natural gas fields are found within the Trinity drainage basin, particularly in the northwestern and the middle and the lower parts. Tributary area outside of Trinity drainagebasin-· Natural gas fields are found in almost all parts of tributary area but are most abun· dant in central Oklahoma and north-central and central Texas. Amarillo field is the largest discovered to date. Petroleum Area subject to periodic flood-A number of fields in the middle and· lower parts of the Trinity drainage basin are in the area subject to periodic flood. Trinity River drainage basin-Comparatively few oil fields in the uppei'. part of the basin except for the considerable number in the northwestern part; numerous fields in the middle and lower parts. Tributary area outside .of the Trinity drainage basin-From almost all parts of the tributary area except extreme eastern Oklahoma. Tributary area is one of the richest known petroleum regions of the world. NON-METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS Abrasives Area subject to periodic flood-Material suitable for grinding pebbles and sand suitable for abrasive use are found in sand and gravel deposits along the river. Volcanic ash is found in the belt of Jackson and Catahoula strata of Tertiary age, which crosses the river in Polk, Trinity, and Walker counties. The Catahoula also contains deposits of rice sand, some of which may be in the area subject to periodic flood. Trinity Rivez-drainage basin-All the abrasives listed above are found in the Trinity basin outside the area subject to flood. In addition, deposits of chalk are found in Uppet: Cretaceous rocks in the northern part of the basin. but the deposits have not been developed as abrasives. Tributary area outside of the Trinity drainage basin-Grinding pebbles have not been produced commercially in the tributary area, although suitable material probably occurs along many of the major streams in the area. A small production of abrasive sand has been recorded from the Texas part of the area; there is no record of its having been pro­duced in Oklahoma. although suitable mate­rial probably could be obtained from .a number of sand deposits in the State. Vol· canic ash is found in ·the Jackson and Cata· houla strata in the tributary area east of the Trinity drainage basin. Deposits of volcanic ash are extensive in Oklahoma, the larger deposits being concentrated in the northwest, north-central, and east-central parts of the State. Similar deposits are found in several localities in western Texas. There are several producers in Oklahoma, and a small produc­tion has recently been recorded from the Texas Part of the area. Although there has been no production, deposits of diatomite are known in several widely scattered localities in the High Plains area of Texas. Material suitable for the manufacture of millstones, whetstones, and oilstones is reported· in Okla· homa but has not been utilized for · thi@ purpose to any considerable extent. Barite Tributary area outside of the Trinity drainage basin-Occurs in many places in Permian rocks in western Texas and western Oklahoma but has not been produced commercially in the tributary area. Celestite Tributary area outside of the Trinity drainage basin- Production centered in Nolan and Brown counties, Texas. Reported also from Okla­homa but deposits have not been developed. Clays Area subject to periodic flood-Bleaching clays-Belts of sedimentary rocks containing bentonite and fuller's earth cross the Trinity River in Houston, Leon, Madison, Polk, San Jacinto, Trinity, and Walker counties. Burning clays -Abundant in the Trinity basin and some of these deposits m111 extend into the area subject to flood. Drilling clays-Some of the bentonitic clays listed under bleaching clays probably could be used for drilling clays. Trinity River drainage basin-Bleaching clays-Bentonite and fuller's earth found in Cook Mountain, Jackson, and Cata­houla strata in Houston, Leon, Madison, Polk, San Jacinto, Trinity, and Walker counties. Bu.ming clays-Abundant in Cretaceous and Eocene formations in the basin. Drilling clays-Most of the present produc· tion is from outside the basin but part of the bentonite output is used for drilling clay. Tributary area outside of Trinity drainage basin-Bleaching clays-Produced from Angelina, Briscoe, and Scurry counties, Texas. For· merly produced in Woodward 0CoUJ11y, Oklahoma. Bu.ming clay.s-Clays suitable at least for "8 manufacture of common brick and tile are found in almost every part of the tributuy area. Drilling clays-Produced in, Angelina, How­ard, and Terry counties, Texas. Suitable material is found also at a number of other places in tributary area, chiefly in north­western Texas and western Oklahoma. Dolomite and magnesian limestone Tributary area outside of Trinity drainage basin-Best deposits are found in Arbuckle 11Dd Wichita Mountains in Oklahoma but have not been utilized to any great extenL Elae­where beds are thin and have been used only locally as building stone and for cruahed rock. Gypsum 1md anhydrite · Trinity River drainage basin-. Reported in drill holes in Cretaceous beds in Freestone, Hill, and Parker counties, but there has been no production from this source. Also present in salt domes. Tributary area outside of Trinity drainage basin-Large reserves in Permian strata in both Texas and Oklahoma parts of the area. Oper· ating companies in Blaine County, Okla· homa; and Fisher, Hardeman, and Nolan counties. Texas. Helium Trinity River drainage basin-Some natural gas fields in extreme upper part of basin contain a small proportion of helium, but there has been no production from within the basin. Tributary area outside of Trinity drainage basin-Most of world production is obtained fro!ll Hartley, Moore, Oldham, and Potter counties, Texas. Other gas fields in tributary area which contain appreciable quantities of helium are in central Texas and north-central Oklahoina. Limestone, caliche, and shell deposits Trinity Rivel'. drainage basin­Limestone-Abundant in Cretaceous rocks in upper part of basin. Generally scarce in iower part of basin. Found on some salt domes. Shell deposits-Production from Trinity Bay near mouth of the Trinity River. Tributary area outside of Trinity drainage basin­ Limestone-Abundant in eastern Oklahoma and in Texas east of the High Plains and west ·of the Tertiary Coastal Plain. Generally scarce on the Tertiary Coastal Plain, although some of the older Tertiary formations con· tain limestone beds. Generally scarce in western Oklahoma and in the High Plains area of Texas. Caliche-Found as surficial deposits . in the High Plains. Phosphate rock Area subject to periodic flood­Phosphate-bearing beds in Cretaceous and Eocene rocks cross the Trinity River at sev· eral places hut commercially important phos· phate deposits are not known. Trinity River drainage basin-In Eocene and Cretaceous rocks at many places in the basin, but the deposits are of no present commercial importance. Tributary area outside of Trinity drainage basin-· In Cretaceous and Eocene rocks both within and without basin. Also in Pennsylvanian and Permian strata at various places in Okla­homa and in Permian rocks in Texas. Depos­its are of no present commercial importance. Portland cement materials Trinity River drainage basin-Raw materials for manufacture of Portland cement abundant in the Trinity River basin. Two cement plants are at Dallas, a third at Fort Worth. A cement plant ·at Houston (outside tributary area) uses kaolinitic clay from Freestone County and oyster shells from Galveston Bay. Tributary area outside of Trinity drainage basin-Raw materials for manufacture of Portland cement abundant in both Texas and Okla­homa parts of tributary area. In addition to those mentioned above, cement plants are at Waco, Texas; 'ind Ada, Oklahoma. Sand and gravel Area subject to periodic fiood-Abundant in flood plain of the Trinity River. Principal production is in Fort Worth-Dallas area. Proportion of sand to gravel is high below Dallas but sand and gravel are pro­duced from flood plain near Romayor in Liberty County and near Urbana in San Jacinto County. Trinity River drainage basin-. Stream and river terrace -sand and gravel deposits are abundant in Trinity basin. Chief present production is from Dallas, Ellis, Hen­derson, Kaufman, Liberty, ,and Tarrant counties. Tributary area outside of Trinity drainage basin~ · Occurs as stream and terrace gravels along major rivers. Sand and gravel deposits cap many of the interstream divides in western Texas and western Oklahoma. Glass sand and other special sands Trinity River drainage basin-From sands in the Eocene Claiborne group in · 1ower part of the basin and from Creta­ceous Trinity sand in the upper part. These formations cross the Trinity R,iver and in places may crop out in the area subject to periodic flood. Tributary area out.side of Trinity drainage basin-Eocene and Cretaceous sands mentioned above occur also outside of the drainage basin. Best glass sands in tributary area, however, are found in the Simpson group of the Arbuckle Mountain area and in the Burgen sandstone near Tahlequah. Both these formations are of Ordovician age. Soluble salts Trinity River drainage basin-Common salt-Found in salt domes in Ander­son, Freestone, Houston, Leon, Madison, Walker, Liberty, and Chambers counties. No present production from the Trinity drainage basin. Calcium chloride-Probably present in oil· fi~ld brines from the Trinity basin, but no production has been recorded. Tributary area outside of the Trinity drainage basin­Potash-Large reserves in the Permian basin in west Texas, but the knowu deposits are too low grade to compete with the New Mexico deposits. Comrrwn salt-Abundant in salt domes on the Coastal Plain, in bedded deposits in Permian strata in west Texas and Oklahoma, and in saline lakes in western Texas and western Oklahoma. Principal production is from Van Zandt County, Texas; and from Woods, Harmon, and Beekham counties, Oklahoma. · Calcium chloride-Some calcium chloride was produced near Tulsa, Oklahoma, from oil-field brines, but no production has been reported since 1936. Permian salt beds in western Texas and Oklahoma also contain calcium chloride, but none has been produced from this source. Magnesium chloride-Associated with com­mon salt in Permian strata in western Texas and western Oklahoma. Reported in brines in Permian strata in Borden County, Texas. No present production. Bromine-Occurs in alkaline lakes in High Plains area, probably as magnesium bro­mide. Also in various oil-field brines. Small production reported from plant at West Tulsa, Oklahoma, prior to 1936. Magnesium sulfate--Recovered from shallow well brine in an alkaline lake bed near O'Donnell, Lynn County, Texas. Sodium sulfate-Produced from alkaline lake brines in Lynn and Terry counties, Texas, and has been reported in alkaline lake brines in several other counties on the High Plains of Texas. Stone Trinity River drainage basin-. Limestones (building stone) are abundant in the Pennsylvanian and Cretaceous deposits in the upper part of the basin but generally are scarce or of poor quality in the Tertiary rocks in the · southern part of the basin. Sandstones are abundant in the Tertiary rocks of the basin but are not everywhere sufficiently con­s.olidated to be used for building stone. Tertiary rocks in the basin also contain beds of glauconitic rock, silicified wood, and quartzitic sandstone which have been used to some extent as building stone. Tributary area outside of the Trinity drainage basin-· . Limestones (building stone) are abundant in the Pennsylvanian, Permian, and Cretaceous strata in Oklahoma. Sandstones are present in the tributary area in beds ranging in age from Cambrian to Quaternary. Granite is quarried in the Wichita and Arbuckle Moun­tains area in Oklahoma. Marble has been quarried in Sequoyah County, Okiahoma, and silicified wood in Erath County, Texas. Building stone of one sort or another can be obtained in most parts of the tributary area except the lower part of the Trinity basin and in some of the counties in the High Plains area. . Sulfur Trinity River drainage basin-Development of a sulfur deposit in the Moss Bluff salt dome in Liberty and Chambers counties is reported by a nationally-known sulfur producer. Tribµtary area outside of the Trinity drainage basin-Although there are a number of salt domes in the tributary area, only the Moss Bluff dome is known to contain commercial quan­tities of sulfur. METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS Copper Tributary area outside the Trinity drainage basin­ . Found mostly in Permian "red beds" in west­ern Texas and Oklahoma. Several attempts have been made to mine the deposits but to date all have been unsuccessful. hon Trinity River drainage basin-The east Texas iron ores are derived from the weathering of W eches strata of Eocene age. The iron ore belt crosses the Trinity basin in Robertson, Leon, Houston, and ,Anderson counties, but the principal deposits are east of the drainage basin. Tributary area outside of the Trinity drainage basin-The principal deposits of iron ore are in the belt. of W eches strata east of the Trinity drainage basin. In 1944 there were three producing mines in the east Texas area. There are iron ore deposits in the Wichita and Arbuckle Mountains areas in Oklahoma, but the deposits are either too small or too low grade to be an important source of iron ore. Manganese Tributary area outside of the Trinity drainage basin-Found in the Arbuckle and Ouachita Moun­tains in Oklahoma. There has been a small production from the Ouachita area, but the deposits are small and are·of marginal grade. Zinc and lead Tributary area outside of the Trinity drainage basin-· Some zinc and lead deposits are known in the Wichita, Arbuckle, and Ouachita Moun­ tains in Oklahoma and several attempts have been made to mine them but to date all have been unsuccessful. · ASPHALT AND RELATED BITUMENS H. B. Stenzel and H. C. Fountain, Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas, and T. A. Hendrick&, United States. Geol01gical Survey (Figure 2) Bitumens are generally fusible sub­stances of variable color, hardness, and volatility composed principally of complex organic ,compounds. They are naturally-occurring saturated hydrocarbons substan­tially free of oxygenated bodies and include all petroleums, natural asphalts, natural waxes, imd asphaltites. Petroleum is dis­closed in a separate chapter. Asphalt is a species of bitumen of dark color and variable hardness, that is com­paratively non-volatile. It is composed 'pi:incipally of hydrocarbons, is essentially free of oxygenated bodies and crystalliz­able paraffins, is fusible, and is largely soluble in carbon disulfide, yielding water-insoluble sulfuration prqducts. Asphalt may occur in nature in a relatively pure state or may be associated with mineral matter. When the content of l)lineral mat­ter is great or the amount of asphalt in a rock matrix so small that separation of the asp}Jalt is impracticable, the material is called rock asphalt or bituminous rock. A common type of bituminous rock is the bituminous sands or tar sands, which are sands impregnated with bitumen or natural tat. Several related substances such as gra­hamite, glance pitch, and gilsonite are grouped together as asphaltite, which dif­fers from asphalt in that it is a hard> non­volatile, coal-like solid, static at ordinary temperatures and fusible with difficulty. The asphaltic pyrobitumens , differ from asphaltite in that they are infusible and are largely insoluble in carbon disulfide. This group of natural materials includes elat­erite, wurzilite, albertite, and impsonite. Asphalt, asphaltite, asphaltic pyrobi­tumens, and bituminous rock occur in nat­ural deposits. They are believed to be the product of metamorphism of asphaltic petroleum. Common asphalt, such as that constituting the organic portion of tar sands, has undergone little change from the original petroleum other than the loss of volatile fractions. However, grahamite, glance pitch, and gilsonite appear to be products of polymerization in which sim­ple molecules of tbe original petroleum have become rearranged into more com­plex molecules of higher molecular weight, under the influence of time, heat, pressure, and catalytic agents. These processes are believed to have progressed further to form the asphaltic pyrobitumens. Asphalt is also manufactured from resid­ual fractions and distillates in the refining of petroleum. Such asphalt is called manu­factured or petroleum asphalt. About 88 percent of the total annual production of asphalt and related bitumens in the United States is from petroleum refineries. Of the remaining domestic production, about two­thirds is from Oklahoma and Texas, of which nearly all is derived from bitumi­nous rock. The principal use of asphalt is in paving, which consumes between 55 and 75 per· cent of all asphalt produced as well as virtually all bituminous rock produced. Between 18 and 34 percent of the produc­tion of asphalt is used for roofing. Other uses, in the approximate order of their importance, are for waterproofing; emul­sified asphalts and fluxes; molding com­pounds; paint, enamels, japans, and lac­quers; mastic and mastic cake; pipe coat­ings; and blending with rubber. In addition there are very many minor uses, which together represent a significant consumption. The physical characteristics that deter­mine the suitability of asphalt for most uses are related to its combined function as a binder and as a water· and weather­proofing material. Principal factors are: uniformity; viscosity and softening or fus­ing point; solidifying point and hardness or plasticity; adhesiveness; and resistance to moisture and weathering. Purity is important for most uses except paving, and many characteristics are of primary im­portance to one or more of the numerous special uses. Blending to produce a mate­rial to meet specifications is common prac'. tice. T.IJe high fusing point and low The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 • EXPLANATION TEXAS OKLAHOMA Asphaltic sand of St. Jo dislrict, ·Trinily group-Lower Cretaceous Li:> Bituminous rock Grahamite Petroleum-impregnated sand, Jarvis Chapel districl, Queen City formation; and olher occurrences: W lmpsonile I. m Double Mountain group ­Permian 2. in Cisco group -Pennsylvanian 3. in Washita group -Lower Cretaceous 4. in Claiborne group -Eocene • El Asphalt plant Petroleum refinery witt. asphalt production Fig. 2. Distribution of asphalt and related bitumens in the Trinity River tributary area. plasticity of grahamite restr~ct its suit~bi~­ity for many purposes. It is used prmc1­pally in combination with asphalt and ot~er materials in special products such as bitu­minous rubber substitutes; small molded articles such as push-buttons, electrical fittings, handles; automobile battery cases. Most bituminous rock is mined in open cuts by blasting . and then loading with steam shovel, drag-line, or other mechan­ical equipment. The asphaltites are gen­erally mined in shafts or tunnels by nor~al stoping, room and pillar, or longwall mu~­ing methods, depending on the l?cal condi­tions of occurrence of the material. The discussion of methods of processing asphalts and related bitumens will be c?n· fined to bituminous rock and graham1te, which are the only two materials of signifi­cant commercial possibility in the Trinity River tributary area. Rock asphalts are generally broken down in a jaw crusher, toothed-roller crusher, or a disintegrator, scr~ened to the required size, and blended to the required asphalt content; the mate· rial is then treated in a revolving fire-heated cylinder to expel moisture, usually at a temperature of 260° to 300° F. Paving asphalt generally is processed locally and the product transported to the job while hot. Asphalt has been extracted from asphaltic rock at several plants by boiling the rock in water. In order for this methQd to be successful, the contained asphalt should have a fusing point not exceeding 90° F. and the mineral matter should be unconsolidated and co.arse·grained to per­mit separation of the asphalt from the min­eral matter, rapid settling of the latter, and rise of the released asphalt to the sur­face of the water. The asphalt must be dehydrated later by lieating, for which a number of different processes have been used. A number of other processes of sep­arating asphalt from sands and of separat· ing various fractions from asphalt have been considered. · Most of these processes are based on extraction with solvents and are not in general commercial use. Because asphalt and the related bitu­mens are liquid, semi·solid, or solid, they are transported in a variety of ways. The liquid varieties and others with low melt­ing point are transported in tank cars, tank trucks, and barges and in metal drums, · wooden barrels, and fiber _ barrels. The more solid varieties are shipped as cakes or molded blocks. Some asphalt is melted and run into paper bags which serve as containers, and some is shipped as "shot" after granulation by running a stream of molten asphalt into water to chill the drops. Large containers in which semi­liquid asphalt is shipped, such as tank cars, trucks, or barges, are generally equipped with heating devices to permit removal of the material at its destination. The asphaltic deposits of the Trinity River tributary area in Texas are not being exploited now, but some asphalt was pro· duced prior to 1900 in north Texas and east Texas. It was mined by crude methods in open quarries or dug wells and was used locally in paving streets and sidewalks. The oil-impregnated sands of Jarvis Chapel, Anderson County, were used for pavement of small areas in Palestine, Texas. In the town of St. Jo, Montague County, local asphalt has also been used for paving and has stood up well under traffic. The commercial value of the asphalt deposits of the St. Jo district in Cooke and Montague counties is difficult to evaluate. Its position high on the slopes of natural ridges is ideal for mining with gravity methods, letting the filled cars pull up the empty ones, a cheap form of loading. The character of the rock may present difficul­ties. The deposit is not thick and the asphalt is in some places irregularly dis­tributed around larger masses or boulders of unimpregnated rock. The overburden too is a problem. Exploitation should in any case be preceded by careful explora· tion for favorable local deposits. The commercial value of the oil-impreg­nated sands from Jarvis Chapel is I'm· hanced by their fairly uniform character, which would insure a uniform product. The asphaltic· deposits of the Trinity tributary area in Oklahoma are being ex· ploited. Bituminous rock is blended at an asphalt plant near Dougherty in Murray County, Oklahoma, and is marketed for road-surfacing material. Similar. material has been prepared at plants at Ada in Pon· totoc County and near Stroud in Lincoln. , County. There are no plants in Oklahoma engaged in processing relatively pure asphalt or in tqe fabrication of any of the products that :utilize asphalt. The presence of numerous petroleum refineries in Okla· homa and Texas and the large petroleum resource.s of the tributary area insure a substantial source qf supply of manufac· tured asphalt for many years. An excess of manufactured asphalt for local paving purposes is now produced in Oklahoma and Texas and is shipped to other regions. The post-war construction program, which is expected to include extensive road construction and repair work as well as construction of buildings, should provide an excellent market for asphalt products. Considering all factors of supply of raw materials and potential markets the area appears to be one in which an industry of moderate size engaged in the preparation of roofing materials, water-proofing, weather-proofing, and asphalt paints and cements, might prosper. OCCURRENCE TEXAS The bituminous sand deposits known in 1902 were · investigated by W. B. Phillips (13) .1 At the present time the following deposits are known: COOKE COUNTY ' (1) Four' miles southwest of Muenster; (2) Ph miles west of Muenster; (3) 61h ·miles southeast of St. Jo. MONTAGUE COUNTY (1) Northern extremity of Sampson Ridge east of Devil's Backbone, 3 miles north-northeast of St. Jo; (2) extreme northern point of Gor· don Mountai~ 4 miles north-northwest . of St. Jo; (3) southwest side of Gordon Mountain, 1% miles north of St. Jo. The deposits of Cooke and Montague counties apparently form an extensive district in which the asphaltic sand stratum averages locally 3 feet in thickness. Some of the exposed deposits are traceable for about 1 mile on the surface. This stratum is in the upper part of the Trinity $!Ind of the Lower Cretaceous. COKE COUNTY (1) Along Pecan Creek at some distance above its · confluence with the Brazos River, sporadk oil seepages from the San Angelo and lower Blaine (Flower Pot) sands of the Permian; (2) near Edith post office on Pecan Creek just east of Robert Lee. These seeps and impregnated sands· have not been utilized. 1Literature re~erencea are given in the bibliography, pp. 2!>-30, . TARRANT COUNTY A small spring or seepage of nearly pure as· phalt is reported from a small basin 7 miles south of Fort Worth. The pool is 10 to 12 feet ·in diameter. ANDERSON COUNTY Vicinity· of Jarvis Chapel, about 10 to 12% miles east of Palestine. The deposits consist of sands impregnated with heavy petroleum ·and are in the Queen City formation of the Eocene. Following the original discovery of a seepage of heavy oil near Jarvis Chapel, a well was put down to a depth of 300 feet, encountering quantities of oil and a small amount of gas. This well is about 300 yards north-northeast of the present Jarvis Chapel and is within a mile of most of the known occurrences of the asphaltic material, either at the surface or in test holes. The oil-impregnated sands make up three distinct and neighboring deposits extending over a dis­tance of 1.8 miles. The eastern deposit occupies about 20 acres, the centrill one about 144 acres, and the western one 34 acres, making a totill of about 200 acres. The oil-impregnated sands crop out at the surface in the eastern deposit, but elsewhere they lie under a cover of 5 to 40 feet thickness. Their thickness varies from 0.5 to over 10 feet. NACOGDOCHES COUNTY Oil seeps have long been known and utilized near Chireno. The petroleum occurrence of these seeps and wells dug in the area of the seeps is inore in the nature of a shallow oil field than of minable bituminous sands. OKLAHOMA The natural asphalt deposits of Okla­homa fall into two general groups: tar sands or bituminous rock deposits scat­tered throughout the east half of the extreme southern part of the State and grahamite deposits in the Ouachita Moun· tains. In addition, impsonite occurs in two small deposits near Page in LeFlore County within a few miles of the Arkansas State line and near Dougherty in Murray · County hi the south-central part of the State, and grahamite is reported in a small deposit near Alma in Stephens County. The bitum~nous . rock deposits are in three general groups. One group of depos­ its is in sediments of Permian age a short distance east of the Wichita Mountains in Comanche County, Oklahoma. The second group of deposits occurs in limestones, sandstones, and shales of Ordovician to Cretaceous age on the north, west, and south flanks of the Arbuckle Mountains in south-central Oklahoma. The third group of deposits are tar sands in rocks of Creta· ceous age in Love, Marshall, Johnston, and McCurtain counties, near the Texas State line in eastern Oklahoma. Two of the principal deposits have recently been · studied in detail by the Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior (8, 9). One of these, the Sulphur deposits in sections 15, 21 and 22, T. 1 S., R. 3 E., Murray County, occurs principally in faulted sandstone beds of the Simpson group of Ordovician age. The rock that has been mined has ranged between 6 and 12 percent of bituminous material and has averaged 7 to 8 percent. · The second deposit is near Dougherty in section 25, T. 1 S., R. 2 E., and section 30, T. 1 S., R. 3 E., in Murray County. In this deposit asphalt impregnates beds in the Viola limestone of Ordovician age. The asphalt content of the rock varies but slightly from 3 percent by weight. Rock from these two deposits is mixed together with some pure asphalt to make a paving material. The other deposits are either less extensive or have a lower asphalt content. The grahamite deposits of the Ouachita Mountain area occur in veins. Most of the veins are in shale and sandstone beds of Carboniferous age, but a few are in lime· stone, shale, and novaculite of Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian age. About half of the veins lie parallel to the bedding of the surrounding rock and the remainder occur in fault zones. Most of the veins are less than 1 foot thick, but thicknesses as great as 6 f~t have been observed locally. Visible impurities are few. The following deposits of grahamite and impsonite are listed by J. 0. Beach in The Hopper, vol. 5, no. 6, June 1945, Okla­homa Geological Survey: ATOKA COUNTY SW34 sec. 28 (given as sec. 23 in · some re­ports), T. 1 N., R. 14 E. (Analyses samples 8 and 9.) Two thin veins, one reported .as 4 inches and the other as 1 foot thick. Material classed as grahamite. Shafts were dug 15 to 20 feet, known as Williams mine. NW34 sec. 4, T. 1 N., R. 15 E. . (Analysis sample 7723.) Reported as 7-foot vein encoun­tered at depth of 50 feet. Shaft now filled with water. Sec. 15, T. 1 S., R. 12 E. Streaks of grahamite reported in 9 feet of shale. SW% sec. 29, T. 1 S., R. 12 E. Grahamite as veins in shale, up to "several feet thick." Once prospected and operated as slope mine. NW% sec. 32, T. 1 S., R. 12 E. · Reported 1 to 2 feet thick. Preliminary tests indicate sample is asphaltic pyrobitumen, probably impsonite. NE% sec. 25, T. 1 S., R. 13 E., and NW% sec. 30, T. 1 S., R. 14 E. Known as the Pumroy mines when · operated. Vein was ·reported to be 14 to 15 feet thick at surface, tapering to 4 feet at depth of 110 feet. Grahamite fills a fissure caused by faulting. . "More than 100 cars of grahamite shipped." About one-fourth mile south of this mine, a 2-foot vein is reported. SE% sec. 13, T. 2 S., R. 13 E. Small showings of asphaltic materials reported along stream. Old pit near center of south half of section. NE% sec. 31, T. 2 S., R. 13 E. Small seam of asphaltic material. LE FLORE COUNTY NE% sec. 34, T. 2 N., R. 25 E. Outcrop re­ported 14 inches. thick for distance of about 5 feet. Reported by observer as coal. No sample available for study, but as the location is in formations not known to contain coal in Okla­homa and some of the asphaltic materials may be mistaken for coal, the material probably is some type of asphaltite. NW% sec. 21, T. 3 N., R. 25 E. Vein deposit of asphaltic material reported by observer as 12 feet thick on side of steep hill. No identification of this material has . been made to determine whether it is grahamite or related to the imp­sonite deposit farther east. The deposit is some­what difficult to reach, but the material is said to have been used as fuel in blacksmith forges in the vicinity of Stapp. Slh sec. 24, T. 3 N., · R. 26 E. 2 (Analysis sample 1.) Vein 10 feet thick known as the Page deposit. The material is reported as in­fusible by Abraham and other observers and identified as impsonite in the class of asphaltic pyrobitumens. The deposit has been mined but records as to the amount of material removed and its uses are not available. An analysis by the U. S. Geological Survey reported by Clarke in Data of . Geochemistry, U. S. G. S. Bulletin 770, shows 12.2 percent vanadium oxide in the ash from a sample collected at this deposit. The ash content is very small. MURRAY COUNTY Sec. 33, T. 1 S., .R. 3. E. lmpsonite vein, known as Williams prospect, reported 18 inches thick at outcrop when discovered. Some material was mined a number of years ago, and the vein was stated to have been 7 feet thick at bottom of shaft. PITTSBURG COUNTY Sec. 9, T. 2 N., R. 15 E. Material identified as grahamite. Location · is that given by Mrs. Railey. PUSHMATAHA COUNTY NE% sec. 31, T. 1 N., R. 22 E. A vein of asphalt, probably grahamite, about 4 or 5 feet thick was encountered at a depth of almost 20 feet in a well dug for water not far from the bank of Little River. A ledge of massive sand" stone With ·steep dip · to the southeast crops out ·in the river hank. No outcrops of grahamite have been observed. NW% SE% se.c. 1, T. 2 N., R. 17 E. Deposit discovered by Wade brothers of Sardis. Prospect shaft has been dug into the deposit, and the owners repon a thick vein, hut actual thickness has not been determined. This material resembles that formerly mined near Sardis. E~ sec. 9, T. 2 N., R. 18 E., and some. mate­rial reported from sec. 10. (Analyses samples 5, 6, and 8231.) Jackfork Creek (Sardis) de­ . posit. Reported by Abraham to be the largest known grahamite vein in the world. Mined about 1907 to 1924, probably intermittently. The main deposit is located in sec. 9, hut additional mate­rial has been reported from sec. 10. Type of material in this deposit varied, but the main mass is regarded as grahamite. In places, ·as much as 9 feet of the lower part of the mass had different characteristics and was marked · as gilsonite. The deposit was up to 25 feet thick and about a mile long. Grahamite occurs in a fault in shaly sandstone. Secs. 1, 2, T. ,2 N., R. 19 E. Small amounts of grahamite with some softer material alon~ bed­ding planes, joints, and solution channels. Some viscous bitumen in section 2. Material occurs in the Talihina chert. NW sec. 23, T. 2 N., R. 20 E. Reported shaft dug "80 or 90 -feet" along thin vein. Shaft just west of Frisco station at Kiamichi. Vein said to be 2 to 3 inches thick at surface and 6 to 8 inches. at bottom of shaft. Thin · veins, 1 to 2 inches, reported observed at other places around Kiamichi in Talihi~a chert, probably along bedding plane. · SW14 sec. 21, NW% sec. 28, T. 1 S., R. 15 E. (Analyses samples 2, 3, and 4.) Impson Valley deposit. This deposit was variously known as the Jumbo Mine, Choctaw Mine, or Old.. Slope Mine, and was the second largest mine in Okla­homa during the years of asphaltite production in this state. A small operation was started about . 1891, and mining continued until 1910 w:hen Jill explosion of gas killed several miners. Operations were resumed later but ceased in 1916. The vein was lenticular and ranged from a few inches up to 30 feet thick in a zone of faulted and fractured shale. Taff first believed the material differed from other asphaltites and suggested the term, impsonite, from the valley in which. it occurred. The material was later identified .as grahamite but the term, impsonite, has been retained and applied to an asphaltic pyrobitumen found in a few places in Oklahoma. SW14 sec. 29, T. 1 S., R. 15 E. Small amount of soft asphalt along a small ravine. Occurs beneath a rock ledge. Report not definite as to whether it is a solid asphaltic material, or asphalt impregnated rock. STEPHENS COUNTY NW% sec. 6, T. 2 S., R. 4 W.. (Analysis sample 7.) Grahamite, vein thin at surface, hut reported up to 10 feet thick at depths of 40 to 100 feet. Formerly mined and a consi.derahle quantity removed. An interesting feature is the reported presence of small pyrite crystals in the grahamite. · ANALYSES CALCIUM LOCATION PETRO­ TOTAL CARBO­ PHOS­ COUNTY (REFERENCE NO. ) ASPHALTENE LENE BITUMEN . NATE SILICA SULFUR PHORUS TEXAS Anderson Chapel well (1121) .............. 11.25 12.09 23.34 0.00 76.71 0.43 Hassell's well (1122) ---------·-­Brule's hole (1123) ­-----·····:· 0.92 2.35 16.52 5.82 17.44 . 8.17 0.96 trace 81.60 91.83 0.61 0.18 Cooke Thos. Hoover land (1127) .... 0.45 5.31 5.76 0.56 93.68 0.14 Same, before heating (1128) trace 7.43 7.43 1.00 Same, after heating (1129) 1.23 4.92 6.15 0.00 92.85 0.74 Patton land, before heating (1130) ...... 0.82 14.17 14.99 trace 87.36 2.38 Same, after heating (1131) 2.46 10.18 12.64 0.92 Roemer land (1132) --------­-Same, after heating (1133) trace 3.00 10.10 6.24 10.10 9:24 trace 89.90 ........ 72.74 ____ ____ 0.50 0.30 Montague Sampson Ridge (1136) ········ Sampson Ridge (1137) ···----­W. J. Ray ranch (1138) .... Sampson Ridge (1139) ........ Sampson Ridge (1140) ........ Sampson Ridge (1141) ........ Sampson Ridge (1142) ........ 3.60 1.20 0.20 0.60 1.35 1.46 1.58 7.00 8.80 1.90 1.22 9.00 9.50 9.10 lo.60 10.00 2.10 1.82 10.35 10.96 10.68 trace 3.00 28.10 12.14 trace trace trace 89.20 87.00 69.80 86.04 89.65 89.04 89.32 0.48 0.50 0.19 0.20 0.24 0.22 Wise Decatur (1151) ---···-----------···· 5.40 9.00 14.40 3.55 Data from Scaoca, E. P., Chemical analyses of Texas rocks and minerals : Univ. Texas Bull. 1814, 1918. DISTRICT TOTAL SPECIFIC PENETRA· PERCENTAGE THROUGH AVERAGE BITUMEN GRAVITY TION DUCTILITY NO. 30 NO. 50 NO. 100 St. JCL ........_____ 8.91 2.06 very soft 0 100 44.7 2.7 Jarvis ChapeL. 8.56 1.52 very soft 0 100 60.3 21.5 Data from W. M. Terry (20). COUNTY WATER VOLATILE FIXED SULFUR (MATERIAL) SAMPLE H20 BITUMEN CARBON ASH s BITUMEN OKLAHOMA LeF!ore ----------------------­(impsonite) Pushmataha ----­---------­ 1 2 0.09 0.25 23.06 43.33 75.90 54.98 0.95 1.69 (with 12.2 v.o.) 1.45 1.47 (grahamite) Pushmataha ----­--­-------­ 3 0.70 5.70 94.10 (grahamite) Pushmataha -----------­---­ 4 48.50 6.70 2.24 90.50 (grahamite) Pushmataha ---------------­ 5 52.76 0.21 99.50 (grahamite) Pushmataha 6 55.00 0.70 99.50 (grahamite) Stephens -------------------­ 7 34.40 14.55 81.85 (grahamite) Atoka ---------­-------­ 8 43.50 0.30 95.70 (grahamite) Atoka ----------------­-----­ 9 38.42 7.10 83.70 (grahamite) Analyses from Shead, A. C., Chemical analyse1 of Oklahoma mineral raw materia ls: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Bull. 14, 1929. COUNTY (MATERfAL) OKLAHOMA Atoka ( grahamite) Atoka {grahamite) Atoka (grahamite) i.: ..: ,.J ..: 0.. 0 "' -< f-< ,.J "' ­ .,... :> ... ..c: bJ) ·,:: ..Q .15 .~ ... ..Q ..: "' :::> f-< u -< ..: c.. Oi '"O ·c: ..c: t.) i:: 0 t.) Oi '"O '8 ..Q t.) i:: 0 t.) Oi '"O 0 "<5 ... ..c: >-t.) :::;;; § t.) t.) .. ..c: ~cN ~ "' .. i:: ..C:ll> ~cN ~ "' u >< ~~ -:> U "'( "'..: o..o < < ;;: u -0 "" cN "" -0 "" ..,,: "" 00 ,,.; "" "" f-< -< ,.J "' E=:u <. ,.Jo O "' :> "' ...... °' '° "" 0 "" ,,.; "" "" ..,,: "" "" 0 f- "' ,.J ~ ~~ oE 0., ...... t.) 0 ~ ... 0. 0 00 ., ::a ::s 0 "' >­ .,... > .15 -~ ' ., ::a ::s 0 .5 "' ... ..c: -~ 'sited at Bureau of Economic Geo!Ogy, Univ. Texas; 18. TAFF, J. A., Description of the unleased seg­regated asphalt lands in the Chickasaw Na­tion, Indian Territory: U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Circ. 6, 1904. 19. TAFF, J. A., Grahamite deposits of south­eastern Oklahoma, in U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 380, pp; 286-297, 1909. 20. TERRY, W. M., The natural asphalts and asphalt rocks of Texas: Thesis, M.S, in Petroleum.Eng., Univ. Texas, 45. pp., 194.2. BITUMINOUS COAL AND LIGNITE H. B. Stenzel and H. C. Fountain, Bureau o.f Econ~c Geology, Thei University ~f Texas, and T. A. Hendricks and R. L. Miller, United States Geological Survey (Figure 3) Coals are combustible rocks formed from vegetal _matter. Through their com­ bustion the energy that is contained in th.em can be freed and utilized. Because the energy contained in them is derived from vegetal matter and because vegeta· tion receives its stored energy from the sun, the energy of coal is stored solar energy. Coals supply more than half of the total energy requirements of the world. As the principal source of heat and power, they play a dominant part in industrial development of all countries. Coals are formed by geologic processes acting on the accumulated remains of plants. The nature and the composition of a coal are dependent on the composition of the original raw material; that is, the plant remains, and the duration and char­ acter of the geologic processes which shaped these plant remains into sedimen­ tary rock bodies that are called coal seams. Coals are classified according to their fixed carbon content and calorific value (14) ,2 and the various classes form a con­tinuous series which reflects the geologic processes that affected. them. This series begins with ·coals that were affected by geologic processes of short duration and low intensity only and ends ';itj those t~at were affected for a . long time· and with high intensity. The series is roughly repre· sented by the following classes of coal: Peat -> Lignite (or Brown Coal)-> Bituminous Coal -> Anthracite -> Graphite. ·· Among these the peat is least affected by geologic processes. In it the plant remains can be separated readily into individual strands and identified as to their botanical natm:e. Peat is discussed in a separate chapter, because its chief use in this coun­try is ·not as a fuel. .On the other end of the series, graphite 'is a material so thor­oughly altered that it does not contain any plant structures; it is rather a mineralogi· cal material composed of crystals of car· hon, and .its organic origin .can be sur· mised only from data other than organic plant structures. Lignite is near the beginning .of. this series of the classes of coal. It contains more Qr less clearly separable pieces of plant material . identifiable as lignitized roots, leaves, twigs, and tree tru~s; but besides this material there is a considerable amount of earthy to . dense, more or less fria:ble material .that cannot be identified as a b()tanical entity without the aid of a microscope. The color of lignite is usually a verv dark brown, and the color of the very finely divided material, obtainable on a mineralogical streak plate, is character· istically dark chocolate-brown. For that reason it is perhaps better to call this kind of coal "brown coal," as the word "lig­nite" implies derivation from wood (Latin, lignum)-a derivation which is Qnly par­tially consistent with the nature of the plant remains that went into the making of lignite. Most lignites are soft, friable or crumbly, haye low specific gravity, and are comparatively porous. The large amount of moisture present in mine-fresh lignite is due to its high porosity. The specific gravity of lignites is V!lfiable and ranges from 1.16 to 1.46; the average is about 1.33. In lignites produced in the Trinity Riv.er tributary' area the moisture content (as received) varies from 12.60 to 41. 50 per­cent wit}J an average of 29.60 percent; ash . varies from 6.42 to 20.8.0 percent; i;ulfur from 0.53 to 2.27; the heating value from 6,605 to 8,338 B.t,u. with an average of 7,703 B.t.u. per pound as received. .For detailed analyses, see table on page 39. . Bituminous coal is usually brownish black to black, and the mineralogic streak is brownish to grayish black. Plant struc­tures are only rarely visible to the naked eye but can be detected under the micro­scope after preparation. .The bituminous coals have a glassy or greasy luster on fresh cross breaks. They are considerably . --. . ·~Literature references are given in the bibliography, pp. 4344. harder than lignites and more coherent. The natural porosity is low, and they aver· age about 1.40 in specific gravity. · Tbe bituminous coals in the Texas por· tion of the Trinity River tributary area have a moisture content of 2.2 to 13.7 per­cent; ash of 14.5 to 27.1 percent; sulfur of 2.0 to 4.1 percent; and a heating value of 9,690 to 11,560 B.t.u. per pound as re· ceived. Those in the Oklahoma portion are generally of much better quality and have a moisture content of 1.7 to 7.6 per· cent; ash of 3.3 to 14.0 percent; sulfur of 0.5 to 4.4 percent; and a heating value of 11,160 to 14,550 B.t.u., wit!! an average of 13,303 B.t.u., per pound as received. For detailed analyses, see table on page 40. High sulfur and ash content are objec· tionable in both lignite and bituminous coal. Both lignite and bituminous coal are used chiefly as fuels for heating and steam generation, both in stationary engines such as steam power plants and in mobile en· gines such as railroad 'locomotives. Lig· nite can be burned as it comes from the mine, but its efficiency is much less than that of the harder coals. Special types of grates and methods of stoking are neces· sary to achieve the complete burning of lignite. However, when fashioned into briquettes, lignite can be made to approach some of the other coals in utility and effi­ciency. Both lignite and bituminous coal have been used in the finely ground or powdered form for injection into furnaces or boilers somewhat after the manner of a gaseous or liquid fuel. This method achieves a nearly complete consumption of the fuel. A small amount of lignite mined in the Trinity River tributary area is used in the manufacture of activated carbon (11), chiefly for use as a filtering material. Production of lignite for this use is expanding. Concerning the utiliiation of Texas lig· nites with which he has had extensive ex­perience, Carl Eckhardt, Jr., stated {10, p. 185): Raw lignite may be used in steam-generating stations either as a grate-fired fuel or as a fuel burned in suspension. The fundamental problems involved in burning lignite are identical with those encountered in the case of other fuels. Appropriate attention must be given to the following factors: 1. The fuel and the air supplied for the combm· tion process must be introduced into the fur· nace in a manner which causes the proper relationship to exist between the combustible constituents of the fuel and the oxygen con­tained in the air supplied for combustion. The design of the system must, moreover, be such that the control exercised over both the fuel and the air after their introduction into the furnace is as great as possible. 2. The combustible substances within the fuel must have their temperatures elevated to the ignition point and the heat evolved in this oxidation process must maintain temperatures sufficiently high to support further ignition. 3. The time provided for the completion of the combustion process must be adequate. This means that the size and the arrangement of the flrrnace must be such that gaseous products of combustion are not chilled below the ignition temperatures before the processes reach a state of completion, i,e., a state in which the maxi· mum amount of heat has been liberated. 4. Turbulence must be provided within the fur· nace in order that the intimacy of the mixture of the oxygen of the air and ihe combustible constituents of the fuel is such that deleterious heat losses may be avoided. The widespread feeling that lignite cannot be used gainfully as a fuel may be attributed to the fact that inappropriate attention has been given to the design of lignite-burning, steam-generating systems. A failure to take into consideration the funda· mental . characteristics of lignite has resulted in many failures or unsatisfactory experiences. Due to sheer ignorance, lignite is regarded by many agencies as an unsatisfact!Jry fuel for the follow· ing reasons: 1. Inasmuch as lignite possesses a moisture con· tent of the order previously mentioned, it is assumed that the losses resulting from the presence of this moisture are so high ·as to make it+e prohibitive. 2. Lignite is a free-burning fuel. Its particles are caused to disintegrate by the evaporation of its moisture as 'the combustion process proceeds. It is, therefore, assumed that large amounts of fuel are lost through the grate surface as the comminution of the fuel particles takes place. 3. The presence in the fuel of a high moisture content has led many individuals to conclude that ignition problems are serious. 4. The tendency of the lignite particles to undergo a size degradation process when placed into storage under unfavorable circumstances has caused careless individuals to reach the deduc­tion that lignite cannot be stored successfully. The following statements based upon facts established by actual experience with the use of this fuel for steam generating purposes at The University of Texas demonstrates the fallacy of basing opinions upon hypothetical assumptions. The "water losses" (heat loss due to moisture in fuel, heat loss due to the formation of water from burning hydrogen, and the heat loss due to mois· ture in the air supplied for combustion) in the case of lignite are actually no greater in a system properly designed to burn lignite than they are in the case of such an admirable fuel as natural gas. If lignite is used as a grate-fired fuel, the loss by sifting action of the fuel particles through the grate surface can be reduced with proper design to a small fraction of 1 percent. When the fur. ?ac.e. used. to b~m lignite is prope~ly designed, 1gmtlon difficultles are completely eliminated and­the steam-generating system may be used through a very wide range of operating . conditions with success. Lignite particles do degrade seriously in size when they are stored in an improper fashion. This fuel can be stored successfully and storage problems can be demonstrated to be of no serious order. The success. with which lignite can be burned as a grate-fired fuel for steam-generating purposes depends principally upon two factors. They are the propriety of the grate design and the propriety of the furnace design. The arrangement of these members must be such as to take into considera­tion the inherent characteristics· of lignite itself. The occasions upon which lighite has been con· demned because it could not he burned upon grates which had burned other fuel successfully have not been infrequent. In many cases no appropriate consideration has been given to even the most elementary requirements of lignite. Bituminous coal, . although used chiefly as a fuel for, heating and steam generation, is treated extensively to make coke and other by-products. . The by-products are very many and have manifold uses. Coke is the residue obtained by distillation of certain suitable types of bituminous cok· ing coals whereby the volatile materials are driven off as gases by heating and the fixed carbon, or coke, left behind. This residue is quenched and then used directly as fuel in the manufacture of producer gas and water gas, in• blast furnaces in the making of pig iron and steels, and in a great variety of metallurgical processes. Only bituminous coals with a high fixed carbon ratio are suitable for the making of coke, and desirable grades are commonly obtained by blending of coals from differ­ ent seams. The volatile materials driven off during the making of coke are collected and contain many valuable by-products that are recovered and used for many pur­ poses. Among the many by-products are coke breeze, which is coke too small in size for metallurgic use, coke oven gas, coke oven tar, ammonia, and light oils. Many of these by-products can be proc· essed and made to yield dyes, solvents, drugs, and chem!cals. In 1946 the production of bituminous coal and lignite in the United States amounted to an estimated 532,000,000 net tons; nevertheless a coal shortage existed in the country. Consumption of this coal was estimated about as follows: retail dealer deliveries, that is, mostly home fuel consumption, 20.1 percent; Class I rail· roads, 22.0 percent; industrial, 23.7 per· cent; coke ovens, 16.6 percent; electric power utilities, 13.8 percent; the re· mainder of 3.8 percent was divided among colliery fuel, bunkers in foreign trade, steel and rolling mills, and cement mills. Oklahoma ranked 16th and Texas ranked 24th among the states as producers of coal and lignite. The mining of lignite in east Texas has been described by Stenzel (27). Most of the now abandoned lignite mines of east Texas were underground mines. Mining was usually by hand and blasting with black powder. Hauling in the mines was first by mules; later gasoline-driven mine locomotives were used, also a few steam· driven underground slope engines. Hoist­ing was through vertical shafts. In later years automatic dumping cages were used. Generally two grades were produced; grade I, a screen lignite produced by intro· ducing longitudinal stationary screen bars in the tipple chute, and grade II-or screen­ings, consisting of pieces falling . through the screen bars but passing over a finer screen below. The remainder was not mar­keted but was used in the mine boilers or dumped. Owing t~ the weakness of the strata causing cave-ins and water breaks, pillars were pulled only in few places, chiefly in the last years of operation of a mine. Mechanization of the lignite mines in Texas never progressed far. In 1940 there was no mine in which lignite was cut by machines and only one strip mine; 4 mines shot the lignite from the solid, and 4 mines undercut the lignite by hand. The lignite mines in the Trinity River tributary area were somewhat more advanced technologi­cally than those outside that area, and most of the production in the area came from a mi~e which shot from the solid. Bituminous coal is mined in open pits a~d.in !1-ndetground mines. Underground mmmg m general is by the room and pillar Geological Resources of Trinity River Tributarj Area method or the longwall method, either of which may be used in a shaft mine or a drift or slope mine. The coal may be undercut by macbine and brqken down by explosives or may be shot down from solid faces. The mined coal is hauled to the mine tipple where it is loaded directly to cars for transportation if it is to be used as "run·of-mine" coal. Most coal, however, is classified into size grades by screening. If the coal has a high ash content, the finer sizes are cleaned by washing. For coking, coal with suitable coking properties from two or more seams is commonly blended in definite proportions to supply a raw material with the best possible coking properties. Underground mining by hand in slope and shaft mines was always practiced in the bituminous fields in Texas until 1940, when a small tonnage was reported as cut by machines. However, in 1943 the two bituminous coal mines active in Texas used underground hand mining and hand load­ing. There were no bituminous strip mines in Texas. In the United States, most coal is trans· ported by rail and water, but some coal for local consumption is truck-hauled from the mine. An interesting, though unusual and minor, example of the latter mode of trans­port is found in the Southwest. Empty cattle trucks returning from deliveries to upper Trinity meat packing plants, trans· port coal from small Wise County mines to the treele.ss parts of the range country. In 1944, total production of bituminous coal and lignite in the United States was 620 million net tons; of this total 527 mil­lion net tons, or 85 percent, were loaded at the mine for shipment by rail; 32 mil· lion net tons; or 5.1 percent, were loaded at the mine for shipment by water; 40 mil· lion net tons, or 6.5 percent, were shipped by truck or wagqn, and the remainder was used in various ways locally. However, some of the coal loaded at the mine for rail shipment was later transshipped by water as coal or as coke. The Chief of Engineers, United States Army, reported for the same year that the Mississippi River and its tributaries alone were used to ship 60,773,145 tons of bituminous and anthra· cite coal and coke in domestic commerce. Coal .is suited to shipment by barge, and much of it is shipped that way in Europe. In the United States, coal and coke make up the greatest part of water-moved freight tonnage on navigable rivers. Bituminous coal is generally shipped in open cars and may be stored in the open. On the other hand, many lignites tend to slack and burn by spontaneous combustion so that they must be protected in shipping and"storage. However, some of the lignites in the Trinity River ;tributary area appar­ently are more resistant to deterioration, and the lignite used by the Trinidad power plant was kept in unprotected storage with slacking extending only 6 to 8 inches into the storage piles. Pertinent·to this question are also the observations and conclusions of Eckhardt quoted above. In Texas, processing of the coals, espe· cially lignite, for enhancing the fuel value, has met with little success. The natural adaptation of certain European brown coals to the manufacture of briquettes led to the early inference that the Texas mate­rial also might be treated with a similar success, but experimentation has so far not been successful, although the feasibility of manufacturing certain dehydrated products is indicated. Tests and analyses have shown that some of the Texas bituminous coals would make fairly good coke but that their sulfur content is too high to make them desirable for blast furnace use (22). The Thurber coal, according to Phillips and Worrell ( 22, pp. 48-55) , will coke. Its B.t.u. value ranges from 11,800 to 13,750; the fixed clrbon from 40.8 to 52 percent. The coke ovens recently built in Texas are planned for bituminous cok­ing coals from Oklahoma. Future production of Texas coals, both bituminous coal and lignite, depends' on very many economic factors. Coal as a fuel for home use in the Southwest has probably only a very limited immediate future. At present this domestic field is served by natural gas wherever the market is a concentrated one, as in the populous districts. These districts will probably continue to be served by natural gas as long as this fuel is so abundant. This con­dition would tend to restrict the home fuel market considerably. The most promising outlet for the coals of the Southwest as fuel is in the industrial ' field and in power plants in those areas where natural gas _is not easily available but where the coals are conveniently located. The successful operation of The University of Texas power plant in Austin with lignite is an example of this sort. Au-other possible future use of the coals is in conjunction with chemical extraction plants ·where the coals could be used not -merely as fuel but also as a raw material for chemical extraction. However, should . the production of petroleum and natural gas not keep pace in the future with the continuously rising ­demand for these products, then conditions for production of coals might change so much that a new era of economic exploita· tion of the coals might arise. Under such conditions, as much or more Texas coals might be produced again than were taken from the ground in the years 1917 to 1920. The outlook for future uses of some of the Pennsylvanian coals of Texas is not bright. Seams that are only 20 to 24 inches thick and have a high sulfur content can­not he niined cheaply nor can they find many uses. OCCURRENCE TEXAS Extensive coal-hearing strata occur in the Trinity River tributary aiea of Texas and contain deposits both of bituminous coal and lignite; the former in the belt of Pennsylvanian rocks that crop out chiefly near but partly also across the western tip of the headwaters of the Trinity River and the latter in the Eocene beds in the south­eastern part of the area: However, during the past tl:Jree decades, the introduction of more desirable or cheaper fuels, largely products of the petroleum and gas indus; try, has made serious inroads in the production and utilization of the coal resources of the Trinity River area. Large· scale production of the bituminous coals has ceased, and lignite production has de­clined severely. Bituminous coal.-Workahle deposits of bituminous coals in the Trinity tributary area are found in strata of Pennsylvanian age in a number of north-central Texas counties: Archer, Brown, Coleman, East· land, Erath, Jack, Montague, Palo Pinto, Parker, . Stephens, Wise, and Young (fig. 3). The various beds range from Lower to Upper Pennsylvanian in age, and the three most important of them represent all three divisions of Pennsylvanian strata outcropping in the area, namely, the Strawn, Canyon, and Cisco divisions. The Thurber coal, of Strawn age, occurs in the base of the Garner formation and has been mined at Thurber in Erath County, at Gordon and Strawn in Palo Pinto County, and at Rock Creek in Parker County. The average thickness of the Thur. her seam is about 2% feet. The Bridgeport coal, at Bridgeport, Wise County, averaging about 20 inches in thick· ness, is in the upper part of the Palo Pinto formation, Canyon group. Mining opera­tions in this bed were the last to close down in the State. The Chaffin coal, in the Thrifty forma· tion of the Cisco group, occurs only in the Chaffin mine near Waldrip in McCulloch County, which is south of the Trinity River tributary area, and is about the same thickness as the Bridgeport seam and, like the latter, is associated with limestone. In addition to the above well-known seams, which have been more or less accu· rately traced over considerable areas, other beds of less certain relationships' are known, and others continue to he discov· ered from time to time. Several thin coals in the stratigraphic vicinity of the Chaffin seam are ordinarily encountered over a wide area in bore "holes. These center about Young County and can he tra.ced down dip to the west, where their place is taken by oil sands occupying a similar stratigraphic position. One or more of these coals has been mined in the past at Newcastle, Young County, and near Jer· myn, in Jack County. In ·their report on Palo Pinto County, Plummer and Hornberger (23) name three coals in addition to the Thurber and give information as to their extent, thickness, and possibilities .of commercial develop· ment. These are the ( 1) Dalton coal, he· tween 9 and 10 feet thick, occurring in the Graford formation; (2) Abbott coal, 2% feet thick and occurring in the Brazos River sandstone, Mineral Wells formation of the Strawn group; and (3) Sunday Creek coal, 65 feet below the upper Santo limestone of the Millsap Lake formation, The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 0 35• u% - :>< I z EXPLANATION TEXAS Outcrop .of Dowson cool -o­ ~ Minin9 district --.c-Outcrop of Broken Arrow cool • Abandoned minin9 district 80 Peat ba9 -He-... Outcrop of Henryetta coal Oulcrop of Eocene-Ye9ua strata Outcrop of Hartshorne coal ~ contoinin9 li9nites Outcrop of Eocene-Wilco~ strata Area in which coal hos been mined containin9 li9nites ~ Outcrop of Pennsylvanian strata Area underlain by coal containin9 bituminous coals ~ Fig. 3. Distribution of bituminous coal, lignite, and peat in the Trinity River tributary area. Strawn group. This seam is said to he like the Thurber coal but somewhat thinner. It is a little less than 2 feet thick. The Dalton seam, it will be noted, is much thicker than other known coals in the area. These three coals have not been mined. Lignite.-Deposits of lignite are wide­spread in Eocene strata in the southeastern part of the Trinity tributary area, partic· ularly in the Wilcox group of sediments · (fig. 3). Some deposits of less extent and importance occur higher in the section in the Y egua formation of Claiborne age. Counties in the area crossed by the lignitic belts are as follows (*indicates past or present commercial production) : Wilcox group-Anderson* Henderson* Rains* Bowie Hopkins* Red River Camp Leon• Robertson• Cass Limestone Rusk Cherokee Marion Smith Franklin Morris Titus• Freestone Nacogdoches• Van Zandt* Gregg Navarro Wood* Harrison• Panola Y egua formation of Claiborne group- Angelina Nacogdoches Houston* Trinity Madison Walker The Rockdale member of the Wilcox for­mation contains large deposits of lignite in the western part of Anderson County and was once mined at the Palestine salt dome, 6.4 miles west of Palestine. In Bowie, Camp, Cass, Cherokee, and Frank­lin counties, the known lignite deposits have received little or . no development. The same is true of Freestone County, where a 25-foot seam occurs near Turling­ton. Many lignite exposures in that county show evidence of having burned in place through natural causes (17), after the manner of the porcelanites of Trinidad and the burned rocks of the northern cen­tral United States. The Gregg County lig­nite resources also lack development. Har­rison County has been an important pro­ducer of lignite in the past . from mines near Marshall, and there is some produc­tion at present. Lignite from mines at Darco, about 12 miles south~yest of Mar­shall, is utilized by a plant in that city in the manufacture of activated carbon. Most of the central and western parts of Henderson County are underlain by lig: nite, which crops out in places near Athens. The county has been a large pro­ducer, and mines of the Malakoff Fuel Company at Malakoff have been for many years the largest lignite producers in Texas. Lignite mines near Como in Hop· kins County were in operation from some­time before 1909 to about 1928, according to annual reports of State mine inspectors, whose duties and functions expired near the latter date. Since 1928 production has been intermittent. Y egua lignite crops out in southern and southwestern Houston County and along the Trinity River. A 6-foot bed near Lovelady was mined from 1907 to 1930. During the same period a seam about 9 feet thick in the Wilcox was worked near Bear Grass and Evansville in .Leon County. Information about these Leon County mines is given by H. B. Sten: zel (27). Wilcox lignites also occur in the southeast part of Limestone County and along Sulphur Fork in Morris County. Similar beds of less than commercial thickne~s are found in Marion County on Big Cypress Creek and on the north side of Caddo Lake. No development of any of these occurrences has been reported. Nacogdoches County was listed among the producers in the report of the State in-. spector for 1928, with mines near Garri­son; and a mine at Ginger, in Rains County, was listed in the report of 1909. Dumble (8) mentioned outcrops near Emory in the same county, in what is now called the Wilcox group. Kennedy (16), in 1893, reported on tl;e lignite occur· rences in Robertson County, particularly at Calvert Bluff, which deposits were being developed in 1909. Non-commercial de­posits are widespread in the Wilcox of Rusk and Smith counties. Winfield in Titus County and Canton in Van Zandt County are mining centers; both counties have numerous exposures of Wilcox lig­nites. Important Wilcox lignite beds near Alba and at Hoyt switch, in western Wood County, and extending into adjoining Rains County have been in intermittent production since 1890 to the present. OKLAHOMA Bituminous coal.-Bituminous coal is abundant in east·central and northeastern Oklahoma. It has been mined in consid­erable quantities from ten different coal beds, which are from oldest to youngest: Lower Hartshorne, Upper Hartshorne, McAlester, Stigler, Cavanal, Lower Witte­ville, Upper Witteville, Henryetta, Broken Arrow, and Dawson. Some of the beds, such as the Lower Hartshorne and McAles­ter coals, are known to be of minable thickness beneath hundreds of square miles. Others, such as the Henryetta and Cavanal coals, are somewhat less extensive, and still others, such as the Broken Arrow and Dawson coals, are generally thin but are minable near the surface in limited areas. Most of the coal produced from the Broken Arrow and Dawson beds has been mined from open cuts, whereas most of tl)at produced from other beds has come from underground mines. All of these coal beds occur in rocks of Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) age. In the southern and extreme eastern part of the Oklahoma coal field, the strata have been folded rather in,tensely; so that at most places coal near the surface dips 20. degrees or more, and gently dipping coal generally lies a thou­sand feet or more beneath the surface. In the northern part of Oklahoma, the rocks are less folded, and the Henryetta, Broken Arrow, and Dawson coal beds are nearly horizontal. Much of the coal produced in the Trin­ity tributary region of Oklahoma is used in steam power plants, for minor indus­trial purposes, and for the heating of .buildings. The majority of the southwest­ern railroads now use oil~burning or Diesel engines for major hauls, with the result that coal-burning engines are used largely for switching and on branch lines. Coal from the eastern part ~f the Oklahoma field was coked in considerable quantities about 1900, but the only recent use of these coals for coking has been in steel plants in Texas that were first operated principally as war industries and are now in peace-time operation. Most of the coal of eastern Oklahoma is suitable for coking, particularly if the various coals are prop· erly blended. Both fuel oil and natural gas are abundant in this area and have sup· planted coal in places. In most industries, except such specialized ones as glass man­ufacture, coal is a satisfactory fuel, and the existence of adequate coal resources . assures a supply of fuels in case·petroleum and natural gas resources diminish greatly. ANALYSES Specimen Analyses of Lignites Produced in Trinity River Tributary Area As received Volatile Fixed County (Reference no.) Moisture matter carbo~ Ash Sulfur B.t.u. TEXAS Freestone (1274) ------·­----------­Henderson (1282a) _______________ 27.40 30.60 26.53 30.99 36.71 30.42 9.36 8.00 1$9 1.23 7977 7793 Henderson (1282) ____________ _____ 12.60 40.20 26.40 20.80 2.27 8338 Hopkins (1286) -----------·­--------­ 23.10 29.96 30.50 16.44 1.38 7481· Houston (1291) ·--------·--­-------­ 41.50 28.90 23.17 6.42 1.38 6605 Houston (1294) --------­-----­-·--­-33.50 Leon (1308) ______________ ___ ____ _ 33.00 39.50 28.90 16.25 29.40 10.75 9.70 0.56 0.98 7142 8027 Leon (1309) ------------­-------------­ 33.00 27.84 30.26 9.00 0.88 8057 Leon Leon (1310) --­----­------------------­(1315) _____ _____________ ________ 31.50 30.80 27.60 30.24 34.20 31.76 6.70 7.20 0.82 0.82 8260 7496 Robertson (1351 ) ______ ·-------·­-34.32 35.95 30.93 8.80 0.95 7214 Titus (1384) _ __ _________________.______ 34.50 29.96 29.04 6.50 1.28 7403 Wood (1399) _ _____________________ 25.85 35.58 31.30 7.27 0.54 797<1 Wood Wood (1405) ___ _____·--------------·­(1410) ___ ______________________ 33.71 24.80 29.25 32.20 29.76 29.20 7.28 13.80 0.53 1.10 7348 8105 Wood (1415) ­--­-------------------·· 23.36 30.14 31.40 15.10 1.24 8027 All data from Schoch, E. P., Chemical analyF-es of Tex~s rocks and minerals: Univ. Texas Bull. 1814, 1918. Proximate analysis, 81 received Volatile Fixed B.t.u. per lb. County (bed) Sample Moisture matter carbon Ash Sulfur as received TEXAS Erath (Thurber> --··-----------------------­Palo Pinto (Thurber> --------------­Wise (Bridgeport) ---------------------­ OKLAHOMA Coal (McAlester) -------------------------­Haskell (Stigler) -------------------------­ Haskell (Lower Hartshorne) ________ Latimer (Upper Hartshorne) _____ Latimer (Lower H1;1rtshorne) _____ LeFlore (Lower Witteville) _______ LeFlore (Cavanal) -------------------- LeFlore (Upper Hartshorne) ________ LeFlore (Lower Hartshorne) ________ Okmulgee (Henryetta) ----------------Pittsburg (McAlester) -------------- Pittsburg (Upper Hartshorne) ____ Pittsburg (Lower Hartshorne) ____ Rogers (Dawson) ----------------------Sequoyah -----------------------------------------­Tulsa (Dawson) --------·--------------------­Wagoner (Broken Arrow) ----------­Wagoner -----------------------------------­D M M M M M T T M T T T M M M T M T D T T 2.2 4.0 13..7 7.6 3.2 3.2 3.5 3.6 1.7 2.1 2.2 2.5 7.5 3.5 4.8 3.7 6.1 2.3 6.5 5.2 5.6 31.0 32.8 32.5 38.7 27.0 21.6 37.2 34.4 21.6 21.8 17.3 17.5 34.6 35.4 34.. 7 37.8 38.3 21.2 37.0 36.2 33.4 39.7 45.6 39.3 42.0 66.5 68.1 50.9 51.9 62.7 67.5 72.7 71.5 53.3 54.7 54.4 52.1 47.4 71.0 47.8 50.0 53.7 27.1 3.1 10220 17.6 4.1 11560 14.5 2.0 9690 11.7 4.4 11160 3.3 0.8 14550 7.1 1.1 13860 8.4 0.9 13010 10.1 1.0 13030 14.0 3.5 13090 8.6 2.0 13910 7.8 0.7 13950 8.5 0.7 13690 4.6 1.0 13060 6.4 0.5 13570 6.1 1.5 13360 6.4 1.7 13610 8.2 3.8 12730 5.5 0.5 14310 8.7 3.7 12730 8.6 2.6 12840 7.3· 0.6 12990 D= delivered sample; M= mine sample; T= tipple sample. Data from U. S. Bur. Mines Bull. 446. RESERVES TEXAS -Estimates on reserves of Texas bitu­ minous coal and lignite, most of which are located in the Ti:inity River tributary area, have long pointed to a prodigious supply. The north Texas bituminous coal beds underlie an area in excess of 8,000 square miles, with a total reserve estimated at 8 billion net tons according to statistics compiled by M. R. Campbell in 1928 and published by T. A. Hendricks of the United States Geological Survey (13) . A partial estimate made by Mr. E. S. Britton of the Strawn Coal Company indi­cates that about 5,600 acres of bituminous coal lands have been mined, worked over, or discarded, and about 40,000 acres of reserves of commercially productive coal lands in the Strawn coal basin remain to he developed, containing coal of about 28­inch thickness and 4,065;600,000 cubic feet or 50 million tons of bituminous coal (23). It will he noted that this estimate is based on only the Thurber coal seam in the area around .the town of Strawn in southwestern Palo Pinto County. Texas lignite areas cover an estimated extent qf 60,000 square miles, of which a~out 63 percent are in the Trinity River tributary area. The total Texas lignite reserve has been placed at 23 billion net tons by M. R. Campbell (13). Accumulated total production to the end of 1943 for the entire State of Texas was 60,499,000 tons, a total l~ss than 2/10 of 1 percent of the estimated reserves of coal and lignite. When it is considered that it has required more than 60 years to. reduce the reserves by this small amount, their enormity is at once evident. OKLAHOMA. The reserves of bituminous coal in Oklahoma were estimated at 54,755,853,000 ,. net i:ons, as of 1937. Production and min­ing losses since that time, and deduction of the amount of coal in areas outside the Trinity tributary are~, would still leave more than 50 billion tons of unmined hitu· minous coal within the Trinity tributary area in Oklahoma. · · PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION is given in the following table. The pro­ • duction from Craig County, which is out· OKLAHOMA side the tributary area, is included. BITUMINOUS COAL YEAR NET TONS VALUE ·There were 98 mines in Oklahoma, from 1934________ _ ___________ 1,208,000 each of which more than 1,000 tons of coal 1935________________________ 1,229,000 $2,879,000 1936_________________ __ ____ 1,540,000 were produced in 1942, and in addition 1937______________________ 1,600,000there were 66 wagon mines with a produc­1938____________ ___ __ _______ 1,245,000 tion of less than 1,000 tons each. Eleven 1939_______________________ 1,188,000 2,507,000 1940________________________ 1,64-0,000 4,016,000 of the mines with more than 1,000-ton pro· 1941._______________________ 1,771,000 4,693,000duction were strip mines that produced 1942 ________________________ 2,387,000 6,779,000 1,100,800 tons of coal, employed 423 men, 1943 -----------------------2,838,000 8,968,000 and worked an average of 231 days during 1944 ----------------------3,209,000 1945 -----------------------2,909,000 the year. The production of bituminous 1946 ----------------------2,647,000coal in Oklahoma from 1934 through 1946 Data from U.S. Bur. Mines Minerals Yearbooks. TEXAS PRODUCERS OF LIGNITE IN THE l'RINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA The following were producers in 1946 of lignite in the Texas portion of the Trinity River tributary area: Name of Company Location of Plant or Pit Consumers Lignite Company, Alba, Texas ---~-----Wood County Jesse Garcia, Winfield, Texas___________ Titus County S. M. Hill and Son, Como, Texas____ Hopkins County McAlester Fuel Company, Marshall, Texas --------------Harrison County Malakoff Fuel Company, Malakoff, Texas__ --------­ --Henderson County Darco Corporation, -Marshall, Texas__________________ ______ Harrison County (Product: activated carbon from lignite mined by McAlester Fuel Company.) PRODUCERS OF COKE The following were producers of coke in 1944-1947 in Texas: Name of Company Location of PW.t Lone Star Steel Company, Lone Star post office near Daingerfield, Texas______ Morris County (Products: by-product coke from 78 coke ovens of 400,000 net tons of coke annual capacity; 3 production began in 1944 and ceased July 4, 1944. This plant was originally owned by the Defense Plant Corporation but passed into private hands on May 15, 1947. Production was resumed in June, ·1947, Sheffield Steel of Texas, Houston, Texas------,--Houston, Harris,Co. (Products: by-product coke, coke breeze, coke oven gas, tar, ammonium sulfate, coke oven crude light oil, and derived products from 47 coke ovens of 252,000 net tons of coke annual capacity; 8 washed bituminous coal from Oklahoma is used. Production began in 1944 and ceased at end of October 1945; production was resumed in July 1947. The 125 ovens of these two plants are vertical slot-type ovens of the Koppers. Becker type. •Data from Report to Coner-on dis_pooal of Government Iron and steel planta and facllitlea: Surplu Property Adlliln­iotratlon, 52 pp., Oct. 8, 1945; and Mineral. Yearbook 1944: U. S. Bur. 1(1-. . Number of Production active Year (net tons ) Value Per ton Producing counties mines 1934____________ __ __________________ 1935________________ ___ __ _____ ___ _ 15,502· 17,112" $42,000" 46,ooo• $2.70 2.70 Brewster,* Palo Pinto Same 3 3 1936___ ____________ ___________________ 21,507" Brewster*, Palo Pinto, Wise, Young - 1937___ ____ ______ __ ________________ 1938________:___ _____ ________________ 44,060. 33,781. Palo Pinto, Webb*, Wise, Young 1939____________________________ 8,000 26,000 3.23 Palo Pinto, Wise 4 194Q____ _____________ __ ___'._________ 14,137• 48,ooo· 3.42 Palo Pinto, Webb*, Wise 3 1941________ ____ ____ _____ _____________ 15,482 53,000 3.41­ Palo Pinto, Wise 3 1942_____ ___ __________ ________ __ ____ 13,210 55,000 4.17 Same 3 1943______ __ ___ ______________________ 10,047 43,800 4°.36 Palo Pinto 2 1944_______ ____________________ ___ __ none ----- TotaL_____ __________ ______ 192,838 *Indicates counties not in Trinity tributary area. a1ncludes counties not in tributary area. All data from publications of United States Bureau of Mines. Production of Lignite in Trinity River Tributary Area (Texas) Production Average value Year (net tons) Value per ton Producing counties Mines 1934c__ ______ ___ __ _____________ _ 561,566 $939,000 $1.69 Anderson, Harrison, Henderson, Titus, Wood 9 1935______ _____________________ _ 562,129 460,000 1.22 Same 9 1936___________ ____ __________ 651,952 509,000 0.78 Harrison, Henderson, Titus, Wood 8 1937_____ ____________________ _ 707,788 559,000 0.79 Same 8 1_938_ ____________ _ _________ _ 846,219 679,000 0.80 Same 8 1939__________ __ ________________ 727,547 809,000 1.11 Henderson, Titus, Wood 8 1940_________ __________________ 532,471 589,000 1.11 Same 8 1941________________________ _ 258,135 245,000 0.95 Henderson, Titus 6 1942_________________________ _ 290,969" 246,000" 0.85 Henderson, Milam*, Wood 5 1943____________________________ 144,144. 127,000" 0.88 Same 3 1944____ _ ____________________ 109,532. 95,000" 0.87 Same 3 1945___________________________ 1No production reported from Trinity River tributary area. Mines in the 1946________:,,___________________ Jarea may have produced less than 1,000 tons each. Totals --------------------5,392,452 5,257,000 *Indicates county not in-Trfoity River tributary area. a1ncludes counties not in tributary area. All data from publications of United States Bureau of Mines. Coke produced in Texas and Oklahoma (all by-product coke) Year Number of active plants Production (net tons) Texas Oklahoma 1943_____________________ ___ ______ _____________ ___________ _________ None None None 1944.-----­---------------------------------------------------------­1945___ _'. ________________________________________________ ___ _______ _ 1946_____ __________________ ___ ___________________ _ _______________ 2 1 None 184,506* 140,254* None None None None •Includes production at Houston, not in TriD.itY River tributary area. 1944 1945 Coal (washed, bituminous) charged, net tons_________ __ _ ______ __ _________________ Coal (unwashed, bituminous) charged, net tons___________ __________________ Yield of coke from coal in percent_ ___________ _ _______ __ _ _ _________ Coal per ton of coke____________ _________________ ___________________ 265,377 69.53 1.44 192,956 8,702 69.55 1.44 Coke produced in Texas, net tons__________ ____________ _ ____________ ________ 184,506 14-0,254 Coke production, used by producer in blast furnace, net tons___________________ Ditto, used by producer for other purposes, net tons_ ______ __ ____________ _ ________ 136,953 99 132,537 Ditto, sold by producer to foundries, net tons------­----­-----·-------­--------­ 3,606 Ditto, sold by producer for domestic use, net tons--------­------­-----­------­------­-­Ditto, .sold by producer for industrial and other uses, net tons_________ ____ _______ Coke loaded at plants for shipment (by railroad) , net tons_ ___ ____________ _ _____ __ _ 6,118 8,o70 17,794 8,708 8,708 Coke breeze loaded at plants for shipment (by railroad), net tons.______ _ ___ 3,487 -66 Coke oven gas, produced, M cubic feet----------·--­---------------·-----------­-----------­--­---­Ditto,. used in heating ovens, M cubic feet______ ___________________ ______ _______ __ _ _____ _ Ditto, surplus sold or used, M cubic feet.._____ ______ __ _______ ____ ___ ____ _ ___________________ _ Ditto, wasted, M cubic feet____ _:_________ ___________ _ __ _____ _______________ ___ 2,720,000 1,024,580 923,434 771,986 2,210,790 807,14-0 1,048,826 9354,824 Coke oven tar produced, gallons-­-­-­---------------­--·------­---­----­-----­-----­--­-------­---Ditto, per ton of coal coked______ ________________ _ ___ _____________ ____________ _____ 2,210,329 8.33 1,683,175 8.35 Ditto, sold for refining into tar products, gallons___ __ ___ __ __ __ _____ ___________________ __ ______ 1,858,996 2,030,508 Coke oven ammonia, produced as sulfate, pounds---­---­-----------------­------------------­ 6,198,764 5,352,040 Ditto, per ton of coal coked·--­-------­--------------------­--­-------------­---------­Coke oven crude light oil produced, gallons­--------­-------­---­----­--------­----­----­--­Derived products obtained from coke oven crude oil, gallons____ __ _____ __ ____ ____ _ 23.36 546,384 453,122 26.54 458,095 475,602 All data from U.S. Bur. Mines Mineral• Yearbook 1944, 194.5, and 1946, Texas dropped in 1946 from the list of coke-producing states, as no coke was made in that year at either of the two oven­coke plants in the State. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. BAKER, C. L., Coal and lignite, in The geology of Texas, Vol. II, Structural and economic geology: Univ. Texas Bull; 34-01, pp. 301-352, 1934 (1935]. 2. Bituminous coal and lignite, in Minerals Yearbook: U. S. Bur. Mines, 1935-1946. 3. CRISWELL, D. R., Geologic studies in Young County, Texas : Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 49, pp. 2-3, 1942. 4. CUMMINS, W. F., Report of geologist for northern Texas: Texas Geol. Survey, 1st Rept. of Progress, 1888, pp. 45-50, 1889. 5. DAVIS, D. D., and REYNOLDS, D. A., Carbon· izing properties of Henryetta bed coal from Atlas No. 2 mine, Henryetta, Okmulgee County, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Min. Rept. 12, 1941. 6. Carbonizing properties of McAl­ester bed doal from Dow No. 10 mine; Dow, Pittsburg County, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Min. Rept. 15, 1942. 7. DRAKE, N. F., Report on the Colorado coal field of Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 1755, pp. 62-67, 1917. 8. DuMBLE, E. T., Report on the brown coal and lignite of Texas: Texas Geol. Survey, 243 pp., 1892. 9. , Geology of east Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 1869, pp. 275-291, 1918 (1920]. 10. EcKHARDT, CARL, JR., Lignite-a direct fired fuel, in Texas looks ahead, vol. 1, The re­sources of Texas, pp. 185-193, Univ. Texas, 1944 (1945]. 11: EVANS, G. L., Activated carbon from Texas lignite: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Circ. 30, 2 pp., 1944. 12. HARRINGTON, HORACE, Report on the mineral resources of Houston County, Texas : Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 25, 2 pp., 1939. 13. HENDRICKS, T. A., Coal reserves, in Energy resources and National policy, Report of the Energy Resources Committee to the National Resources Committee : National Resources Committee, pp. 281-286; also published as 76th Cong., 1st Sess., H. Doc. 160, 1939. 14. , Recently adopted standards of classification of coals by rank and by grade: Econ. Geol., vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 136-142, 1938. 15. ' KNECHTEL, M. M., DANE, c. H., ROTHROCK, H. E., and WILLIAMS, J. S., Geol­ogy and fuel resources of the southern part of the Oklahoma coal field : U. S. Geol. Sur­vey Bull. 874, 4 pts., 1937-1939. 16. KENNEDY, WILLIAM, Report on Grimes, Brazos, and Robertson counties: Texas Geol. Survey, 4th Ann. Rept. (1892), pp. ©-81, 1893. 17. LONSDALE, J. T., and CRAWFORD, D. J,, Pseudo-igneous rock and baked shale from the burning of lignite, Freestone County, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull,. 2801, pp. 145-158, 1928. 18. Minerals of Oklahoma (map) : Oklahoma Geol. Survey, 1944. 19. MOORE, E. S., Coal, 2d ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, l<).W. 20. PHILLlPs, W. B., Coal, lignite and asphalt rocks: Univ. Texas Bull. 15 (Min. Surv. Ser. Bull. 3), pp. 1-76, 1902. 21. , The mineral resources of Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 365 (Sci. Ser. Bull. 29), 362 pp., 1914 [1915]. 22. PHILLIPS, W. B., and WoRRELL, S. H., The fuels used in Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 307 (Sci. Ser. Bull. 35), pp. 48-53, 1913. 23. PLuMMm; F. B., and HORNBERGER, JosEPH, Jn., Geology of Palo Pinto County, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 3534, pp. 192-204, 1935. 24. ScoTT, GAYLE, and ARMSTRONG, J. M., The geology of Wise County, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 3224, pp. 72-73, 1932. 25. SELLARDS, E. H., and EVANS, G. L., Index to the mineral resources of Texas by counties: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. -Geo!., Min. Res. Circ. 29, 22 pp., 1944. · 26. SHANNON, C. W., and oihers, Coal in Okla­homa: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Bull. 4, 110 pp., 1926. 27. STENZEL, H. B., The geology of Leon County, Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 3818, pp. 229-245, 1938 [1939]. 28. , Review of coal production in Texas : Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, pp. 197-206, 1943 [1946]. 29. WILSON, C. W., JR., Geology of Ihe Musko­gee-Porum district, Muskogee and Mcintosh counties, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geo!. Survey, Bull. 57, 1937. PEAT H. R Stenzel and H. C. Fountain, Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas (Figure 3) Peat is composed of partly decayed and disin,tegrated brown to black vegetal mat· ter, the decomposition of which has been greatly retarded by immersion in swamps. Remains of numerous plant species are identifiable in peat, but its chief component is usually one plant species only, which may be a different one from deposit to deposit. Peat freshly removed from its bog usually contains 85 to 90 percent moisture, has an apparent specific gravity of up to 1.06, arid weighs about 7 to 65 pounds per cubic foot, varying with the moisture con­tent. Peat has an acid reaction and high humus content (46 to 88 percent) and absorbs water readily owing to "its high porosity. In the United States, peat has never been burned on a commercial scale as in some European countries, and its principal em­ployment is in soil improvement. About 72 percent of the peat sold in the United States in 1946 was used for soil condition·, ing, the remainder being used in mix~d fertilizers' (23 percent), litter for barns and poultry yards, and as packing mate­rial for eggs, shrubs, fruits, vegetables, and fragile articles. None was reported as used for fuel before 1945; in that year a small amount was used as fuel. Dry peat is used in packing flowers and plant roots for shipment. Finely divided peat is used in greenhouses for propagat­ing plants from cuttings. As soil condi­tioner its functions are to make the soil more porous, to absorb aµd retain mois­ture, to supply the plants with abundant humus, which is a plant nutrient, and to acidify alkaline soils for the growing of certain acid-loving plants. These uses are dependent upon its cleanliness, high poros· ity, higq humus content, and acid reaction. Peat is used in Texas by many florists, hor­ticulturists, and home gardeners. Peat is not produced commercially in the Trinity River tributary area; however, since 1940 peat has been produced in Texas outside of the area. Peat is taken frQm the bogs i~ Lee and Milam counties after the tipper layers of the bog are drained by cross ditches and trees and brush are removed from the surface. The peat is removed either by qand with spade and shovel or by drag lin~ and gasoline­driven shovel and spread about 3 inches thick to dry on wire screens or on an aban­doned concrete highway surface. After pulverizing in a shredding mill, the peat is screened and sacked for shipment or loaded in'bulk. Shipment is made by truck or railroad. Chief markets are the larger towns of Texas. Peat produced in the Trinity River area might find uses as soil conditioner in near-by situated plant nurseries and for commercial florists and home gardeners. Such uses would by their nature have to be small and locally restricted so tqat the peat would not have to be shipped for long distances. ~n normal times high qual­ity peat from European countries can be delivered cheaply by ship to the sea coast of the United States and is in competition with locally produced peat. The average value per short ton of peat produced in the United States in 1946 was $7.15; that of Canadian imported peat was $32.24. Imports came in 1946 chiefly from Can­ada; a small amount came from the Nether­lands. Before the war Germany had been the chief country exporting to the United States. OCCURRENCE Peat in the Trinity River tributary area is known only from east Texas. Peat bogs are found in the Trinity River tributary area on the outcrops of the Carrizo, Queen City, Sparta, Willis, and other sand forma­tions. Many bogs are known from Robert­son, Leon, Houston; Polk, and San Jacinto counties. Many other east Texas counties also have peat bogs but have not been ex­plored for them. Only two of the bogs, the Weakley bog and the Long Glade bog in Leon County, have been investigated from the point of view of commercial pro­duc~ion of peat (3) 8• Peat is not produced 8Literature referencea are given in the bibliography, p. 46. in the area, although there is production from Lee and Milam counties outside of the area. RESERVES The only two peat bogs that have been investigated contain about 50,000 cubic yards of peat; they are in Leon County, Texas. This known reserve is, however, only a very small portion of the total present in the area. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. MARTIN, J., The winning and utilization of milled peat for briquetting and power gener· ation: Inst. Civ. Eng. Ireland, 276 pp., 1946. 2. Peat, in Minerals Yearbook: U.S. Bur. Mines, 1935-1946. 3. PLUMMER, F. B., Progress report on peat de· posits in Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Circ. 36, 8 pp. 1945. 4. SHAFER, G. H., Peat deposits in Polk and San Jacinto counties, Texas: UniV. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 38, 6 pp., 1941. 5. SOPER, E. K., and OseoN, C. C., The occur­rence and uses of peat in the United States: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 728, 1922. 6. STENZEL, H. B., The geology of Leon County, Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 3818, pp. 253-257, 1938 [1939]. 7. , Houston County: Weches sheet, 1/ 7920, prelim. ed., Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., 1945. 8. , Houston County: Bluff City sheet, 1/7920, prelim. ed., Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., 1945. 9. WARNER, C. A., Peat production-some me· chanical methods: Inst. Civ. Eng. Ireland, 31 pp., 1945. [Turf Development Board.] NATURAL GAS R. L. MilleT, United States Geological Survey (Figure 4) Natural gas in the broad sense is any naturally occurring· gas that is present beneath the surface of the ground. In normal usage, however, natural gas is restricted to naturally occurring inflamma­ble gases consisting principally of hydro­carb()ns and occurring beneath the surface of the ground. Most natural gas is made up of a mixture of pure gases, principally methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10), with minor amounts of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. Helium occurs as a minor constit­uent of natural gas in some areas (com­pare chapter on Helium). Natural gas is inflammable, is usually lighter than air, is colorless, generally has a slight sweet odor, and generally is under considerable pressure underground. When impurities are present in considerable amount, these properties may change. If hydrogen sulfide is present in appreciable quantities, the gas is called "sour gas" and is unsatisfactory for many uses unless the hydrogen sulfide is removed. Gases con­taining a relatively small proportion of gasoline vapors are termed dry gases, and those with relatively large amounts are wet .gases. Wet gases are commonly asso­ciated with oil underground, though the two may not be produced from the same well. Gas which is collected and utilized from a producing oil well is known as "casing-head" gas. The extraction of nat­ural gasoline and other liquid hydrocar­bons by collecting the vapors from "cas­ing-head" gas is an important by-product of the oil production in some oil fields. In many parts of the country vast quan­tities of natural gas have been allowed to escape into the atmosphere, because oil was the only product sought by well drill­ers. The gas accompanying the oil in the reservoir was only considered desirable insofar as it assisted in bringing the oil to the surface. Some gas wells have been allowed to blow free for years, not only wasting a highly valuable fuel but also lowering the reservoir pressure and the ultimate recovery of oil from the reservoir. Laws have been passed in many states, however, forbidding or restricting this practice. In, addition many pipelines have been built in recent years to convey nat­ural gas from producing fields to markets. The search for sources of natural gas now proceeds hand in hand with the search for oil, and annual production and consump­tion of natural gas is still on the increase. Natural gas is used almost entirely for heating purposes, both in industry and for domestic use. It constitutes one of the most satisfactory fuels because of the cleanliness, efficiency, and convenience of its use and is superior to manufactured gas because of its higher heating value. Nat­ural gas is becoming more and more popu­lar in the heating of homes with the result that consumption Qf gas shows a strong fluctuation between the summer and winter months. · In addition to its use as ·a fuel, natural gas is also utilized in the manufacture of carbon black. The flame from a gas jet is thrown against a chilled surface on which the carbon collects and from which it is removed at intervals. Natural gas is also used in the manufacture of some or­ganic chemicals such as plastics, and great expansion may be expected in this indus­try as additional methods of breaking down and recombining the constituents of the gases are developed. Some natural gas contains sufficient helium to be valuable in the production of that rare and strategic element. Carbon-dioxide gas from wells has been used in the manufacture of dry ice, but no important carbon-dioxide wells are present in the Trinity River area. Natural gas is transported almost en­~ire.ly by pipeline, but butane gas for use m isolated homes is transported in pres-· sure cylinders by truck. It may be used directly as it comes from the pipes, or it may be stored for short periods of time in large cylindrical tanks, from which it is distributed by numerous small pipes to local consumers. The usual practice is to control the flow of gas from the wells to conform to tbe demand. Where gas is col­ 0 35' u - EXPLANATION .... ~ field ~Oil I~o. ~ I "'-./ Gas field Fig. 4. Distribution of oil and gas fields in the Trinity River tributary area. lected as a by-product of oil production, this cannot he done, however, and gas in excess of the immediate demand must either he stored or wasted. Storage above ground in large quantities is prohibitively expensive; so that in some fields the gas is pumped hack into the underground res­ervoir from which it came. It thus helps to maintain reservoir pressure and is also available for future use as needed: In places gas has also been stored under­ground in exhausted reservoirs, to he with­drawn at a later date. Thus the seasonal variations in natural ga,s consumption can he met, by storing excess gas produced during the summer months and withdraw­ing it during the winter months, when demand exceeds supply. Natural gasoline and other liquid hydro· carbons are normally collected from "cas­ing-head gas" or wet gas near the sites of the wells. Transportation of these liquids to markets is by pipeline, tank car, or tank ship. Where the haulage to waterways connecting with the ocean is not excessively long, ocean-going tankers normally afford the cheapest means of transportation to distant coastal markets. Nearness to markets was for many years the chief factor in determining whether natural gas would he utilized when found. In recent years, however, longer and longer pipelines have been built to carry natural gas to larger cities and to other industrial areas. A network of gas pipelines now crisscrosses the southwest, midwest, and northeast parts of the country, and some pipelines have been built in other sections. New England, the south Atlantic coastal region, the Pacific Northwest, and Nevada are the only large areas of the country which as yet have no natural .gas pipelines. OCCURRENCE Natural gas occurs abundantly in the Trinity River tributary area, especially in north-central and northwe_st Texas and central and eastern Oklahoma (fig. 4). It is found in commercial quantitieli, princi­pally in rocks of Pennsylvanian, Permian, Cretaceous, and Tertiary age, hut has also been found in older rocks. Along the Gulf Coast it occurs in salt domes, and farther inland it has been trapped in folded and faulted structures and in stratigraphic traps. The Amarillo gas field in the Panhandle of Texas is the largest gas field in the world. A considerable part of the gas is, however, sour and _has not been utilized. The gas occurs in rocks of Permian age along a broad east-west trending arch. Other important gas fields are the Car­thage field in Panola County, Texas, where the gas occurs in Lower Cretaceous rocks, and the fields of the Arkansas Valley of east-central Oklahoma where the gas occurs in Pem1sylvanian rocks. In the Carthage field the gas is of the wet type; whereas in the Arkansas Valley fields the gas is dry, and no oil is found with it, nor does oil occur in other stratigraphic hori­zons in the region. Numerous other gas fields are found in almost all parts of the Trinity River tributary area, hut they are most abundant in central Oklahoma and north-central and central Texas. Some of the gas has oil associated with it, and some is ofthe dry type. RESERVES The reserves of natural gas in the Trin­ity River area are large, hut figures for gas reserves are not as meaningful as with petroleum, because some of the gas which is produced in the future will continue to he wasted, and much of it will he used in repressuring oil reservoirs to increase the production of oil rather than utilized directly. Tbe Petroleum Administration for War estimated the proved reserves of natural gas in Texas on January 1, 1945, to he 64 trillion cubic feet, and in Okla­homa tQ he 6 trillion cubic feet. About half of the Texas reserves lie in the Trinity River tributary basin, with the Amarillo field in the Panhandle region accounting for the major share. Almost all the proved Oklahoma reserves are within the Trinity tributary area. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION With natural gas, as with oil, the pro­ducing companies are extremely numerous and include most of the major oil and gas companies of the country and ~allY of _t}Je smaller ones. Production figures of mar­keted gas for the states of Oklahoma and Texas for 1934 to 1945 are given below. Almost all Oklahoma production comes froin the Trinity River tributary area, bui only about half of the Texas production is within the Trinity area. Marketed production of natural gas in million cubic feet YEAR OKLAHOMA TEXAS 1934._______ ___ ____________ 1935_______________________ 1936 ----------------------­ 1937_____ ___________________ 1938_____________ ______ ___ 1939 ----------------------­ 1940_____________ __ __ ______ 1941________________________ 1942._______________________ 1943_________________ ______ _ 1944 ______________________ 310,888 1,525,515 1945_______ __ -------------357,530 1,711,401 The table shows that production and marketing of gas in Oklahoma has been relatively stable over the 12-year period, whereas the production from Texas has shown a steady increase, with the volume marketed in 1945 being nearly three times that of the 1934 volume. This has been due in part to the building of many new pipelines ii\ Texas to tap older fields, whose gas had not previously been utilized, and partly to the discovery of more new fields with larger gas production in Texas than in Oklahoma. 254,457 602,976274,313 642,366 280,481 734,561 296,260 854,561 263,164 882,473 250,875 979,427 257,626 1,063,538234,054 1,086,312 269,704 1,170,345 285,045 1,323,885 Production · of gasoline and other asso· ciated liquid hydrocarbons from natural gas also increased steadily in Texas over the 12-year period 1934--1945, hut in Okla­homa a peak was reached-in. 1937, and tQere has been a marked decline since that time. Natural gasoline and cycle products produced in thousands of gallons YEAR OKLAHOMA TEXAS 1934.____________ _______ ___ 355,438 466,570 1935_____________________ 379'913 516,748 1936._________________ ____ 418,591 520,547 1937______________________ _ 492,290 615,281 1938____ --------­------­1939_____ _ __ ______ _______ 468,499436,123 685,920 770,047 1940_______________________ 399,369 932,040 1941_________ _____ _________ 362,247 1,180,221 1942______________ ___ ___ __ 336,707 1,207,901 1943_______________________ 309,942 1,221,736 1944.____ _____ ______ __ ______ 421,768 1,318,125 1945___ ______________ ____ 408,252 1,764,767 A list of the companies producing car­bon black in the Trinity River tributary area is given in the following table. Most of the plants are located in the Panhandle district of Texas. About four-fifths of the carbon black produced from natural gas in Texas comes from the Amarillo gas field of the Pan· handle of Texas in the Trinity River tribu- Producers o.f Carbon Biack in the Trinity River Tributary Ar~a Name of Company Location of Plant OKLAHOMA Cabot Carbon CompanY------------.----Texas County, Oklahoma General Atlas Carbon Division of General Prop­ erties Company, lnc·-----------------·-----Texas County, Oklahoma Charles Eneu Johnson & Company____________pontotoc County, Oklahoma United Carbon Company_ _ _ ________Beckham County, Oklahoma TEXAS Cabot Carbon "Company Carson, Gray, Hutchinson counties, Texas Carbon Blacks, Inc.__ Gray County, Texas Coltexo Corporation________________Gray County, Texas Columbian Carbon Company_________ __________Carson, Gray, Hutchinson, Moore counties, Texas Columbian-Phillips Company_________ Moore County, Texas Combined Carbon Company________________________ _ __Hutchinson County, Texas Continental Carbon Company___ Moore County, Texas Crescent Carbon Company______________Hutchinson County, Texas Crown Carbon Company______________ ___Moore County, Texas General Atlas Carbon Division of General Prop­ erties Company, Inc.__ Gray County, Texas J. M. Huber Corporation________._____________Hutchinson County, Texas Moore County Carbon Company______________ __Moore County, Texas Panhandle Carbon Company _____________ _______________ _Hutchinson County, Texas Peerless Carbon Black Company___________ ______Gray County, Texas Texas Elf Carbon Company_______________Gray and Stephens counties, Texas United Carbon Company_ ____ ___Hutchinson and Moore counties, Texas tary area, and two of the three Oklahoma counties in wl].ich carbon black plants are located are adjacent to the Texas Panhandle. Only two counties produced in 1945 and 1946 in Oklahoma (Pontotoc and Texas counties). Production figures given below are for the entire state in both cases. Carbon black produced from natural gas, in thousand pounds YEAR OKLAHOMA TEXAS 1934____ ____________ ___ _____ 1935______ ________________ _ 1936_ _____________________ _ 18,2382 262,2901 287,8471 333,906 1937 ---------------------­1938 ___________ _______ ____ _ 1939__ __ __________________ _ 23,1573 20,4013 20,2584 421,068 417,104 453,174 1940 ---------------------­1941________ _______ __ _______ 1942______________________ _ 1943________ __ ___________ _ 1944_____ _____ _____________ _ 1945__ _________ ___________ _ 1946________ ____ ___________ _ 33,2874 24,318 31,411 53,887 53,192 59,944 479,895 480,212 434.889 407;345 501,162 721,438 830,850 1I ncludes Oklaho~a and Wyoming production. 2Includes Wyoming production. 3Includes Wyoming and Kansas production. 4lncludes Kansas production. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. D1EHL, J. C., Natural gas handbook, Metric Metal Works of the American Meter Com­pany, Inc., Erie, Pennsylvanian, 1927. 2. Elements of the petroleum industry, Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1940. 3. FANCHER, G. H., The natural gas and gaso­line industry, in Texas looks -ahead, vol. 1, pp. 159-172, Univ. Texas, 1944 [1945]. 4. Geology of natural gas, a symposium, Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geo!., Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1935. 5. Mineral locality map of Texas : Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, Pl. I, 1943 [1945]. 6. Minerals of Oklahoma (map): Oklahoma Geol. Survey, 1944. 7. Oil and gas field development in United States: Natl. Oil Scouts and Landmen's Assoc., Yearbooks 1934---1944. 8. Oil and gas fields of the United States (map) : U. S. Geo!. Survey, 1943. 9. Petroleum development and technology, Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., Petr. Div., 1944. 10. WARNER, C. A., Texas oil and gas since 1543, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texa~. 1939. PETROLEUM T. A. Hendricks., United States Geological Survey (Figure 4) Petroleum is an inflammable oily mix­ture of natural l;tydrocarbons. In general petroleum is divided into two types: petro­leum with a high ratio of hydrogen to car­bon which is classed as having a paraffin base, and petroleum with a lower ratio of hydrogen to carbon which is classed as having an asphaltic base. Petroleum varies greatly in composition from dark heavy oils with few volatile con­situents to green and amber light oils con­sisting mainly of easily volatile constitu­ents. The density of petroleum is generally expressed as its Baume or A.P.I. gravity. As petroleum occurs underground it is almost invariably associated with hydr9­carbon gases. Wl].en the petroleum is brought to the surface the gaseous constit­uents leave the liquid and carry some of the lighter liquid constituents with them. The liquid fraction that can be recovered from the gases is generally called "casing· head gasoline." Petroleum is used principally as a raw material for the production of gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, lubricating oil, fuel oil, manufactured asphalt, and organic chemicals for use in medicines,, paints, var­ nishes, and in making synthetic rubber. Asphaltic crude Qils generally yield gaso­ line with a high octane rating and low volatility on distillation; the reverse is true of gasolines from paraffinic crude oils. Refinery practice can, however, be adjusted to control the quality of the gas­ oline from most crude oils. Highly paraf­ finic oils yield kerosene of high quality, whereas the reverse is true of kerosene fractions from asph~ltic crude oils. Diesel oil fractions from the more paraffinic crude oils, as they become higher in boil­ ing range, are wax-containing, so that their inclusion into diesel oil is limited because they reduce tlJ.e ability of the oil to flow. Paraffinic crude oils generally yield good lubricating oils but require dewaxing or solvent extraction to remove naphthenic fractions. Improvements in processing have greatly increased the range of crude oils suitable for the making of high qual­ity lubricants. Fluidity is the most essen­tial quality of fuel oil, which is a resi­due or mixture of residues from distillation or cracking of crude oil. The straight run residues of asphaltic crudes are gen­erally more fluid than those of paraffinic crudes. Manufactured asphalt, as would be expected, is made from the crude oils with an asp}Jalt base. Petroleum is produced almost entirely from underground reservoirs by drilling. When oil-bearing strata are penetrated by a drill hole, the oil flows to the surface, if it is under considerable pressure under­ground, or requires pumping, if the pres­sure is low. After a field has been in pro­duction for some time, the pressure gen­erally declines and wells that flowed orig­inally may require pumping. When an oil field nears its final production much oil is still underground. Repressuring of oil fields by pumping excess gas or water back underground serves to maintain pressure and to increase the total recovery of oil from the field. Some petroleum is pro­duced from oil-saturated rocks and from oil shale, particularly in Europe, where domestic supplies of liquid petroleum are small. Petroleum is refined after it is brought to the surface. Distillation constitutes the principal part of refining, and the princi­ pal equipment is a "pipe still" or "tubular still." These are stills in which the heating of the oil is done in tubes instead of tanks. The tube'! are arranged in a furnace in a manner to provide maximum efficiency of heating and heat transfer between crude oil being heated and distillation products being cooled and also to provide proper ratio of rise in temperature. The princi­ ples are the same for ( 1) simple dis­ tillation, usually called "skimming" or "topping"; (2) vacuum distillation at subnormal distilling temperatures to avoid damaging the distillates, as for lubricating oils; and (3) distillation under high tem­ peratures and pressures to accomplish de­ structive distillation or "cracking" in the making of gasoline from heavier by-prod­ ucts of crude oil. Catalysts, substances tha,t promote and accelerate chemical reactions between other substances without being affected themselves, are used extensively in refining processes. This is particularly true in hydrogenation and polymerization. Hydrogenation is a combination of crack­ing with the introduction of hydrogen to be added to the compounds produced. Polymerization is a process combining molecules of one or more compounds to produce a desired compound. In general it is used to produce liquids from simple hydrocarbon gases. Excess of sulfur in crude oil is troublesome and requires special technique in the refining process. Waxes are also removed in the prepara­tion of lubricating oils by one of several methods such as: ( 1) passing the oil through filter presses, (2) chilling a solu­tion of the oil in naphtha to 20° to 40° F. below the desired congealing temperature of the finished Qil and sep11rating the wax in high speed centrifuges , ( 3) processes similar to solution in naphtha but using other solvents. Petroleum and petroleum products are transported by three general methods: pipelines, tank cars, and tankers or tank ships. In 1941, there were in service in the United Sta,tes more than 125,000 miles of petroleum pipelines; over 2,000 tank ships with a gross tonnage of more than 31h million tons and a cargo capacity of more than 42 million barrels; more than 165,000 railroad tank cars; and a sufficient number of tank trucks to transport more than half as much petroleum as the pipe­lines, with transportation computed on a ton-mile basis. Wartime conditions have naturally changed the conditions of petro­leum transportation materially and further changes can be expected in the post-war period. Where the geography permits, transportation by tank ships is generally the cheapest method. There are numerous petroleum refineries in the Trinity tributary area and the Trin­ity drainage basin, as most petroleum is refined comparatively close to its place of production and the refined products are shipped. Some crude oil is, however, transported outside the area for refining. The refineries in this region range from simple casing-head gasoline plants to com­ plete refineries capable of preparing any type of petroleum product. In addition there are numerous wholesale and retail distribution agencies for petroleum prod­ ucts. In all phases of the petroleum in­ dustry, including production, refining, transportation, and distribution, there are opportunities for new business develop­ ments with capital requirements ranging from a few thousand dollars to several . million d0llars. OCCURRENCE Geographically, petroleum occurs in al­ most all parts of the Trinity River basin and tributary area except extreme eastern Oklahoma (fig. 4) . Geologically, it ·occurs under a wide range of conditions. It is produced from rocks of all ages from Cambrian to Tertiary except Triassic and Jurassic and from every known type of structural or stratigraphic trap except up­ turned beds adjacent to igneous intrusions. However, it should he pointed out that, in spite of the wide geographic and geologic range in the occurrence of petroleum in this region, many areas that are structur· ally favorable have been drilled and have failed to yield petroleum from rocks that are productive in other areas. The search for new oil fields in t}Jis region is con­ ducted continuously by many oil compa­ nies with large staffs of technical person­ nel, and although a number of J!ew fields or extensions of old fields are discovered eacl! year, many .other apparently favor­ able areas are drilled without success. Wells are being drilled to increasingly greater depths, and the effort and cost required to discover and develop new fields is increasing. The distribution of the principal oil fields 0f the Trinity tributary area, the Trinity basin, and the area subject to periodic flood is shown on figure 4. In general, it may be stated that compara­tively few fields are situated in the upper part of the Trinity basin, a · considerable number are situated in the lower part of the basin, most of which lies within areas subject to periodic flood, and that the ti"ih· utary area is one of the richest petroleum regions of the world. RESERVES Proved reserves of petroleum in the Trinity River tributary area were estimated on January 1, 1945, to be 5,618,519,000 barrels. Of ·this, nearly half is concen· trated in the East Texas oil field. Okla· homa accounts for somewhat over 1 billion barrels, and the remainder is scattered -over a large area of Texas. The reserves of the Trinity tributary area constitute · 27 per­cent of the proved reserves of the entire United States. The discovery of new fields, the extension of known fields, the discov· ery of new producing horizons in known fields, and the upward revision of previous estimates of reserves combine to add sub· stantial quantities of petroleum to the proved reserves annually, but in recent years there }Jas been a marked decline in the ratio of new reserves to annual produc· tion. The proved reserves of the State of Texas have increased at an average rate of 180,000,000 barrels per year from 1941 to 1945 but over the same period Okla· homa's proved reserves have declined slightly. The time has apparently passed when the discovery of new sources of oil in the Trinity River area can be counted on to exceed greatly the depletion of the known supply. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION Most of the major oil companies of the United States and numerous smaller ones' are il!cluded in the list of producers from the Trinity River area. Annual production figures for Oklahoma and for the part of Texas included in the Trinity River trib· . utary area are given in the table below. All of Oklahoma's production lies within the Trinity tributary area except a rela­tively insignificant amount in Nowata, Rogers, and Washington counties in the northeastern corner of the State. In 1944 this totalled only 3.6 percent of Okla· homa's production. The production of oil from the Trinity tributary area in 1944 was 17 percent of the production from the entire United States. Annual production of petroleum in Oklahoma an.d in . the part of Texas tributary to the Trinity River m thousands of barrels. Trinity tributary Yea r Oklahoma area of Texas 1934 ....................,.. 178,652 263,040 1935______________________ __ 182,597 261,265 1936 .... __________________ __ 200,881 258,862 1937________________________ 223,107 293,109 1938______________________ __ 169,307 262,000 1939 ----------------------· 152,400 256,488 1940________ ______________ __ 149,629 258,492 1941..____ __ ______________ 153,167 250,631 1942...................... .. 137,792 247,347 1943______________________ 120,559 272,571 1944__ ____ __________ ______ __ 123,436 1945 ----------------------139,379 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Crude petroleum and petroleum products, in Minerals Yearbook: U. S. Bur. Mines 1934­ 1945. • 2. Elements of the petroleum industry: Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1940. 3. HAGER, DORSEY, Practical oil geology Mc­Graw-Hill Book Company, New York,' 1938. 4. Mineral locality map of Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, Pl. I, 1943 [1945]. 5. Minerals of Oklahoma (map) : Oklahoma Geol. Survey, 1944. 6. Oil and gas field development in United States : Natl. Oil Scouts and Landmen's Assoc., Yearbooks 1934-1944. 7. Oil and gas fields of the United States (map) : U. S. Geol. Survey, 1943. 8. Petroleum development and technology; Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Engr., Petr. Div., 1944-. 9. Petroleum facts and figures: Amer. Petr. Inst., 1941. 10. Stratigraphic type oil fields: Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol., Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1941• 11. Structure of typical American oil fields: Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol., Tulsa, Oklahoma 1929. , 12. VF.R WIEBE, W. A., Oil fields in the United States, McGraw-Hill Book Company New York, 1930. · ' 13. WARNER, C. A., Texas oil and gas since 1543 Gulf Publishing Company, Houston Texas' Im ' ' NATURAL ABRASIVES H. B. Stenzel and H. C. Fountain, Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas, and A. L. Jenke and A. E. Wei8Sellhorn, United States Geological Survey (Figure 5) Many manufacturing processes are based on the use of abrasives in cutting, sawing, grinding, and polishing. Hence many diverse abrasives, some natural and some artificial, are in use today. The natural abrasives range from diamond, the hard­ est, down to such soft and mild materials as chalk, which is used for polishing. Natural abrasives are known to occur in the Trinity River tributary area, but their variety is small and they comprise mostly cheap materials obtainable in large quan­ tities and not restricted in their geographic distribution. Grinding pebbles, diatomite, sand and sandstone, volcanic ash, and pul­ verulent limestone and chalk, millstone, and novaculite occur in the area. · GRINDING PEBBLES Grinding pebbles are pebbles of hard siliceous material, usually flint or chert. Flint or chert is silica (Si02 ) with minor impurities, the silica being in the form of the mineral chalcedony. Chalcedony is made up of microscopic and closely packed fibers that build up the flint rock. This microscopic structure is responsible for the toughness of the flint and gives it its strength and coherence. Although the min­eral quartz has the same composition (Si02 ) and hardness (Mohs scale, 7) as chalcedony, it lacks the microscopically fibrous structure of chalcedony. There­fore, quartz pebbles do not have the same toughness and coherence as flint pebbles. Because silica is a chemically inert sub'. stance flint makes desirable grinding peb­bles, since in the grinding process the pebbles do not ,contaminate the material being ground. Grinding pebbles are used in porcelain or flint-lined mills for the grinding of mineral substances. Steel halls are used also and have replaced the once widely used flint pebbles in many ordinary grind­ing operations. However, steel halls add appreciable quantities of iron to the ground mineral. Hence they can he used only where iron contamination is not oh­ j ectionable, for instance, in grinding ores and Portland cement materials. Flint pebbles . are used in preference to steel halls where iron contamination is objec­ tionable, for instance, in the grinding of ceramic materials used in the making of porcelain, china, and pottery. From 1941 to 1943 inclusive, a yearly average of 13,766 short tons of grinding pebbles, domestic or imported, was used in the United States; the average value of this tonnage was $218,913. In peace time many flint pebbles are imported from Denmark and France. In those countries the Upper Cretaceous chalk forms high cliffs along the sea, where the erosive action of the surf breaks down the chalk rock and frees the enclosed flint con­cretions. Wave action rolls these flints about, cleaning and rounding them in the process. The clean round pebbles are picked up by hand on the beach. Hence no machinery is needed, and distance to coastal shipping points is very short. Es­sentially wave action does the mining and processing of the pebbles. In Texas, war-time demands resulted in the development of local flint pebble resources, which are found in stream gravel deposits. Most of these deposits are ancient and the flints have a weathered surface skin. Such flint pebbles if used directly without processing wear rapidly at first until the weathered surface skin is rubbed off. To produce milled flint pebbles, that is, pebbles without soft surface skin, one Texas processing plant tumbles the raw material wet in a conical flint-lined pebble mill until the pebbles are clean and rounded. This milling removes the soft surface skin and sorts out weak pebbles or those that crack under impact. The pebbles next pass over a sorting belt where broken pebbles and foreign material are removed by hand. Raw pebbles are obtained from large stock piles of material screened to size. Another plant processes the pebbles dry in a granite-lined cylinder mill, which holds a charge of 5 tons. A collector is used to draw off dust and fine fragments. After a run of 31h hours the pebbles pas~ over a screen designed to remove flat peb­bles and are then hand-sorted on a moving belt. The raw material is obtained from oversize material, stock-piled from local gravel operations, by hand-picking on a belt. It will be noted that these domestic oper­ations require considerable processing by machines. Therefore, they are more ex­pensive than the simple European gather­ing methods, and f.o.b. prices of domestic pebbles are higher than for foreign peb­bles. However, locally produced pebbles do not have to be shipped by rail from the coast to local inland users. Imports into the United States of flints and flintstones, unground, which includes grinding pebbles, rose from 651 short tons valued at $7,590 in 1944 to 6,965 short tons valued at $182,026 in 1946. These originated from Denmark, Belgium, and France. These 1946 imports are the largest since 1939. OCCURRENCE Grinding pebbles 0ccur in the gravel deposits of the major stream valleys of Texas. Some of the gravel deposits are ancient river terraces flanking the stream channel at various elevations above the flood plain. Others are gravel bars in the stream channel. The gravel deposits in the stream channels are usually composed of a mixture of all the types of resistant rocks crossed by the streams and are not purely flint gravels. In such deposits material found a short distance upstream predom­inates over that derived from greater dis­tances. In the older terraces, weathering has been in progress for some time, and rock types subject to weathering have been gradually eliminated, leaving the more weather-resistant types somewhat concen­trated. In such terrace gravels flint pre­dominates. The size of the gravel decreases downstream in all deposits; hence only the deposits in the upper reaches of the streams have· a gravel size large enough for use as grinding pebbles. Gravel deposits of the Trinity River tributary area are described in the chapter on Sand and Gravel. RESERVES Due to the number of gravel deposits in the Trinity River tributary area the re­serves of pebbles of possible use as grind­ing pebbles are very large. However, in many cases selection of suitable material may be beset with difficulties on account of the admixture of softer material in the gravel. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION Tl1ere is no production of grinding peb­bles in the Trinity tributary area. Texas production is from Bastrop, Frio, Llano, and Travis counties, all outside the area. Texas produced in 1943, 5,341 short tons of crude and prepared grinding pebbles of $61,799 value. Production data for other years are not available for publication. DIATOMITE Diatomite, also known as diatomaceous earth, infusorial earth, and kieselguhr, is a light, earthy, sedimentary rock composed of the microscopic skeletons of aquatic algae, the so-called diatoms. These micro­ scopic skelet~ns are highly ornamented, fragile, hollow, box-like, and composed of silica {Si02). No less than 40,000,000 skeletons of diatoms are necessary to form one cubic inch of diatomite. Diatomite is highly porous and absorbent and is a very ligl}t weight (15 to 40 pounds per cubic foot) sedimentary rock, usually whitish in color. It is chemically inext and has fine­ ness and uniformity of grain size. It can be identified under the microscope by the characteristic algal skeletons. Diatomite has a very great number of uses, most of which are nonabrasive. The principal nonabrasive uses are as filler in synthetic plastics, rubber compounds, in insulating materials, in filtering, in light­weight concrete aggregates, and as chicken litter. The use of diatomite in synthetic _ plastics is comparatiyely new and appears to be increasing. The material mixes read­ily with plastic compositions, and the mix· ture can be molded satisfactorily. Its high resistance to heat, chemical inertness, low moisture absorption, excellent electrical insulating properties, and surface finish characteristics make it suitable as a filler for many products requiring a durable The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 • x + O EXPLANATION Reporled occurrence of diolomile in Pleistocene strata Reporled occurrence ol voicanic osh in Pleistocene and Pliocene Reporled occurrence of rice sand in Cotahoula group -Tertiary Oulcrop of Jackson ond Colahoula groups -Tert iary slrala ~ Oulcrops of novoculite - Devonion Fig. 5. Distribution of natural abrasives in the Trinity River tributary area. surface finish including battery boxes, electrical parts, and phonograph records. Insulating materials composed in part of diatomite are used for heat and sound insulation. Filters c~ntaining diatomite are used in paper pulp manufacture, for cyanide precipitate, and other processes. Diatomite is used to a minor extent as a mild abrasive in metal, glass, furniture, enamel, and other polishes, in scouring and cleansing soaps, in dentifrices, and in nail polishing powders. Approximately one-half of the diatomite production is used for filtration, one-quarter for insula­tion, and one-sixth for fillers, and the re­mainder for otqer uses including abrasives. Diatomite prices per ton in 1946 were (on f.o.b. mill, Nevada, basis): crude in bulk, dried, nominal; 98 to 100 mesh, $25.00; low temperature insulation, $25.00; high temperature insulation, $40.00; diatomite for fine abrasives was quoted at 2 to 3 cents per pound. During 1942-44, 524,872 short tons of diatomite of a value of $9,894,534 were produced in the United States. The chief producing states in 1946 were California, Oregon, Nevada, and Washing· ton, with California the largest. OCCURRENCE Diatomite occurs in several widely sep­arated localities in the High Plains in Armstrong, Crosby, Dickens, Hartley, and Lamb counties, Texas (fig. 5). In Armstrong County deposits are known in Mulberry Canyon, 7.4 miles southwest of Goodnight. The deposits extend for at least 2 miles, are from less than 2 to 7 feet thick, and average about 4 feet. The diatomite lies between or below soft sands and fresh-water lime­stones. In Crosby County deposits occur in two horizons about 25 and 42 feet above the base of the Blanco beds, 10 miles north of Crosbyton. The diatomite beds are up to 6 feet thick and lenticular. Overburden is up to 20-feet thick for the upper bed. and up to 40 feet for the lower b!l._d. Associated beds consist of calcareous sands and clays. In Dickens County two beds of diatomite occur about 4 miles north of old Dockum. The beds are reported to be 3 to 4 feet thick and the overburden 6 to 12 feet respectively. In Hartley County diatomite is found 31;2 miles southeast of Channing. The diatomite is 3 to 3.8 feet thick and has at least 101;2 feet overburden. It contains about 20 percent CaO. In Lamb County diatomite occurs 10 miles-north of Little· field. The bed is 11;2 to 2 feet thick; over­burden is small. No diatomite deposits of importance are known in Oklahoma. RESERVES AND PRODUCTION Detailed estimates of the reserves avail­able in the High Plains are not given by Evans (9) .4 However, it is apparent that only SIJlall quantities are recoverable from the deposits _so far discovered. Diatomite is not being produced in Texas and Oklahoma. ABRASIVE SAND AND SANDSTONE Sand and sandstone used for abrasives are composed of nearly pure quartz sand, and their abrasive qualities are derived from the mineral quartz. This mineral is hard (Mohs scale, 7) , fractures irregularlv with ~ nearly conchoidal or uneven !!plin· tery fracture pr0ducing sharp edges an.d points, and is composed of silica (SiOJ, which is chemically inert. 'Literature. references are given in the bibliography, p. 66. ANALYSES OF DIATOMITE R. M. Wheeler, Analyst County Ign ition Joss (carbon dioxide, organic mdtter) Silica R!,Pll (Aluminum and iron oxide) Ca lcium oxide Ma gnesium oxide TEXAS Armstrong ------------------------------------­Crosby ( 1) ------------------------------------­(2) ________ ____________________ ____ _______ 6.36 7.43 6.79 79.94· 81.08 80.62 7.80 6.00 7.08 1.24 0.62 0.72 1.62 2.04 1.99 Hartley --------------------------------17.83 54.M 4.04 19.88 1.27 Sand and sandstone are used in two forms for abrasive purposes: as crushed sand and sandstone or as uncrushed sand. The latter is used extensively in sawing and rubbing of such building stones as granite, limestone, marble, slate, and soap­stone, in removing surface irregularities in crude-rolled plate glass before grinding, and for sand blasting. The demand for this type of grinding or polishing sand depends largely on activity in the dimen­sion-stone and plate-glass industries. Thus in 1929, 1,636,464 short tons were used in the United States; in 1932, only 419,691 short tons; in 1935, 816,540 short tons; in 1938, only 502,328 short tons; in 1941, 1,001,814, and in 1943, only 837,662 short tons. The average value in 1946 was $1.52 per short ton. This value compares as follows with average values of sand used in other industries: glass, $1.97; molding, $1.37; building, $0.66; paving, $0.67 ; fire or furnace, $1.34; engine, $0.69 ; filter, $1.81; and railroad ballast, $0.37. Ground sand and sandstone had an average value of $7.26 in 1946. OCCURRENCE The main occurrences of sand and sand­stone in the Trinity River tributary area have been taken up in other chapters (see chapters on Sand and Gravel, Glass Sand and Other Special Sands, and Stone) . However, a particular variety known as "rice sand" has received some development and may have future possibilities. Rice sand deposits are coarse-grained quartz sands occurring in lenticular bodies near the base of the Catahoula formation (fig. 5) . Several of these. deposits were studied and described by Shafer (19). Among them are the following: (1) Chita deposit, 12 miles south of Groveton, Trinity County (2) Eden-Burch Lumber Company deposit, 1.5 miles west of Carmona, Polk County (3) Harmon Creek deposit, 2 miles southwest of Riverside, Walker County (4) Point Blank deposit, just north of Point Blank, San Jacinto County (5) Texas Silica Sand Company deposit, 5 miles east of Corrigan, Polk County The last deposit has been worked for several years and the product used as a water filter and as blast sand. Mostof the sands are also suited for molding sands. There is no record of abrasive sand hav­ing been produced in Oklahoma in the last 10 years, although possibly some of the river sand deposits might be suitable for this purpose. RESERVES Although accurate figures for the re­serves of such sand bodies as the rice sands are not available, it seems evident from their geologic occurrence that the supply is large. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION The following concerns produce rice sand that is used or can be used for abra· sive purposes: Texas Construction Materials Company, Hous­ ton, Texas; pits near Corrigan, Polk County, Texas Texas Silica Sand Company, Houston,-Texas; pits in Polk County, Texas The Bureau of Economic Geology is not in a position to publish production figures. SIZE COMPOSITION Rice sands from Texas deposits (19) Percent retained on screen mesh County (Reference no.) 10 16 20 40 60 80 100 100+ TEXAS Polk (2) washed ...................... 2.89 24.40 27.00 27.20 11.72 3.79 0.69 2.31 Polk (5) unwashed .................. 0.52 5.88 18.21 49.80 8.27 3.97 0.81 12.54 Trinity (1) unwashed ............ 1.85 10.66 21.92 41.22 13.69 4.43 0.71 5.52 The University of Texas VoLCANIC AsH Volcanic ash or pumicite is a sedimen­tary rock derived from the ejectamenta of volcanoes of the explosive type. The finer material, Qr ash, is often carried long dis­tances by the wind and falls to earth in the form of microscopic glassy particles. These small fragments, or shards, are nat­ural volcanic glass derived from the lavas by the bursting of the countless bubbles or vesicles formed by expanding gas during eruption. Hence many fragments are very sharp and concavely curved. The abrasive qualities of the ash are due to the shape and hardness of the shards and the high poro~ity of the rock composed of them. The ash has a gritty feel and does not adhere to the fingers like-clay. Volcanic ash is used in cleansing and scouring compounds, abrasive hand soaps, metal polishes, acoustic plaster, concrete mixtures, absorbent or oiled road surfaces, insulating materials, filter cells, and in fillers for paints, sweeping compounds, and fertilizers. The possibility of bloating volcanic ash by heating it to incipient fusion has re­cently been investigated by the Oklahoma Geological Survey. According to advance reports it is possible to produce in this fashion a product similar to foam glass that has possibilities as insulating mate­rial and for lightweight concrete aggregate. The output of pumicite in 1946 ex­panded 104 percent in tonnage or 51 per­cent in value above 1945 figures in the United States, and totaled 319,883 short tons valued at $1,585,753. This great in­crease was due almost entirely to the use of this material in building materials in the western states. During and after the war, consumption in the building indus­tries had dropped decisively and reflected the curtailment of private construction due to war-time restrictions. With th.e expected increase in building in the post-war period, this trend is apt to be reversed as pumicite begins to participate in the new demand for lightweight concrete aggregate and insulating materials. Ash deposits acces­sible to centers of population and industry through cheap transportation facilities should bear some promise of profitable development. Publication No. 4824 OCCURRENCE TEXAS Most of the known occurrences of vol· canic ash in the tributary area in Texas are confined to two geologic provinces: (1) the Jackson~Catahoula belt of outcrop of Tertiary age in the southeastern part of the area and (2) the continental Ceno­zoic in the western and northwestern parts (fig. 5). . Some of the known ash deposits in the Catahoula belt are: (1) An 8-foot bed at Chalk Bluff in northeast­ern Polk County (2) Near Corrigan in Polk County (3) An 8-foot bed just north of m~ep<>st 16 on the I. & G. N. railroad, southern Tnmty County (4) Exposures on White Rock Creek east of the town of Trinity, Trinity County (5) Deposits in northern Walker County Doubtless other commerciaJ deposits of volcanic ash may be found in the Cata­houla strata in the area. In the same gen· eral area, but a few miles to the north, beds of Jackson age outcrop across Trinity ~d Polk counties. These beds also contam strata of ash, but thinner, more indurated, and less pure than the ash beds of the Catahoula. Occurrences of volcanic ash have been reported in the continental Tertiary and Quaternary rocks of the western part of the area. Their age is regarded as early Pleistocene except a deposit in Hemphill County, Texas, which occurs in the Ogallala formation of middle Pliocene. age (21). : . . . The Hemphill County pumlClte is. highly indurated and dull white; devitrification has proceeded sufficiently to remove most of the glassy luster and to produce ahun· dant montmorillonite, which is a clay mineral, and minor iron oxide; some of the glass is altered to dull white, opaque opaline material. The deposit has been described by Reed and Longnecker (17). The early Pleistocene volcanic ash .is widely distributed in the High Plains and the region adjacent to the east, but .the deposits are isolated and small. The ~luck­ness ranges from 8 inches to 35 feet. The ash of the various deposits is similar; the volcanic ash is compact and slightly indu­rated or loose and powdery and white hut cbanges to dark gray on exposure; the individual particles are angular, com­monly 3 to 5-sided, concavely surfaced, transparent bubble wall fragments; the products of devitrification, montmorillo­nite and opaline matter, vary in amount from deposit to deposit; small quantities of quartz and feldspar are present. The deposits have been described by Baker (2) and Sidwell and. Bronaugh (20). Following is a list of all the known deposits in the Texas part of the tributary area. Other deposits are probably present, hut have not yet been reported. (1) Briscoe County-at Schotts Cap, 1114 miles east and l 1h miles north of Silverton on Silverton­Clarendon road; Ashel Cross ranch, 3 miles north and 81h miles west of Silverton, about 1 ~ miles from west line of county; Tule Canyon, 6 miles west and 61h miles . north of Silverton, up to 14 feet thick. (2) Collingsworth County-19 occurrences are given by Baldwin (4), most of them small, up to 35 feet thick. (3) Crosby County-11 miles north of Crosby­ton, 8 inches thick. (4) Dickens County-2 miles north of McAdoo, on a tributary of South Pease River, Kelley Prod· nets pit; on Duck Creek southeast of Spur, 10 feet thick; along Spring Creek, 41h miles south­west of Spur, 4 feet thick. (5) Hartley County-8~ miles west and 2 miles north of Channing, up to 15 feet thick. (6) Hemphill County-A Pliocene deposit of volcanic ash is described by Reed and Long­necker (17). It is located in section 58, block A-2, south of the Canadian River in the north· western part of the county and consists of a 7-foot bed estimated to contain 46,500 cubic yards of ash. A summary description is given above; size and chemical composition below. (7) Kent County-14 miles north and 21h miles east of Clairemoiit, on Duck Creek, up to 18 feet thick: (8) Lynn County-Qn Spring Creek, near Garza-Lynn County line; 6 miles south of Tahoka and one-half mile west of U. S. highway No. 87, · 2 to 15 feet thick, 350 acres. (9) Roberts County-Qn Indian Creek, 9 miles northwest of Miami. (IO) Scurry County-7 miles east and 2 miles south of Snyder, Kelley Products pit; about 4 miles southeast of Snyder; 10 miles east of Snyder on U. S. highway No. 180. (11) Swisher County-north side of Tule Can­yon on Swisher-Briscoe County line, 7 feet thick; at Rock Crossing, 8 miles east and 1 mile south of Tulia. (12) Wichita County-2 miles from north county line and 2 miles from east county line. (13) Wilbarger County-6 miles east and 3 miles north cif Vernon on Red Bluff, south side of the Red River. OKLAHOMA Volcanic ash depqsits in the tributary area in Oklahoma are quite extensive, but most of the larger deposits are concentrated in the northwest, north-central, and east­ central parts of the State. Volcanic ash is available in Oklahoma in 25 counties,. dis­ tributed from the panhandle to Haskell County, and as far south as Garvin and Kiowa counties, according to a report in press by the Oklahoma Geological Survey. Deposits of possible economic grade and size are known in Blaine, Custer, Dewey, Ellis, Garfield, Garvin, Grant, Greer, Harper, Haskell, Hughes, Kay, Kingfisher, Okfuskee, Roger Mills, Wagoner, Washita, Woods, and Woodward counties. Lower grade and smaller deposits are found in Cotton, Mdntosh, and Muskogee counties. The exact age of the ash deposits has not been determined but they appear to be Miocene or younger. Volcanic tuff occurs in the lower part of the Stanley shale of Pennsylvanian . age in McCurtain County. This bed is 50 to 200 feet thick and may have possibilities for making lightweight concrete aggregate. RESERVES The reserves of volcanic ash in the Texas part of the area are extensive, but no estimates of the total amount available have been made.. The Hemphill County deposit is estimated to contain 46,500 cubic yards of pumicite. Total reserves in the Oklahoma part of the area are believed to be in excess of 17,000,000 cubic yards. A number of individual deposits are known containing more than 1,00.0,000 cubic yards of volcanic ash. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION Only small beginnings have been made in the development of tl!e volcanic ash deposits in the Texas part of the tributary area, and production statistics are not available. One producer, Kelley Products, Lubbock, Texas, operating deposits in Dickens and Scurry counties, is credited with a total production in 1941-42 of 250 tons of unknown value. The material is used chiefly for cleansing and scouring compounds. Producers in the tributary area in Texas as of 1946 are: John C. Kelley; pit in Dickens County Kelley Products, 1525 19th Street, Lubbock, Texas; pit in Scurry County Producers in the Oklahoma part of the tributary area in 1941 include the Mus· kogee Silica Company with a quarry near Tullahassee, the Tulsa Earth Products Company, which also operates a quarry in the same locality, and the Sol H. Williams Company, which operates a quarry near Dustin. The Muskogee Silica Company produces ash used in topping asphalt pave­ments, the Tulsa Earth Products Company produces ash for use in concrete admix­ture, and the Sol H. Williams Company produces ash used in the manufacture of cleansing materials. Production of Volcanic Ash in Trinity River Tributary Area TEXAS YEAR SHORT TONS VALUE 1945____________________ _________ _ 584 $11,680 1946________ ________________________ 805 13,054 Production of volcanic ash in the Texas portion of the tributary area began in 1942. However, production data ar~ con­fidential for the first three years, and only those for 1945 and 1946 are publishable. Oklahoma has produced volcanic ash since before 1934 to 1943 ; production data are not publishable. ANALYSES OF VOLCANIC ASH Size composition of ash from Texas deposits (20, 21) P ercent retained on screen mesh County 65 100 200 200+ TEXAS Scurry ------------­-· -----------­-----­-----------­-­----------­----Collingsworth 1.9 45.2 38.8 14.1 Buck Creek --­-----­--------------­--------­---------­ 5.3 33.5 40.0 21.2 Wolf Creek --­---------------------------------------­ .5 10.5 45.5 43.5 Dickens ---­-----------------------------------------­----­ 1.2 19.3 41.0 38.5 Lynn Tahoka ----·-----------------------------------­---­Spring Creek_____________________________________ _ .9 1.3 15.3 14.0 53.8 45.9 30.0 38.8 Swisher -----------------------------­---­----­-----------­ 1.3 7.6 45.9 45.2 Kent ---------------------------------------------------­-----­----­ 4.0 19.7 50.0 26.3 Briscoe --------------------­------------------------­-----------­- .6 13.5 48.8 37.1 Roberts --------------------------------------------­ 2.9 30.0 45.3 21.8 Hartley ---------­--------------------­--------­--------­- 4.8 21.6 47.2 26.4 Percent hr weight retained on screen 1ize in mm• •5 to .35 .35 to .25 .25 to .177 .177 to .125 .125 to .088 .088 to .062 .062 Hemphill Pliocene ash ------------------------------0.0 1.1 2.8 5.1 8.4 8.8 Chemical composition of Pliocene volcanic ash from Hemphill County, Texas (21) Dominant Si02 A!,Oa Fe20a CaO MgO Alk (calcu lated) Ignition loss refractive index 71.55 12.30 2.54 0.93 1.85 2.32 8.51 1.496 Chemical Composition of Volcanic Ash from Oklahoma Deposits Al20a+ County Si02 R203 Fe20 a Ti02 .Cao MgO K,O Nn20 Lo88 on H20 at Total et al. ignition 105° c oxidea OKLAHOMA Garvin --------­---­-76.05 Harper --­--------­-72.50 Haskell --------­--­72.11 Okfuskee -----­-­72.74 13.30 13.70 14.58 13.47 2.76 1.50 2.39 1.92 10.54 12.20 12.19 11.55 0.61 1.08 0.68 0.64 0.41 0.00 0.38 0.17 3.35 5.67 4.07 4.84 2.05 2.91 2.55 2.93 4.40 3.75 5.85 5.37 1.29 0.62 1.30 0.81 100.16 100.12 100.22 100.16 Data from A. L. Burwell in The Hopper, vol. 6, no. 5, Oklahoma Geol. Survey, May 1946. PULVERULENT LIMESTONE AND CHALK Pulverulent limestone, ground lime· stone, ~nd chalk are used in minor quan· tities as polishing materials. These rocks are varieties of limestone, which is a sedi­mentary rock composed chiefly of the soft (Mohs scale, 3) mineral calcite (CaC08). Freedom from grit is a requisite in these · materials if they are to be used for polishing. The . quantities used are small and the uses are in polishing cutlery, surgical in· struments, and plated ware, and in window cleaning compounds. A use important for the Southwest region is as polishing agent for rice, most of which is grown in coastal Texas and Louisiana. OCCURRENCE Pulverulent limestone is known to occur in the Edwards formation of Williamson and Bell counties, Texas, which are out· side of, but adjacent to, the tributary area. It is possible that small deposits of this type occur also in the Trinity River tribu· tary area in the Edwards or Goodland formations. Deposits of this rock are diffi· cult to discover because the material is soft and is usually covered by soil and vege­tation. Chalk deposits occur in the Trinity River tributary area in the outcrop belts of the following geologic formations: Austin, Ector, Gober, Pecan Gap, and Cooledge. (See fig. 13 in chapter on Lime· stone, Caliche, and Shell Deposits, p. 110.) These formations are part of the Upper Cretaceous and are widely distributed through northeastern Texas from the Red River across the Trinity River tributary area to Limestone and Falls counties in the south. No tests of their possible use as polish· ing materials and ·no attempt at exploita· tion have been made so far. MILLSTONES According to V. L. Eardley-Wilmot (8) "the term 'millstone,' which includes the true burrstone and the chaser stone, is somewhat loosely applied to include cir·· cular stones revolved on a horizontal plane as well as those run on edge. They may be made from any hard and suitable rock varying from a sandstone, basalt, granite to a, quartz conglomerate ...." Forty or fifty years ago the production of millstones of various types was a mod· erately important industry, but now mill· stones are used to only a minor extent. . Rocks suitable for the manufacture of mill· stones are found in the Trinity tributary area in the Ouachita Mountain region in Oklahoma. Regarding these rocks lioness (13) states as follows: "There is no doubt whatever, but that many of the fine grained quartzites and quartzitic sandstones of the Stanley (Pennsylvanian) and Jackfork (Pennsylvanian) formations would make excellent millstones and burrstones. So far as known to the writer these formations have never been considered of any value in this connection. The demand for mill· stones is not large, but it is possible that sometime there may be a wider field of application of this type of abrasive and it is well to call attention to this possible source of raw material." NOVACULITE Novaculite is an aphanitic granulose or cryptocrystalline rock essentially com· posed of quartz, sometimes containing other forms of silica and generally con­ itaining acceasory feldspar and garnet. Novaculite from the Ouachita Mountains region of Arkansas has had considerable use for the manufacture of high quality whetstones and oilstones. Novaculite from the neighboring Ouachita Mountains area of Oklahoma is reported to be equally suitable for this purpose, but as far as can be determined the Oklahoma deposits have never been exploited on a commercial basis. The Oklahoma novaculite occurs chiefly in central McCurtain County (fig. 5). Smaller exposures are known in the Potato Hills area in southeastern Latimer and northern Pushmataha counties and near Atoka and Stringtown in Atoka County. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Abrasive materials, in Minerals Yearbook: U. S. Bur. Mines, 1934-1946. 2. BAKER, C. L., Volcanic ash in Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Circ. 2, 4 pp., 1931. 3. , Volcanic ash, in The geology of Texas, Vol. II, Structural and economic geol· ogy: Univ. Texas Bull. 34-01, pp. 272-'1:11, 1934 [1935]. 4. BALDWIN, B. F., Report on the mineral re· sources-of Collingsworth County: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geo!., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 29, 6 pp., 1941. 5. BEACH, J. 0., Volcanic ash and tripoli: Okla· homa Geo!. Survey, Min. Rept. 1, 27 pp., 1938; reprinted, 1941. 6. BUTTRAM, FRANK, Volcanic dust in Okla· homa: Oklahoma Geo!. Survey, Bull. 13, 49 pp., 1914. 7. DuMBLE, E. T., Geology of east Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 1869, pp. 362--365, 1918 [1920]. 8. EARDLEY·WILMOT, V. L., Abrasives, in Indus· trial minerals and rocks, pp. 33-58, Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1937. Q. EVANS, G. L., Diatomite in the High Plains region of Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, pp. 239-243, 1943 [1946]. 10. , Mineral abrasive and polishing materials in Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, pp. 245-248, 1943 [1946]. 11. GARDNER, J. H., Volcanic ash in North Cana· dian -Valley, Oklahoma: Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol., vol. 7, pp. 576-578, 1923. 12; HoFFJUK, M. G., Volcanic tufts in central Oklahoma: Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol., vol. 9, p. 344, 1925. 13. HoNESS, C. W., Geology of the southern Ouachita Mountains of Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Bull. 32, pt. 2, 76 pp., 1923. 14. Mineral industry surveys: U. S. Bur. Mines, Min. Market Rept. M.M.S. 1348, Aug. 27, 1945. 15. PARKINSON,. G. A., and BARNES, V. E., Grind­ing pebble deposits of western Gulf Coastal , Plain of Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, pp. 47-54, 1943 [1944]. 16. PLUMMER, F. B., Cenozoic systems, in The geology of Texas, Vol. I, Stratigraphy: Univ. Texas· Bull. 3232, p. 721, 1932 [1933]. 17. REED, L. C., and LONGNECKER, 0. M., JR., The geology of Hemphill County, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 3231, p. 95, 1932. 18. SELLARDS, E. H., and EVANS, G. L., Index to mineral resources of Texas by counties: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geo!., Min. Res. Circ. 29, 22 pp., 1944. 19. SHAFER, G. H., Rice sands in Polk and ad· joining count~es with notes on volcanic ash ·and bentonitic clays: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geo!., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 41, 5 pp., 1942. 20. SIDWELL, RAYMOND, and BRONAUGH, R. L.. Volcanic sediments in north Texas: Jour. Sed. Petrology, vol. 16, pp. 15-.18, 1946. 21. SWINEFORD, ADA, and FRYE, J. C., Petro· graphic comparison of Pliocene and Pleisto­cene volcanic ash from western Kansas: Univ. Kansas Pubs., State Geo!. Survey Kansas, Bull 64, pt. 1, pp. 1-32, 1946. BARITE · A. E. Weissenborn, United States Geological Survey (Figure 6) Barite, barium sulfate (BaS04), also known as harytes, haryta, or heavy spar, is a heavy (specific gravity, 4.3-4.6)' brittle mineral with a pearly to vitreous luster and a hardness ranging from 2.5 to 3.5. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and commonly is found in tabular crystals. When pure, the color is white or gray, but barite may he tinted various shades Qf blue, pink, or yellow from im­purities. Colorless, transparent crystals are sometimes found. Most of the barite mined in the United States is obtained from residu~l deposits derived from the weathering of barium-bearing rocks. Bar­ite is also obtained from bedded replace· . ment deposits in sedimentary rocks, from hreccia deposits, mostly in limestones and dolomites, or from veins in which barite is essentially the only mineral present. Barite is a common gangue mineral in many metalliferous deposits, hut in only rare instances has it been produced com­mercially from deposits of this type. , According to the United States Bureau of Mines, of the total of 722,073 short tons of crude barite used in the United States in 1946, 465,468 short tons were used in the manufacture of ground barite (including some crushed barite), 154,166 tons were manufactured into lithopone, and 102,43~ tons were employed in the manufacture of barium chemicals. The greater part of the ground harite produced in this country in 1945 and 1946 was used in the petroleum industry, where it is mixed with bentonite and other ingre­dients to form a heavy mud which is employed as a drilling medium in drilling deep oil wells. For this use color and extreme purity are not important provided the specific gravity is 4.2 or higher. An increase in the use of harite in oil well drilling can he expected due to the expira­tion of the patent covering the process. Barite is also used as a flux in glass mak· ing, because of its property of forming a surface froth which protects the melt from the furnace gases and slows heat transfer. Barile added to the glass mix in small amounts imparts . _desirable properties to some grades of glass, especially moulded forms. Coarsely crushed harite was for­merly thought necessary for use in glass manufacturing, hut recent experiments have demonstrated that ground barite can he used equally well. Ground harite is used as an inert filler in rubber, paper, printer's ink, oilcloth, linoleum, phono­graph records, and similar articles; as a paint pigment or paint extender; and to weight textiles and leather goods. All grades are used, from an off-color product to white, acid-bleached harite depending on how the color will affect the finished article. According to the Minerals Year· book 52 percent of the .ground barite pro­duced in this country in 1946 was used in drilling muds, 4 percent was employed in the glass industry, 25 percent in the manu· facture of paints, 3 percent was used as a filler in rubber, 14 percent went into chem· icals, and 2 percent into various other uses. One of the principal uses of barite is in the manufacture of lithopone, which _is employed mainly as a white paint pig­ment but whic4 also finds considerable use as a filler. Lithopone is an intimate mixture of barium sulfate and zinc sul­fide obtained from the co-precipitation of the twq constituents and contains ap· proximately 70 percent BaSO, and 30 percent ZnS. Lithopone paint pigments were used extensively during the war in place of titanium, lead, and zinc oxide pig­ments, hut these pigments will probably again replace lithopone to a considerable extent when conditions become normal. Barium chemicals are used for a variety of purposes in industry. Blanc fixe (pre­cipitated barium sulfate) is used in white paint and as a filler for products such as linoleum and oilcloth, which require a whiter and finer mateI'ial than can he obtained from ground harite. Barim:q chloride is used indirectly in the manufacture of chlorine and sodium hy­droxide, in coatings for photographic pa­per, for finishing white leather, and as a flux in the fabricatioµ of magnesium al· EXPLANATION • Reported occurrence of borite Celestile deposits • _,.__ Reported occurrence of celestite Top of Clear Fork group-Permian Bose of Trinity group- x Top of Garber formation-Permian[]:'.] Lower Cretaceous -----~ (in Oklohomo) -Celestite-beoring beds in Double Bose of Pe rmion Mountain 9roup-Permian Fig. 6. Distribution of barite and celestite in the Trinity River tributary area. loys. Barium hydroxide is employed in beet-sugar refining and in purifying ani· mal and vegetable oils. Barium nitrate imparts a ·green color to signal flares, bar· ium oxide is useful in case-hardening steel, barium carbonate is also used for this same purpose, as well as for retarding efBores­cence in bricks, and barium peroxide is used in making hydrogen peroxide. Specifications for barite var}' conside~­ ably according to the use. Common spec1­ ·fications call for 95 percent BaS04 and less than 1 percent Fe20 8• For use in the glass trade barite containing less than 0.1 percent Fe20 8 and a minimum of 96 per­cent BaS04 is demanded. Prices of crude barite were frozen in March 1942. Ceilings for crude barite approved by the Office of Price Administration in July 1944 for Missouri producers were $8.50 a short ton, and for Georgia and Tennessee· producers, up to $ll.50 a long ton. Chemical-grade barite price ceilings were .set in 1945 at i$ll.50 a long ton, f.o.b. Sweetwater, Tennessee, and Cartersville, Georgia. As a whole, these price levels · were main­tained in 1946, after removal of price ceilings. In 1942 and_ previous years, $13.00 per ton royalty was included in the price of barite used in well drilling. The patent on which the royalty was based expired in .1943, and prices for that type of material became lower. The average price per short .. ton of ground and crushed barite in 1946 was $15.85. Ground, bleached ha.rite was quoted at $27.65 a short ton in the St. Louis area. Because .for many of its uses it competes with other low-priced minerals which can be used equally as well, barite has been, and is likely to remain, a low-priced com­modity. Prices •at the producing centers are governed largely by the cost of trans­portation to mai:kets . . . Arkansas is now the chief producing · state, although over the years Missouri has produced more barite than any other state. OCCURRENCE Barite is not known to occur anywhere within the Trinity River drainage basin itself, but it is found at a number of local­ities within the Trinity River tributary area in both Texas and Oklahoma {fig. 6). In neither state has there been any signifi. • cant production, although a number of attempts have been made to mine barite. The total production o( the entire State of Texas probably amounts to less than 500 tons and Oklahoma has produced even less. The Milwhite Company, Inc., produced ground barite at a plant at Houston, Texas, but the plant processes crude barite im­ported from outside the State. Thin irregular veins or scattered nodules of barite are found in shale beds of lower Permian age throughout central and southwestern Oklahoma, especially in McClain, Garvin, Comanche, Tillman, Stephens, Cotton, and Kiowa counties. A similar occurrence is reported from beds of about the same age 22 miles southwest of Abilene, Taylor County, Texas. In Bay­lor County, Texas, barite nodules have been reported in red shales of the Permian Belle Plains formation in an escarpment east and northeast of Rend}Jam, and dis­continuous barite veins and joint fillings are found in Triassic red shales on the · Dora Roberts qmch, 2 miles. north of the Otis Chalk community, Howard County, Texas. Another barite locality in Howard County is 2.5 miles west of Morita, north of U. S. highway No. 80. In general the barite content of rlle shale beds ~ low, and the deposits are of no economic importance. However, in places weathering of the shale has resulted in a residual concenl:ratiqn of the relatively heavy and resistant barite, and some of these lo_calities are potential producers of barite. Of tht: known occurrences, perhaps the most pro~ising is 5 miles south qf Cache, Comanche County, Oklahoma, where several thousand tons of barite are estimated to occur in two deposits on the floors of gullies .in Permian shale on the east side of West Cache Creek. The de­posits are within easy hauling distance of the railroad at Cache, and the barite can he readily concentrated by screening and washing. A somewhat similar residual concentration of barite on the nearly flat floor of an erosional amphitheater is found 9 miles east of Manitou, Tillman County, Oklahoma, but the tonnage available is much smaller. At neither of the above two localities are known reserves sufficient to justify the establishment of a barite plant, but the possibility that other similar de­posits exist in _the area should not be ignored. · · In the Arbu'ckle Mountains of-Oklahoma barite is found in brown clay and limonite derived from the weathering of dolomite in ihe Arbuckle limestone of Cambrian and Lower Ordovician age, notably on the · Thompson ranch 6 miles northeast of Mill -Creek, Johnston County, and on the Low­rance ranch south of Sulphur, Murray County. On the Thompson ranch the barite is found in an open pit, from which several hundred tons of iron ore were extracted, and is associated with small amounts of pyrite. The occurrences are of ·significance only in suggesting the possibility of other barite deposits in the region. l:Jarite, cementing sand grains in sand­stones of the · lower Permian Garber sand­stone, occu~s in the vicinity of Pauls Val­ley and Paoli in Garvin County, Okla­homa, and has also been reported from Cleveland County, Oklahoma. By weight _the.barite comprises about one-third of the sandstone · but, because of the difficulty of extraction and the limited extent of the barite sandstone, "is of no present economic importance. Sand-barite "rosettes" or "barite roses" (rose-shaped crystal aggregates of barite) are numerous in the lower Permian sand­ ·stoiles of central Oklahoma or in the grav­els derived from them and are most abun­dant in the upper 100 feet of the Garber · sandstone. Similar rosettes occur in the Clear Fork and Wichita formations in southwestern Oklahoma. Rosettes are prized by mineral collectors and are of scientific interest, but because they occur as isolated individuals scattered through the sandstone, and themselves contain much admixed sand, they cannot be recov­ered economically except locally where weathering may have concentrated a few tons of barite. There is a rapidly increasing demand for barite-weighted drilling muds in oil well drilling, and as the Trinity River trib­utary area includes a great number of im­portant oil fields, if workable deposits of -harite ·were found · in the tributary area, they would he in a favorable position to compete with barite shipped in from out­side sources. ANALYSES of sand barite rosettes from Oklahoma Oklahoma, no Cleveland Cleveland county County, County, location Oklahoma Oklahoma Si02 ···-············· Al20 a ............... . Fe20a ............... . MgO ............... . Cao ···-··--·-------­ H20 ................. . P20 • ................ so. ············-···· MnO .............. Bao ................. . SrO ................ C02 .........•........ Organic matter Specific gravity 36.99 45.13 45.20 5.36 0.88 0.86 0.82 0.96 0.93 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.51 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.31 0.36 n.d. tr. tr. 19.20 17.87 18.14 n.d. 0.02 0.02 35.76 34.25 34.50 n.d. n.d. 0.00 n.d. 0.00 O.D7 0.32 n.d. n.d. 3.38 3.36 3.36 Abbreviations: n.d.=not determined ; tr. = trace. Data from A. C. Shead (9) .• BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. BAKER, C. L., Barite in Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Circ. 4, 5 pp. 1932. • 2. , Barium minerals and ores in The geology of Texas, Vol. II, Structural and economic geology: Univ. Texas Bull. 3401, pp. 403-409, 1934 [1935]. 3. Barite, witherite, and barium chemicals in Minerals Yearbook: U. S. Bur. Mines 1934­1946. ' 4. EVANS, G. L., Barite deposits in Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 4.301, pp. 105-111, 1943 [1945]. 5. GouLD, C. N., Radiate structure of sand barite crystal masses: Oklahoma Acad. Sci. · Proc., vol. 6, pt. 2, 1926; Oklahoma Univ. Bull., n.s., 348, pp. 239-242, 1927. 6. HAM, W. F., and MERRITT, C. A., Barite in O~ahoma: Oklahoma State Geol; Survey,C1rc. 23, 1944. 7; HARNESS, C. L., and BARSIGIAN, F. M., Mining and marketing of barite: U. S. Bur; Mines Inf. Circ. 7345, 78 pp., 1946. 8. S~LLARDs, E. H., and EVANS, G. L., Index to mmeral resources of Texas by counties: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Circ. 29, 22 pp., 1944. 9. SHEAD, A. C., Notes on barite in Oklahoma with chemical analyses of sand barite rosettes: Oklahoma Acad. Sci., Univ. Okla­homa Bull., n.s., 271, pp. 102-106, 1923. 10. TARR, w. A., The origin of the sand barites of. the lower Permian of Oklahoma: Amer. Mm., vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 260-272, 1933, 11. W:ElcEL: W. M., Barium minerals, in Indus­ tnal mmerals and rocks, pp. 97-110, Amer ~st. Min. Met. Eng., 1937. · 15Literature references are given ln the bibliography, p. 71. CELESTITE H. B. Stenzel and H. C. Fountain, Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Tecri:as, and D. M. Kinney, United States GeologicaJ...Survey (Figure 6) Celestite (SrS04), the principal source of strontium and strontium compounds, is a medium-hard (Mohs scale, 3 to 31h) and heavy (specific gravity, 3.97) mineral, containing 56.5 percent strontium oxide and 43.5 percent sulfur trioxide. It occurs in well-developed crystals, crystalline nodules, or irregular masses, and resem­bles barite in many of its properties. Pure crystalline celestite is translucent and colorless or sky-blue, but celestite in com­mercial deposits is usually colored by im­purities. It occurs as replacement deposits or cavity fillings in limestone, calcareous sandstone, dolomite, soft sand, sandstone, and shale. During the war the chief use of celestite was in the manufacture of signal flares and tracer bullets which owe their bright red color to small amounts of strontium compounds. A similar peace-time use of strontium compounds is in fireworks and &ignal flares, so-called fusees, for railroads, trucks, aircraft, and ships; however, normally this does not require large quantities of celestite. Small quantities of celestite are also used in the manufacture of strontium chemicals. Tbe war needs of chemical-grade celestite are estimated to have exceeded 15,000 tons a year, but in peace time the United States uses less than 3,000 tons annually. The use of grom;_id celestite as a weighing medium similar to barite in the manufacture of heavy rotary drilling mud was important in the late thirties. However, the patent on the use of barite in drilling mud expired in 1943 and with it the $13 per ton royalty which had permitted celestite to remain in competition with barite. Hence barite is now crowding out celestite. Celestite is mined from shallow open pits in Brown, Fisher, and Nolan counties, Texas (fig. 6). In Brown County the celestite is broken from the beds by means of horse-drawn plows. The plows have proved fairly satisfactory and economical, except that in some places considerable losses are sustained from shattering the celestite into pieces too small for handling. In Nolan County the celestite is pried out of exposed ledges with hand tools. During one period of about three days, a steam shovel was used for stripping the ore in the Miller locality in Brown County, and at several times tractors have been em­ ployed in drawing plows to expose and break material from the beds. In all de· posits the material is roughly sorted and loaded by hand. -The ore is under less than 3 feet of overburden and is hauled• by truck to the nearest shipping point. Post-war prospects for the domestic cel­estite industry depend on competition with foreign sources. In normal times µigh­grade celestite is imported to the United States from England, Spain, and Mexico. This material which averages 92 percent SrS04 can be delivered at the seaboard at prices ranging from 28 to 30 dollars per short ton. Such prices limit the possibili­ites of shipping domestic celestite to the seaboard or Qf exporting it. In addition Texas celestite i& not as pure as high-grade imported material. With the expiration of the patent on the use of barite in drilling · mud, this once profitable use of celestite has diminished. Also wartime uses of ce­lestite are gone since 1944. · Hence the prospects of celestite mining are very poor. About 15,000 tons of celestite were to be shipped from Spain to the United States in July 1948. This tonnage was purchased in 1943 to prevent its falling into enemy hands during the war. The methods employed in the Trinity River tributary area for the mining of celestite are primitive; hence they now require very little capital investment and little machinery. The improvement in min­ ing and separating methods might make possible the development of deposits hav­ ing a deeper overburden than the ones worked at present. The only deposits of commercial importance today are princi­ pally those which have only a few feet of overburden. The United States Bureau of Mines (3) 6 has demonstrated that some Texas ores containing 82 to 85 percent strontium sulfate can he prepared to chem­ical-grade by direct flotation. OCCURRENCE The mineral celestite in small non-com­mercial quantities is widely distributed in Texas and has been reported from the Oklahoma part of the Trinity River tribu­tary area. Commercial deposits are re­stricted to two districts in Texas (fig. 6). TEXAS The Nolan district, where mining began in 1938, centers in the Sweetwater area in Nolan County, hut the deposits extend southward intQ northern Coke County (Blackwell area) and northward as far as central Fisher County (Roby area). The ore occurs as replacement in dolomite or dolomitic limestone beds of the Double Mountain group of upper Permian age. The thickness of the deposit is variable, and the best ore is found in localized pockets where fracturing of the parent rock has been greatest. The localized pock­ets of high-grade ore are present in all deposits hut are being depleted rapidly by selective mining. Most of the celestite is fine grained, hut coarse-grained deposits are also present. In Fisher County the ore is restricted to. the Claytonville dolomite, hut in the central part of the district depos­ its occur in several horizons. In the Boothe deposit 5 miles south of Sweetwater, Nolan County, the parent rock is 14 to 20 inches thick and is variably replaced by celestite. A representative sample of the ore mined in Nolan County consisted of two kinds of ore; the predominating one was coarse· grained celestite associated with small amounts of calcite and iron oxide; the 6Literature references are given in the bibliography, p. 74. other was fine-grained celestite associ~ted with dolomite, calcite, and minor amounts of iron, silicon, and aluminum-containing minerals; its composition is given below. The Brown district, where mining began in 1940, centers in eastern Brown County, and deposits extend into Comanche and Mills counties. ·The celestite deposits are in impure limestone and shale which lie in the middle of a series of soft sands and clays and are probably a marginal facies of the Glen Rose formation of the Lower Cretaceous Trinity group. Celestite occurs as nodules or bedded deposits, hut only the bedded deposits are of commercial impor­tance. The beds vary in thickness from 2 to 20 inches and average ~bout 4 to 5 inches. The deposits contain from 70 to 80 percent celestite, hut some deposits contain as much as 10 to 12 percent harite. One of the largest workable deposits is on the R. L. Miller land about 5 miles northwest of Blanket, Brown County, where the celes­tite bed is about 8 inches thick. Another workable deposit is on the Alpha Baker and J. A. Faulkner land about 4 miles northwest of Blanket. The thickness varies from 4 to 10 incges and the grade is unusu­ally uniform. OKLAHOMA W. K Ham of the Oklahoma Geological Survey reports that the largest · celestite deposits in Oklahoma occur in thin dolo­mite beds of Permian age in an area 7 miles long in a north-south direction and 2¥2 miles wide near Weatherford in north­eastern Washita County, Oklahoma. The celestite with a small quantity of stron­tianite (SrC03 ) is present as disseminated crystals in the dolomite, as crystals lining open cavities, or as crystals aligned along bedding planes. Four localities having possibilities of commercial development ANALYSES (3) COUNTY SrSO., BaSO; CaCOa SiO, TEXAS . Nolan --------------­------­------------------­-----------------­82.1 1.6 10.1 4.4 (Mine sample ; Bennett-Clark Co.) Brown --------------­--------------------------­----­---­------­83.8 1.4 9.4 3.8 Brown -----­-------------------­------------------------------­84.9 1.3 6.5 2.3 MgO 0.4 (Davis Estate) Brown ---------------­-----­--­------­----------­--------------­59.7 3.2 16.1 11.1 co. 9.5 (Composite sample, R. L. Miller and ,\> ther properties ) are known. In three of these localities the celestite deposits are in the Weafl!erford dolomite and are exposed from several hundred feet to several hundred yards along the outcrop. At these localities the dolomite increases from the normal 12 inches to as much as 30 inches in thick· ness. The fourth and largest deposit is in a 10-foot dolomite bed near the base of the Cloud Chief formation in the northeast quarter of section 28, T. 11 N., R. 14 W. The celestite·impregnated dolomite bed crops out in a low hill that covers about 40 acres. No drilling has been done on any of the deposits to determine their extent. RESERVES Although celestite occurs in numerous scattered deposits in the Trinity River trib­utary area, many of the deposits are too thin, too irregular, or have too much over· burden to he workable. In estimating re­serves in the Texas part of the area, only those deposits of sufficient thickness and grade and under shallow overburden have been considered (4) . Estimated reserves in the Brown district ---------------------------------30,000 tons Estimated reserves in the Nolan district --------·-·······------200,000 tons The ores measured by the United States Bureau of Mines are contained in beds with an average thickness of 7.8 inches and lie beneath an average overburden of 59 inches. Data are insufficient to estimate the reserves of celestite in the Weatherford area of w~st-central Oklahoma. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION Operating companies within the Trinity River area and plant locations are listed below. Most, if not all, of the celestite produced was used for rotary drilling mud. The Milwhite Company and the Mudrite Chemicals Company have mined 3,500 tons in Brown County, and the Bennett-Clark Company has mined about 2,700 tons from the Boothe estate deposit in Nolan County. All production was from the Brown and Nolan districts in Texas, none having been produced in Oklahoma. Data are from publications of the United States Bureau of Mines. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. BROWN, L. S., Occurrence and probable origin of Texas celestite (abst.): Amer. Min., vol. 15, pp. 121-122, 1930. 2. CUMMINS, W. F., The southern border of the central coal field: Texas Geol. Survey, 1st Ann. Rept. 0889), p. 162, 1890. 3. DENNIS, W. E., FINE, M. M., and O'MEARA, R. G., Celestite deposits, Brown, Nolan, Fisher, and Coke counties, Texas: U. S. Bur. Min~ Rept. Inv. .Wl8, 16 pp., 1947. 4. EVANS, G. L., Strontium minerals in Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geo!., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 46, 26 pp., 1942. 5. , Celestite in Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, pp. 113-131, 1943 [1945]. 6. Minor nonmetals, in Minerals Yearbook: U.S. Bur. Mines, 1934-1946. 7. PHil.LIPS, W. B., Celestite deposits in Texas: Man. Record, vol. 70, 1916; idem, vol. 71, 1917. 8. SUFFEL, G. G., Dolomites of western Okla· homa: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Bull. 49, 1930. Producers and Production of Celestite Name of Company Location of Plant or Pit Bennett-Clark Company, Nacogdoches, Texas_________Boothe estate, 5 miles south-southwest of Sweet-water, Nolan County, and Will Martin farm, .10 miles west of Roby, Fisher County The Milwhite Company, Houston, Texas_____ ______R. L. Miller farm, about 8 miles northwest of Blanket, Brown CountyMudrite Chemicals, Inc., Houston, Texas____________Brown County (inactive at present) Number of Year Short T ons Shipped Value P roducing Companies 1940__________________ Not publishable 2 1941____ __ _ _____________ 1,959 1942____________ ________________________ 1,917 1943__ _____ __________________ 4,958 $31,294 19,185 62,137 3 3 4 1944----------------------­----­----···Not publishable1.945______ ________________ Not publishable 1946____________________None 2 2 CLAYS ff, B. Stenzel, Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas, and A. E. Weiseenborn, United States Geological Survey ,(Figures 7, s; 9) Clays are rocks of earthy appearance whose chief characteristic is their plastic­ity in the wet state. Mineralogically clays are composed of complex hydrous alumi· num silicates--the so-called clay minerals, among which are included kaolinite, dickite, nacrite, halloysite, allophane, beidellite, nontronite, and montmorillo­nite. In addition to aluminum, silica, and water, some of t4e clay minerals also con· tain iron, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and sodium. The individual particles of which clay is composed are usually less than 0.002 mm. in diameter and conse­quently the component minerals can be identified only by microscopic or X-ray methods. Minerals commonly occurring as impurities in clays are quartz, calcite, gypsum, siderite, limonite, pyrite, and mus­covite. Many clays contain soluble salts which in some cases may offset their usC-: fulness. Raw clays contain large amounts of water, part of whicb is mechanically held and part combined chemically with the hydrous silicates. The mechanically ·geld water which evaporates at room tern· perature is known as "shrinkage water," the remaining water which is driven off by heating to 110° C. is known as "pore water"; the "shrinkage water". and the "pore water" togetqer are known as "water ·of plasticity." A part of the mechanically held water is retained until the clay is heated to about 200° C.; this is knoWJ! as "hygroscopic" water. T4e chemically combined water, which is an essential part of the various clay minerals, is given off at temperatures between 450° and 600° c; In the following chapter, clays are divided according to their use and are discussed under the headings of bleaching clays, burning clays, and drilling clays. This division is somew4at arbitrary as some clays may be used for several pur­poses, but it is followed for convenience. Bleaching clays, used mainly in the oil • refining industry, are generally derived from the alteration of volcanic ash ~d have the property of decolorizing oils to a high degree. Burning clays include those plastic, siliceous clays used in the manu· facture of brick, tile, and pottery, and the high-alumina clays used in making re­fractory bricks and shapes. Drilling clays are .clays having certain properties which make them useful as the basic ingredient in oil well drilling fluid. The properties which determine the suitability of a clay for any specific pur­pose are physical rather than chemical and depend to & large extent on the mineral­ogic composition and the texture of the clay. Chemical analysis gives little indi­cation of the physical properties, and whether a clay can be used for any given purpose must be determined in most cases by test. Clays find many uses. The chief uses are in he'avy clay products such as brick, drain tile, and sewer pipe (57 percent of total United States production in 1946); refractories, such as fire brick, crucibles, glass refractories, and zinc retorts (17 percent); cement manufacture (16 per­cent) ; these clays are discussed in the chapter on Portland Cement Materials; in paper manufacture as filler and coating of special papers (2 percent) ; as rotary drilling clay (1 percent); in filtering and decolorizing oils as bleaching clays (1 per cent); in pottery, stoneware, ana whiteware (1 percent); in rubber manu­ facture as a filler (0.6 percent) ; in high­ grade tile (0.5 percent). Minor but locally important uses are in saggers, pins, stilts, and wads, which are used in kilns and come only rarely to the attention -of the geperal public, architecturaJ terra cotta, as filler in linoleum and oilcloth, as filler and extender in paints, in chemicals, and in plaster and plaster products. In 1945 prices for clays were under the CQntrol of the Office of Price Adminis­ tration. The average value per short ton of fire clay sold on the open market in the United States in 1946 was $2.64; the aver­ age value of captive fire clay produced was estimated to be $2.63. Trade journal quo­tations for bentonite per ton ·were: dried and crushed, in bulk, $7.50; pulverized, 200 mesh, bagged, $9.50 to $11.00; pul­verized, 325 mesh, bagged, $16.00; the average vaiue of the bentonite material that is sold by producers was $7.25 in 1946. Texas fuller's earth was listed at $12.50 per ton at the mine, but most of it sold for less than this figure. The value of most raw clays used for miscellaneous products is less than $1.00 per ton. Drill­ing clay may vary from as low as $2.00 to as high as $10.00 a ton. In 1946 the United States produced over 30 million short tons of clays valued at over 57 million dollars. During the last months of 1945 the expected demand for clays used in building materials became a reality. The need for new houses and building is great, and it i!! expected that it will take years to. satisfy this need. Hence th~ out­put of common clays used in bricks and other building materials is expected to be high for several years and to absorb vir­tually all available production capacity. However, production of fire clay is ex­pected to remain at pre·war levels or slightly higher. New furnace construction is not likely, but maintenance should pro­vide a continuing demand for fire clay~. Bentonite production has been steadily in­creasing in the past so that further growth seems likely. An expanding drilling pro­gram in the petroleum industry should use large quantities of this type of clay. Fuller's earth will continue to be used in oil refining and possibly new uses may expand the demand for this type of clay. BLEACHING CLAYS A. L. Jenke, United States Geological Survey Nearly all clays possess some ability to decolorize mineral, vegetable, and animal oils and fats. In general, bleaching clays are classified as active or activable. The naturally active clays, or fuller's earths, are those in which the power to absorb coloring matter from oils is inherent in the raw· product. The activable clays, or bentonites, are those which are either wholly inactive or only slightly active in their natural state but which can be acti­vated by treatment with dilute acid, ren­dering them capable of performing the same functions as the naturally active clays. The Trinity River. tributary area produces over 15 percent of the total United States output of bleaching clay. Mineralogically fuller's earth and ben­tonite are similar, both being hydrous aluminum-silicates of 'the montmorillonite­beidellite group. Both have a common origin, as it can be shown microscopically that both are derived from altered volcanic ash and contain devitrified glass shards ill all stages of alteration to clay minerals. Physically, fuller's earth is non-plastic to slightly plastic, possesses a foliated struc­ture, and ordinarily does not slake readily when submerged in water. Bentonite or metabentonite is a. plastic, dense clay, with a waxy luster which will slake readily in water. As found in nature, both fuller's earth and bentonite have a high water <;on­tent (25 to 30 percent moisture) and range in color from white to light gray, cream, buff, brown, or dark gray. True bentonites have the property of swelling several times their volume upon the addition of water. The bentonitic clays of the Trinity River area, although similar in other respects to the bentonites, do not have this property and technically are known a!! metabentonites. However, in the bleaching trade all activable clays are called bentonites, and for this reason the · production of metabentonite is list.ed under bentonite. The terminology of bleaching clays in industry 1s fort.her complicated by a recent trend to report tonnages mined as fl;lller's earth rather than bentonite, al­though bentonite may have been reported as mined from a given pit in previous years. In commercial practice a clear dis­tinction is seldom made between fuller's earth and bentonite, and it is not unusual to find the two terms used almost inter­changeably. As a general rule the chemically acti­vated clays are much more effective as decolorizing agent.s than naturally active earths. Artificially activated clays cannot be recovered efficiently or at low enough cost and therefore must be discarded after use. Fuller's earth can be recovered and used several times. However, the activated clays display a distinct advantage over natural earths due to their greater bleach­ ing powers, and consequently lesser quan· tities are necessary to produce the desired result. In 1946, 68 percent of all bleaching clay produced in the United States was used as decolorizing agent~ in the petroleum refin· ing industry; most of the remaining out· · put was used in the refining of cotton seed, soya bean, and coconut oil, and in the clar­ification of crude packinghouse lard and grease. Approximately 60 percent of the total bleaching clay output is listed as fuller's earth by producers. Activated clays for bleaching purposes are in part superseding the use of fuller's earth. Bleaching clays are mined by strip-pit methods, since the overburden seldom ex· ceeds 10 feet. Typical examples are at Riverside in Walker County on the banks of the Trinity River. Pick and shovel or small mechanical shovels are generally used for mining, and the raw clay is · hauled by truck to processing plants lo­cated near the pits. Raw fuller's earth is crushed to minus %,-inch and dried in kilns. Further crushing and screening re­duce the clay to the size desired by the individual user. The activable clays arc treated with dilute sulfuric acid at boiling temperature for several hours, washed free of acid and soluble salts, dried, artd then crushed to the desired sizes. Bleaching clay is generally sold in 135-pound bags or shipped in box cars. The Trinity River tributary area, and especially the fower part of the Trinity River basin, are very favorably located to supply bleaching clay to the great oil refineries of the Mid-Continent and Gulf Coast states. Bleaching clays are bulky, low-priced materials that sell for a small margin of profit, and the fortunate loca­ tion of the principal deposits adjacent to important refining centers "makes competi· tion improbable from deposits outside the· area. The major oil companies, which are the principal users of bleaching clays, com­ monly operate their own pits and process· ing plants to supply their own needs. OCCURRENCE Bleaching clay is found in several sedi­ mentary_ formations of Tertiary age which underlie the Coastal Plain in the lower part ·of the Tri?ity River.tributary area.. Bleach· ing clay is also found in Pliocene or Pleis· tocene strata in many scattered localities on the High Plains throughout western Texas and western Oklahoma. Coastal Plain area.-As is shown on the accompanying map (fig. 7), bleaching clay deposits in the Coastal Plain area are essen· tially confined to certain Tertiary strata whicl} cross the Trinity tributary area in three narrow bands roughly parallel to the coast line. These strata lie in the Cook Mountain formation of the Claiborne group, of Eocene age; the Jackson group, also ()f Eocene age; and the Catahoula formation, of Oligocene age. Because these strata cross the Trinity River, outcrops of bleaching clay might be expected in the lowland areas subject to periodic flooding, but in most cases t4e clay-bearing forma­tions in the immediate vicinity of the river have been covered by Quaternary alluvium, or have been eroded away, and clay exposures, therefore, are not common. The only known outcrops of bleaching clay in the area subject to flooding are at Alabama Ferry on the Trinity River in Houston County, where an exposed bed of bleaching clay 3 to 4 feet thick is found in the Landrum shale member 'of the Cook Mountain formation. A pit near Carlisle, Trinity County, in the Catahoula formation, is very close to the area subject to flood if it is not actually within it. Within the Trinity River drainage basin bleaching clay is found in the Cook Moun­tain formation in Houston, Leon, and Mad­ison counties. In this formation in Hous­ton County, bentonite is found at Hurri­cane Bayou, 37\i miles northeast of Crockett, and bentonite outcrops form a line fro1.,; there to Alabama Ferry on the Trinity River, a distance of about 20 miles. From that place the line of outcrops con· tinues through Leon County at least as far as Two-Mile Creek near Leona (15, 16) .7 Important deposits of fuller's earth and bentonite are found in the Catahoula for­mation near Riverside, on the Trinity River in Walker County, and a few miles farther to the east in San Jacinto and Trinity counties. Outside of the Trinity River drainage basin, deposits of fuller's earth and hen· tonite occur in the Claiborne group south 7Literature -references are .given in . the .bibliogaphy, p. 81. The University of Teias Publication No. 4824 ioo• 0 35• u - EXPLANATION X Reported occurrence .. Abandoned 0< non-aperafina pi1 e Opera1ing pi1 Outcrops of strata can1aining bleaching clay: -Jackson group -Eocene t\f@:i)f!!/(;1 P~istocene and Pliocene Cook Mountain formation of • Catahoula formation -Oligocene Claiborne group -Eocene Fig. 7. Distribution of bleaching clays in the Trinity River tributary area. of Forest, Cherokee County; 2 miles north of Redland, Angelina County; and in Nacogdoches County. Deposits qf fuller's earth are being mined 9 miles south of Zavalla, Angelina County, from beds of the Jackson group. Near Carmona, in Polk County, 62 feet of pyritic clay, some of which is bentonitic, was found during the course of auger drilling. It is uncer­tain whether the clay is in the Jackson group or the Catahoula formation. The most important producing areas at present are those near Riverside on the Trinity River, Walker County, where The Texas Company and the Continental Oil Company have processing plants, and near Carl isle, Trinity County; and the deposits riear Zavalla and Redland, Angelina County, where several companies produce bleaching clay. Outcrops of Claiborne, Jackson, and Catahoula strata extend beyond the limits of the lower Trinity River tributary area and deposits of bleaching clay are either being mined or are known at several lo­calities in these formations both east and west of the area. Bentonite beds up to 1.5 foot thick are also reported from the Cretaceous Eagle Ford shale in McLennan County. High Plains area.-Bleaching clay oc­curs as isolated lenses in Pliocene or Pleistocene sediments throughout the High Plains area in western Texas and western Oklahoma. Counties where deposits have been found include Woodward, Ellis, Dewey, Blaine, Roger Mills, and Washita counties in Oklahoma and Hartley, Potter, Swisher, Briscoe, and Scurry counties in Texas. Most of these deposits are classed as bentonite, although some fuller's earth is reported in the Texas part of the area, particularly in Briscoe and Swisher coun­ties (7). Producing plants are located in Briscoe County, Texas. Others in Wood­ward County, Oklahoma, 6 miles west of the town of Woodward, are no longer operating. Other localities.-Deposits of bleaching clay are reported from Wagoner and Has­kell counties, Oklahoma, near the Arkan­sas River, and from the Valley of the Red River in Cotton County, Oklahoma. De­tailed information is lacking regarding these deposit§l, but they appear to be in pockets or lenses in Quaternary terrace gravels. RESERVES Since bleaching clay is a low-priced product and deposits of satisfactory grade have been easy to find in the past, there has been little incentive to develop these deposits ahead of mining. A few years ago some of the deposits in Houston County, Texas, were tested by drilling as part of a Work Projects Administration project un­der the supervision of H. B. Stenzel of the Bureau of Economic Geology, but aside from this activity there has been little systematic exploration. Estimates of the reserves of bleaching clay in the Trinity River tributary area cannot be made at this time. In 1941, J. 0. Beach of the Okla­homa Geological Survey, estimated the re­serves of bentonite and bentonitic clay in Oklahoma at more than 1,000,000 cubic yards. The Texas part of the Trinity River tributary area probably contains many times this amount. The bleaching clay reserves of the entire Trinity tribu­tary area should be sufficient to supply the demands of the Texas and Oklahoma market for many years to come. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION Producers of bleaching clay in the Trin­ity River tributary area of Texas and Oklahoma and the location of their pits are given on the following page. Texas has led the nation in the output of fuller's earth in 1944, 1945, and 1946, pro­ducing 38, 35, and 37 percent, respectively, of the total United States output. Texas, though a substantial producer of benton­ite, ranked only third amo~g the states in total production. The Trinity River basin contributed a significant part of the total Texas production of bleaching clay. Okla­homa produces some bentonite but pro­duces no fuller's earth. The total output of bleaching clays from the Trinity River tributary area in the past 10 years is given on the following page. Producers of Bleaching Clay Name of Company Location of Plant or Pit TEXAS The Bennett-Clark Company, Nacogdoches, Texas_!) miles south of Zavalla, Angelina County, Texas Continental Oil Company of Delaware, Riverside, Texas -------------------------------------------------------------------Riversicle, Walker County, Texas W. R. Kelley and Son, Dallas, Texas____________ _____________.Scurry County, Texas R. W. McKinney, Nacogdoches, Texas __ ______________________ Angelina County, Texas The Milwhite Company, Houston, Texas___ ________________ Angelina County, Texas Silverton Clay Products Company, Silverton, Texas..Briscoe County, Texas The Texas Company, Houston, Texas _______________________ Walker County, Texas Trinity Clay Products Company, Trinity, Texas ___ .Trinity County, Texas Xact Produ:::ts Company, Houston, Texas_______________6% miles south of Zavalla, Angelina County, Texas OKLAHOMA Woodward Earthen Products Company, Wood­ward, Oklahoma____________________________________________Wnodward County, Oklahoma Production of Fuller's Earth and Bentonite in the Trinity River Tributary Area FULLER'S EARTH BENTON!TE Year Short tons Value Short tons1 Value1 1935 -------·----­---­-----------­-----------­40,904 $391,389 4,805 $58.508 1936 -----------------------------­-----------­1937 ---------------------------------------­1938 --------------­------------------------­1939 --------------------------------------­1940 --------­-----­-----------­----­--­------­46,176 48,252 36,749 36,537 32,454 455,493 460.928 346:490 341,048 261,379 1,2472 2352 4,4642 4,3862 3,0002 9,9762 2,3542 44,6402 43,860" 30,0002 1941 ---------------------------------­-------­1942 --------------------------------------­1943 ---------­------­-------­----------------­1944 -----------------------------------------­61 ,399 68,577 76,561 93,057 556,741 577,631 584,390 738,969 02 2,5002 3,9122 1,7642 0 28,2502 44,5322 39,4272 1 May include some ben tonite used as rota ry drilling mud. 2from Texas part of tributary area on ly; Oklahoma produc tion not ava il able, All data from United States Bureau of Mines. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. BAKER, C. L., Fuller's earth and bentonite, in The geology of Texas, Vol. II, Structural and economic geology: Univ. Texas Bull. 3401, pp. 291-300, 1934 [1935]. 2. BEACH, J. 0., Volcanic ash and tripoli: Okla­homa Geol. Survey, Min. Rept. 1, 27 pp., 1938. 3. BELL, J. W., and FuNSTEN, S. R., Bleaching clay, in Industrial minerals and rocks, pp. 135-148, Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1937. 4. BROUGHTON, M. N., Texas fuller's earths : Jour. Sedimentary Petrology, vol. 2, pp. 135­139, 1932. 5. Clays, in Minerals Yearbook: U. S. Bur. Mines, 1934-1946. 6. DAVIS, C. W., and VACHER, H. C. (revised by J. E. CoNLEY) , Bentonite: its properties, min­ing, preparation, and utilization: U. S. Bur. Mines Tech. Paper 609, 83 pp., 1940. 7. EVANS, G. L., Filtering clays in Briscoe and Swisher counties, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Circ. 19, 4 pp., 1942. 8. HAGNER, A. F., Adsorptive clays of the Texas Gulf Coast: Amer. Min., vot 24, pp. 67-108, 1939. 9. JOHNSON, JOSEPH; Report on fuller's earth and bentonite in Angelina and Cherokee counties: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geo!., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 17, 3 pp., 1937. 10. MANSFIELD, G. R., and KING, P. B., Clay investigations in the southern states: U. S. Geo!. Survey Bull. 901, pp. 1-22, 93-186, 1940. 11. NUTTING, P. G., Adsorbent clays, their dis­tribution, properties, production, and uses: U. S. Geo!. Survey Bull.-928-C, pp. 127-221, 1943. 12. PoTTER, A. D., and McKNIGHT, DAVID, J11., The clays and ceramic industries of Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 3120, 228 pp., 1931. 13. Ross, C. S., and KERR, P. F., The clay min­erals and their identity: Jour. Sedimentary Petrology, vol. 1, pp. 55-65, 1931. 14. SHAFER, G. H., Rice sands in Polk and ad­joining counties, with notes on volcanic ash and bentonitic clays : Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geo!., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 41, 5 pp., 1942. 15. STENZEL, H. B., New zone in Cook Mountain formation, etc.: Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geo!., vol. 24, pp. 1663-1675, 1940. 16. WEBB, S. N., An occurrence of hentonite in Houston County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geo!., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 48. 13 pp., 1942. BURNING CLAYS H. B. Stenzel and H. C. Fountain, Bureau ol Economic Geology, The University of Texas, and A. L. Jenke and A. E. Weissenborn, United States Geological Survey Burning clays are so abundant, and the products derived from them are so much in use in everyday life, that the general public pays them scant attention. Yet these clays are a very important natural resource because of their wide range of uses in industry and their abundance and cheapness. The useful properties of burning clays derive from the fact that when wet they may be molded or pressed into many desired shapes and then changed by heat· ing into bard and rigid ceramic products that are resistant to water and weathering. As clays vary in behavior under the firing process they are conveniently classified on the basis of the properties which they exhibit after firing. One such classifica· tion is given below. (1) White or cream burning clays Open burning or porous. Uses: pottery and refractories. Dense burning and nonrefractory. Uses: pottery including whiteware, porcelain, stoneware, terra cotta, abrasive wheels, zinc retorts, face brick, saggers. Dense burning and refractory. Uses: crucibles and glass pots. (2) Buff burning clays Refractory. Uses: Abrasives, fire brick, terra cotta, sanitary ware, glazed and enam· eled brick, glass pots, saggers, retorts. Nonrefractory. Uses: bricks, arc\ritectilral terra cotta, stoneware, yellow ware, face brick, sanitary ware, paving brick, abra· sive wheels. (3) Red or brown or dark burning clays Open burni~ or porous. Uses: brick, drain tile, hollow blocks, flower pots, pen­cil clays, ballast. Dense burning. Uses: conduits, sewer pipe, paving brick, floor tile, electrical porcelain, cooking ware, silo block, art­ware, face brick; architectural terra cotta, roofing tile, hollow blocks, flower pots, slip clays. (4) Light gray or cream burning clays con­taining some calcium or magnesium car­bonate. Use: common brick. It would be difficult to list all the ceramic uses of clays. The wide range of useful products obtained from the var­iqus burning clays is indicated in the foregoing classification, and new ones are continually being developed. A use of burning clay new to Texas is in the manufacture of lightweight concrete aggregate. For this use clay or shale frag­ments are heated to incipient fusion; at­that temperature the particles bloat and on cooling form lightweight and fairly strong particles, which can be mixed with Portland cement. This clay product is called "Haydite" and has been manufac­tured in Eastland, Eastland County, since 1946. Most clay deposits are worked as open pits, the method of excavation depending upon the character of the clay, thickness and extent of beds, and character of the overburden. Small deposits, or those con· taining more than one variety of clay 4iffi­cult of separation otherwise, may be mmed Ly hand but are usually uneconomical to operate. In some deposits the clay face may be undercut at the base and caused to fall, thus breaking ·up the material so that it may be handled readily. Thick beds Qf uniform quality are best handled by ma· chines such as drag lines or shovels and planers. The development of the bull· dozer has greatly facilitated and cheap­ened the removal of overburden in prepa· ration for handling by machines of greater power an,d capacity. Underground min­ing is commonly used only for extracting the better grades of bedded clay and usu­ally is carried out by the roQm-and-pillar method. Ordin~ry burning cll.!y products have restricted markets on account o( trans­portation cqsts and because of competition, which is commonly near at hand. Some of the lower gr~de products might, by some special virtue or reputation, invade rea­sonably distant market territories, but the great majority of them ordinarily must be used close tq the place whei:e orig· inated. Products made from the higher grade clays have a somewhat wider market. In an established industry such as the manufacture of brick and tile, the element of competition is of prime consideration. Brick plants are in operation over a large part of the Trinity River tributary area wherever raw materials are readily acces­sible. In the great majority of cases the clay deposit and the brick plant are owned and operated by the same company. In the past many more plants were operating than at the present time, but broadening of markets and improvements in transpor­tation have tended to concentrate the in­dustry in fewer hands and localities. Capital requirements . of the average brick plant are moderate. However, the economic factors of greatest importance are cheap fuel and transportation. Cheap and efficient fuel in the form of natural gas is available in great quantities in many locations in the Trinity Ri':'er tributary area. H the Trinity River were to he opened up to cheap water transportation, ceramic plants of the tributary area would have two · great economic advantages. Un­der those circumstances it is possible that the markets for ceramic products m1tde in the area could he extended-greatly and that many of the products could be ex­ . ported for sale in Mexico and the Antilles. · The expected expansion in building cou­pled with the increasing shortage of lum· her should swell the demand for all kinds of ceramic building materials. OCCURRENCE Burning clays occur widely over the Trinity River tributary area. Nearly all parts of the area have deposits of burning clays except the region underlain by the Cenozoic deposits of the High Plains. The presence and general character of the clays are . determined by the geologic formation in which they are found. rEXAS Clays, or shales, suitable for making .brick and tile or similar low-grade prod­ucts are found over a wide area along the outcrops of the Pennsylvani;m and Per­mian formations in Texas. Extensive and thick beds of shale occur in the Strawn and Canyon groups of Pennsylvaniap age in Brown, Eastland, Erath, Palo Pinto, Parker, and Wise counti.es. In the Strawn group the principal shale beds are the Mingus shale, 250 to 300 feet thick; the East Mountain shale, up to 300 feet thick; and the Salesville shale, about 150 feet thick; The Brownwood shale in the Canyon group and its equivalent outcrop from Brown County to Wise County, increasing in thickness from 180 feet in the south to approximately ~00 __ feet . in the north. Equally extensive hut much thfoner beds of shale occur also in the Canyon strata overlying the Brownwood shale. In the Upper Pennsylvanian Cisco group, as well as in the Permian forma­tions outcropping over a wide area farther west, numerous l:leds of shale occur. Like those in the upper Canyon strata, they are thinner than those in the Strawn. They tend to. be "very erratic in both dis­tribution and lithologic character. They grade into "red beds" to the north and northeast. Above the Wichita group, the remaining Permian formations are pre­domimµ1tly of "red bed" facies and hence contain none but the lowest grades of burning clay materials. The CiscQ forma­tions contain several beds of coal, and it is probable that shales associated with the coals might be found to have ceramic uses. Burning clay deposits are ahundlll!t in the Woodbine, Eagle Ford, Austin, Taylor, and Navarro formations of Cretaceous age. Th~se formations crqp out through a wide h~lt which includes the most densely · populated area in Texas and also extends across the Trinity River basin. Although lower grade clays predominate, the de­posits probably ~re the most important in the State due to their. location within, or cl~se to, a highly industrialized area. The Woodbine outcrop extends across the Trinity drainage basin from northern. McLennan County through Hill, Johnson, Tarrant, Denton, and Grayson counties to the · Red River in extreme northwestern Fanni11 County. Other small outcrop .areas occur in the valley of the Red River in Lamar and Red River counties. Beds range in thickness from a few feet to over 500 feet. The brick plant of the Acme Brick Company at Denton, Denton County, Texas, uses clays of the Woodbine. The Eagle Ford shale outcrops across McLennan, Hill, Johnson, Ellis, Tarrant, Dallas, Denton, Collin, and Grayson counties, and continues adjacent to the valley of the Red River along the north­ern sides of Fannin and Lamar counties and into northwestern Red River County. The thickness ranges from a few feet to several hundred feet. The Bonham clay, a provincial facies of the Austin cl}alk, occurs in:Grayson, Fan· The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 100· AN [, 0 35• u - EXPLANATION • PotteriesCeramic plants - Qilcrops of strata containing burning cloy: Permian stra1a • Eocene strata Pennsylvanian strata iii Cretaceous strata Fig. 8. Dl.stribution of burning clays in the Trinity River tributary area. . T 'butary Area 95• 35• 30• 30' Scale 25,.. -1 cr-i9::E;;i===:::~~s~h==:=:i;;;;;;;;;;~I~ DRAWN BY .Miles ANN CONNOR nin, Lamar, and Red River counties and varies from a few feet up to about 400 feet in thickness. The Taylor strata outcrop from McLen· nan County t~ the Red River and occupy parts of McLennan, Limestone, Hill, . Na­varrQ, Ellis, Kaufman, Dallas, Rockwall, Collin, Hunt, Fannin, Delta, Lainar, Red River, and Bowie counties. The clay beds in the Taylor are interrupted along the outcrop by the development of interfinger· ing beds of chalk, marl, and sand. The total thickness of the formation is some· what over a thousand feet, and part of it is shale suitable· for brick making. The outcrop of the Navarro strata across the area is divisible into three formations, the medial Nacatoch sand separating clay or clay-marl beds in the lower and upper parts. The outcrop extends through parts of Limestone, Navarro, Henderson, Kauf. man, Hunt, Hopkins, Delta, Franklin, Red River, and Bowie counties. Its total thick· ness is comparable to that of the Taylor formation. · In the Eocene formations outcropping in the southeastern part of · the Trinity River tributary area, . the useful burning clays art) mostly associated with the lig· nite-bearing beds of the Wilcox group and Yegua formation. However, the Midway, Claiborne, and Jackson slrata also contain clays, at least of the lower grades. In the lignitic beds of th~ Wilcox and Y egua are found deposits of refractory or semi· refractory clays that can be used in the manufacture Qf pottery, stoneware, and fire brick. Outcrop belts of the Paleocene and Eocene strata are as follows: Midway: Limestone, Freestone, Navarro, Hen· derson, Kaufman, Van Zandt, Rains, Hunt, Hop­kins, Delta, Franklin, Titus, Red River, and Bowie counties. Wilcox: Robertson, Limestone, Leon, Free-· stone, Navarro, Anderson, Henderson, Van Zandt, Rains, Wood, Harrison, Marion, Panola, Rusk, · Nacogdoches, Hopkins, Franklin, Camp, Titus, Morris, Red River, Bowie, and Cass counties. Claiborne exclusive of Y egua: Robertson, Leon, Freestone, Anderson, Houston, Cherokee, Nacog· doches, Angelina, Henderson, Van Zandt, Smith, Wood, Hopkins, Franklin, Titus, Camp, Morris, Cass, Marion, Harrison, Upshur, Gregg, and Rusk counties. Yegua: Madison, Walker, Houston, Trinity, and Angelina counties. Jackson: Walker, Houston, Trin.ity, Polk, and Angelina counties. In addition to the burning clays found in the older formations, the more argilla­ceous terrace materials · along .major streams are often siiitable. for making · brick . or other low-grade wares. Deposits of this type represent the most likely sources of raw materials in that part of the area covered by red bed and continen­tal deposits of the High Plains. OKLAHOMA Burning clays are abundant throughout Oklahoma, almost every county contain­ing deposits w4ich are suitable at least for the manufacture of common brick. Clays which might be used for refractory purposes are found in Cherokee, Kay, and Woodward counties; and fire clays under­lie many of the coal beds in Oklahoma. Most of the clay deposits are associated with rocks o.f Pennsylvanian or Permian age. This is due in part to the extensive area underlain by Pennsylvani1U1 and Permian ,sediments; burning clay dep~sits in Oklahoma are also found in Ordovi­cian, Mississippian, Cretaceous, and Qua­ternary sediments. At the southeastern edge of Ada,. Pontotoc County, the Francis formation of Pennsylvanian age is quar· ried for brick clay, and a deposit in the Boggy formation of Pennsylvanian age produces pottery and molding clay east of Ada. · RESERVES No attempt. bas been made to estimate accurately the total reserves of various burning clays found in the Trinity River tributary area. If special high-grade clays, such as refractory clays, are exempted, it is evident that the resources of the ordi­ nary types of clay, that is, brick clays, are very large and practically inexhaustible. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION l'EXAS There are 20 to 30 concerns engaged in the production or processing of burning clays in the Texas part of the tributary area. Large brick industries are located in Ellis, Harrison, Henderson, and Palo Pinto counties. Pottery is made at Ath· ens, Dallas, Marshall,-·Mount Pleasant, and other towns. . The only larg~ region where t}}.ere are few · ceramic plants is the High Plains area, where raw materials suitable for this kind of industry are gen­erally scarce. LIST OF PRODUCERS IN THE TEXAS PORTION OF THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA, ACTIVE IN 1946 UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED BRICK AND TILE Name of Company Location of plant or pit Abilene Brick Company, Abilene, Texas-----------------------------Taylor County Acme Brick Company, Fort Worth, Texas________________________________ Oenton, Ellis, Parker, and Wise counties Athens Tile and Pottery Company, Athens, Texas_____________________JJenderson County Barron Brick Company, Palmer, Texas_________________________________Ellis County Bridgeport Brick Company, Bridgeport, Texas________________Wise County Ferris Brick Company, Ferris, Texas__________________________________ Oallas and Ellis counties Garrison Brick Company, Garrison, Texas ___________________________Nacogdoches County Henderson Clay Products, Henderson, Texas________________Rusk County W. H. Johnson, Shreveport, Louisiana____________________________Harrison County Malakoff Brick Company, Malakoff, Texas____________________________Henderson County Marshall Brick Company, Marshall, Texas________________________Harrison County Martin Brick Company, Coleman, Texas___ _ ______________________Coleman County Mineral Wells Clay Products Company, Mineral Wells, Texas_Parker County Palo Pinto Coal Company, Mineral Wells, Texas_______________Palo Pinto County Pan-Tex Clay Products Company, Amarillo, Texas (inactive) _Potter County Reliance Clay Products Company, Dallas, Texas_____________Palo Pinto and Smith counties Texas Brick Company, Brownwood, Texas________________________ Brown County Tri-State Brick & Tile Manufacturing Company, Waskom, Texas ---------------------------------------------------'----------Harrison County Waterman Brick & Tile Company, Waskom, Texas___________Harrison County Whitselle Brick & Lumber Company, Corsicana, Texas__ _______Navarro County FIRE BRICK Name of Company Loca tion of plant or pit Acme Brick Company, Atlanta, Texas____________________________________________Dtnton County General Refractories Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Troup works) ---------------------------------------------------------------------Cherokee County (pit), Smith County (kilns) Harbison-Walker Refractories Company, Pittsburgh, Penn­ sylvania; Athens, Texas ___________________________________________Henderson County Thermo Fire Brick Company, Sulphur Springs, Texas__ ______Cherokee and Hopkins counties POTTERY Name of Company Location of plant or pit Athens Tile & Pottery Company, Athens, Texas____________________J-Ienderson County Hogue Pottery, Mt. Pleasant, Texas_________________________ ___________ _______Titus County Lovefield Potteries, Dallas, Texas_______________ _ __________________________Hopkins County Marshall Pottery Company, Marshall, Texas _______________________________Harrison County BAYDITE Name of Company Location of plant or pit Texas Lightweight Aggregate Company, Eastland, Texas (in operation since 1946) -----------------------------------------------------------Eastland County PRODUCTION Raw clay burned into clay products at mine or pit Fire clay produced Texas Oklahoma Texas2 Year Short tons Short tons Short tons Value 194.3 442,710 103,554 Not reported 1944 213,804 71,955 24,4031 $82,4901 1Includes some stoneware clay from Harrison County. :?No data available for production of fire clay in Oklahoma. All data from United State~ Bureau of Mines. According to the Bureau, statistics prioi to 1943 are very incomplete. LIST OF PRODUCERS IN OKLAHOMA PORTION OF TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA The following list of 15 ceramic plants which were active in 1945 is taken from "Oklahoma Manufacturers" by Thuesen (23). Manufacturer Acme Brick Company______ ______________ Acme Brick Company_________________ Baker Company, Earl W._____________ Blackwell Brick Company___________ Davis Brick Company________________ Ellis Glazing Company________________ Frankoma Potteries Inc.______________ _ Mangum Brick & Tile Company Muskogee Materials Company_____ Sapulpa Brick & Tile Company____ Sheaffer Tile Company, G. V.____ _ United Brick & Tile Company____ United Brick & Tile Company____ Western Brick Company -------------Wewoka Bri~k & Tile Company__ Location of Plant Town County Oklahoma City Tulsa Bethany Blackwell Enid Henryetta Sapulpa Mangum Muskogee Sapulpa Oklahoma City Tulsa Collinsville Clinton Wewoka BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. ADKINS, W. S., Geology and mineral re· sources of McLennan County, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 23~, pp. 106--107, 1923 [1924]. 2. BAKER, C. L., Clays and clay products, in The geology of Texas, Vol. Il, Structural and economic geology: Univ. Texas Bull. 3401, pp. 277-291, 1934 [1935]. 3. BROMAN, I. J., Repon on ceramic products and industries as a part of a mineral resource survey in Limestone County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geo!., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 8, 5 pp., 1936. 4. BYBEE, H. P., and B_uLLARD, F. M., Geology of Cooke County, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 2710, p. 53, 1927 [1928]. 5. CUMMINS, W. F., Repon on the geology of northwestern Texas: Texas Geo!. Survey, 2d Ann. Rept. (1890), pp. 467--468, 1891. 6. Dallas Petroleum Geologists, Geology of Dallas County, Texas, pp. 96-97, 1941. 7. DuMBLE, E. T., The geology of east Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 1869, pp. 338-359, 1918 [1920]. 8. HENDERSON, G. G., The geology of Tom Green County: Univ. Texas Bull. 2807, p. 64, 1928. 9. KENNEDY, WILLIAM, Houston County: Texas Geo!. Survey, 3d Ann. Rept. (1891), pp. 38­39, 1892. 10. , and others, Reports on the iron ore district of east Texas, description of counties: Texas Geo!. Survey, 2d Ann. Rept. (1890), pp. 89--91, 108-113, 142-151, 180­182, 194--201, 219--220, 229--230, 231, 256­257, 269--270, 288, 1891. 11. KINc, P. B., Ceramic clays of Morris County, Texas, in Oay investigations in the southern states, 1934--1935: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 901, pp. 182-188, 1940. Oklahoma Tulsa Oklahoma Kay Garfield Okmulgee Creek Greer Muskogee Creek Oklahoma Tulsa Tulsa Custer Seminole Product Hollow building tile facing tile, common and face brick, acid brick, refractories Brick and tile Tile Brick, fa ce and common Brick Glazed products Pottery Brick and tile Concrete blocks, bricks Brick and tile Tile Brick and tile Brick and tile Brick and tile Brick and tile 12. PATTON, L. T., The geology of Potter County: Univ. Texas Bull. 2330, p. 109, 1923. 13. PENROSE, R. A. F., JR., A preliminary report on the geology of the Gulf Tertiary of Texas from Red River to the Rio Grande: Texas Geo!. Survey, 1st Ann. Rept. (1889), pp. 89­90, 1890. 14. PHILLIPS, W. B., The mineral resources of Texas: Univ; Texas Bull. 365 (Sci. Ser. Bull.. 29) , 362 pp., 1914 [1915]. 15. PLUMMER, F. B., and HoRNBERCER, Jos&PH, JR., Geology of Palo Pinto County, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 3534, pp. 204--208, 1935. 16. RIES, H., Clay, in Industrial minerals and rocks, pp. 207-242, Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1937. 17. SciiocH, E. P., and McKNicHT, DAVID, JR., Texas ceramic resources and their industrial importance: Univ. Texas, Bur. Business Res., Proc. First Texas Business Planning Confer­ence, pp. 36--41, 1932. · 18. SCHRADER, F. C., STONE, R. W., and SANFORD, SAMUEL, Useful minerals of the United States: U. S. Geo!. Survey Bull. 624, pp. 290, 363­365, 1917. 19. SELLARDS, E. H., and EVANS, G. L., Index to mineral resources of Texas by counties: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geo!., Min. Res. Circ. 29, 22 pp., 1944. 20. SHEERAR, L. F., The clays and shales of Okla. homa: Oklahoma Agr. Mech. College, Pub. 17, vol. 3, no. 5, 1932. 21. SHULER, E.W., The geology of Dallas County: Univ. Texas Bull. 1818, pp. 36-39, 1918. 22. SNIDER, L. C., Preliminary report on the clays and clay industries of Oklahoma: Okla· homa GeoL Survey, Bull. 7, 270 pp"., 1911. 23. THUESEN, H. G., Oklahoma manufacturers: Oklahoma Eng. Exp. Sta., Pub. 56, Sept., 1945. 24. WHITCOMB, BRUCE, Preliminary repon on the mineral resources of Freestone County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey; Circ. 21, 4 pp., 1939. 25. , Report on the mineral resources of Anderson County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. ·Survey Circ. 22, 5 pp., 1939. 26. WINTON, W. M., The geology of Denton County: Univ. Texas Bull. 2544, pp. 42--43, 1925. 27. , and ADKINS, W. S., The Ge.ology of Tarrant County: Univ. Texas Bull. 1931, pp. 92-95, 1919 [1920]. 28. , and ScoTT, GAYLE, The geology of Johnson County: Univ. Texas Bull. 2229, pp. 43-44, 1922. DRILLING CLAYS A. L. Jenke, United States Geological Survey Drilling clay, commonly called "drill· ing mud" in the petroleum industry, is any clay which when finely ground and mixed with water makes a suitable medium for removing rock cuttings from drill holes and for lubricating or cooling the drill stem and bit in rotary drilling. The Trin· ity River tributary area, as one of the great oil producing sections of the United States, uses large quantities of drilling clay in the preparation of drilling muds. Drilling clay must be a very fine-grained to colloidal clay or shale, free from grit and sand, and resistant to flocculation by minerals in solution. The most important properties of drilling mud are purely physical-including weight, viscosity, gel strength, and thixotropic characteristics. Thixotropy is· the ability of a fluid to set rapidly to a thick jelly-like mass when circulation is stopped and to become fluid agaiq when agitated. The last three physi­cal properties are dependent upon the par­ticle size of the clay· and especially on the relative proportion of particles of colloi­dal size. Besides the primary functions of drilling muds-removing rock cuttings and lubri­cating and cooling the drill stem and bit­additional functions of a good rotary mud are: (1) to seal the walls of a drill hole to prevent sloughing of the formation loss of mud into the formation, and dilu: tion of the mud by water from the forma· tions penetrated; and (2) to prevent high- pressure gas blowouts. To control high gas pressures and prevent gas blowouts during drilling, ground barite (BaS04 ) or celestite (SrS04) is added to the drilling mud to increase the weight of the mud column. The addition of colloidal hen· , tonitic clays assists in holding the heavy materials in suspension. Deposits of drilling clay are usually to be found at or very close to the surface and are mined by simple strip-pit methods using light weight mechanical shovels drag lines, or scrapers. Processing of th; raw material may involve air-drying in a shed and grinding to about 200 mesh or in the case of the more valuable dlay~ such as metabentonite, the material is dried in rotary kilns or gas-fired furnaces and then ground to the desired size in hammer mills. The clay is usually sold in 100­ pound bags. ­ As drilling clay is a bulky, low-cost commodity, its source must be as close to the point of consumption as possible. Drilling clay sells for $4.00 to $10.00 per ton. The higher priced Clays, used where drilling conditions are especially difficult, are sold under various trade names. Specialized dtilling clays find their great· est applications in the Gulf Coast oil fields, where gas pressures are high and drilling conditions are difficult. Specialized drill­ ing muds find some application in other oil field localities in the Trinity River tributary area but are not as widely used as these in the Gulf Coast fields because of generally more favorable drilling con­ ditions, and because in some instances the shale formations penetrated in drilling yield satisfactory mud materials without the addition of specialized drilling clays. The future demand for drilling clay from deposits in the Trinity River tributary area will depend in large measure on drilling activity in and adjacent to the area. OCCURRENCE No production of drilling clay is re­ported from the Trinity River basin, al­though any of the reported occurrences of bentonitic clay from the Eocene Jackson and Claiborne groups or the Oligocene Catahoula formation of the Gulf Coastal Plain may be acceptable as high-grade drilling clay. The locatio.n~ of reported The University of Texizs' Publication No; 4824 EXPLANATION from county, 1943 from county, inactive • Reported production Reported production x Reported ... occurrence in counly Fig. 9. Distribution of drilling clays in the Trinity River tributary area. Geological -Resources oj ·Trinity Ritrer Tributary Area S A :S ~ ! t;u:~:~ill~EfH~~o~'~':~~wl-··-··-· ·t··-1 ~-C~?~~ iFc'~,m ~---··-··-·· <> I PAWNEE \.r 4'; • ' \ l ' I Enid L, (_,.,S4.S I I , \ 7,... L l ~·_,,·1 ......, ·Tulsa L. '4 . ' """' tKINGFISHER'i:'OGANl _;pAYNE L:_~AT ~l; · fROl-·~-~LfCREEK i\....[v:AGONER~ I .i' \ ! ~ !O'd-u:GU!-~~ ~Muskcoeei [ltNCOLNi \ ..L---+---~ I . ',MUSKO'tEE u--~: 64" °CA~N J°KLA~AI t ·-·i_ Mi---~ L.\jSEOUOYAH {\ l/J ~/,vD;:-~OklohwntJ.Ci1y. .,iO~USKEE ! ... INTOSH! >-!!lvE : . .+.§R ,..{------1~. Shawnee!\ i.. .~ L " ~i~}.rtfT IGRADY '\CLEVE-l.~"e? I~ ~~ ......>1HA?K'EL j : ' z ' 1;;--,_~AND,i i~ ,.I /1>(~-:;'ssuRi}-. ~LEFLORE!' -------35. ~~~~ ! •c::/f r-LATIME~,., ' A ~~~---s--~.J·{ I Mc Ales!er I """c , , GARV IN !PONc);OTOC_t-----1 ' -· · . ' ~ ,-!:---~I :Ado .. 1---~ ~-1 l .._..... • STEPHENS , (:"' --t.o ~COAL j L..-,-PUSHMATAH~L .-.-:' .... ·i r-· rf1I: II URRAr~.-r i~CCURTAN I . '-· j JOHNSTON ATOKA ~A-IV · -·----1 CARTER [ I , I/\' : """" ! JEFFERSON I " µ i ~.L.---f w I 71 b Ar~e~~JSRYAN, ' CHOC TAW l , -~ED r-'LOVE --... i "' '1 A CLAY , ,.,-..,J ~ . <.j~ '-, .•"\.••.,,./" """c FollSl~NTAGUE\.,I ! I ··')1· '"V"t..... R\ ,....-··Y:,AMAR ··­ J · /~ Denison ·..r . , .• r..-f.'' ( l.,....r-' ' COOKE""~AYWN ,-FANNIN I 0 . IRED RIVER ' ~.. --A' ~" ! ;"'-..Sherman . ,,!arts, l \aow 1 E \c _ )--.. -.1*,. j_~\........ ~-::;:fo'ELTA' ·-...+--·c: -·;-, ~ . JACKT~tSE DENTON . COLLIN .HUNT · ~,-~ z ,TITUS:·-'"'­1 ' i ' ) 4HOPKINS ig ' 1 1~ 'cA"ss ~L. .L. l_ .~ ~J.-~-_J~~;~!L~:-c I PARKER , TARRAN'Tf, ALLAS w K, :;;"\'~s, wooD uPSH~R ~-1 ~ i ~! or!Wor!h Dollo~s~uF~ANZAN~}~."-.J-~~~~so't:.'--!I ~·.h-._._J__ _ \l( I TH GREGGI z --:\ HOOD . JOHNSON ELLIS '. -...,,SM\ '-'<. _...! · ~ \ I \ T le · -·""'"·...-· ' :i: \ ,-~ ~ :;;:·HENDERSON· <>Yr RUSK / PANOLAt ~ ~b\..r-HitL \ ~A_RR;·.y \ ~~~._] j \ l I.... w Y ( 1.j -·;CHEROKEE! j I;S:' 0"' · "-1 -'"'{ BOSOUE "':> ' Corsic~NiiE'R'JoN i ~--r·'Cl"·~, ~ '¢ , ..., \ ?: t. ·-·....ll , "r" -~ \ .z / '''' ·-. ."\ .......ef. \~ NACOG· · · \ ·' . \ ·~ • . -....:.., \REESTON '\ ~ • DOCHES\ ·. \ . , '°"", .-;:c LENNA~MESTONE·\\--._ ;il }_;fJ' \ _ .• \_ rfl \ ~, '\. \'1./l'.EON~;;JsTON \.. ) ...__., _ 1~ ~\. OCOA\ /, ALLS\ ~\ • '\, ~/ '{NGEt\NA \. ' , < z EXPLANATION c;;::> Alibotes dolomite Outcrop of Permion stroto containing dolomites or >£~ Bul\wogon ctolomite dolomitic limestones Merkel dolomite .-M•­ c..('-M-Mangum dolomite --r--A./1..-Acme dolomite ·G~Guthrie dolomite Outcrop of Arbuckle group­-c-""'-Childress dolomite Combrioo and Ordovician ~s-Sweetwater dolomite istri"bution of dolomite and magnesian limestone in the Tri~ity River tributary area: Fig. 10. D -35' Scale 2~'.t~s;;:::i;~o====:::i;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;s~b16o 9=====:...;;;;;;;;~ DRAWN SY .Miles ANN CONNOR of southern Oklahoma is of Cambrian and Ordovician age and has great thicknesses of high-grade undeveloped dolomite rock and magnesian limestone. The Central Mineral region of Texas also has thick and extensive dolomite deposits, but their outcrop is south of the Trinity River trib­utary area. A few dolomitic limestone beds are known from the Pennsylvanian rocks of Oklahoma and Texas. Wide­spread but thin beds of dolomite and mag­nesian limestone are present in the Per­mian rocks of the western part of the Trin­ity River tributary area in northern Texas and western Oklahoma; The Arbuckle group in the Wichita and Arbuckle Mountains is more than 7,000 feet thick, but it has been studied in detail in only a few places. The Arbuckle group has been subdivided into a number of formations. The lower part is Cambrian . in age and it has been divided into the Fort Sill, Royer, Signal Mountain, and Butterly formations. The upper part is Ordovician in age and has been subdivided into McKenzie Hill, Strange, Cool Creek, Kindblade, and West Spring Creek. Ten miles south of Davis in Murray County the lower 2,250 feet of the group is predom­inantly magnesian, and 1,500 feet of this thickness is close to pure dolcimite in composition. Southwest of Mill Creek, Johnston County, in the Arbuckle Mountains the Royer dolomite crops out over a wide area. Dolomite is also present north of Mill Creek. Analyses of samples from beds in the Royer range from 18. 7 to 21.5 percent MgO. The Butterly dolomite is present only in the Arbuckle Mountains. The Strange dolomite crops out a few miles northwest of Lawton, Comanche County, but is present only in the Wich­ita Mountains. It is a. high-grade dolomite with beds 80 feet thick. Analyses range · from 20.5 to 21.8 percent MgO and aver­age 21.0 percent. Dolomite also crops out 9 miles south of Gotebo, southeastern Kiowa County. Analyses of this material range from 18.3 to 20.7 percent · MgO. The Kindblade is also a dolomite, and the West Spring Creek formation contains some dolomite in the eastern Arbuckle Mountains. Pennsylvanian limestones in northeast­ .em Oklahoma are known to be in part · magnesian. The Wildhorse limestone in section 21, T. 22 N., R. IO E., contains 18.0 percent MgO, but the formation is only IO feet thick at that locality. Other formations in Oklahoma containing mag­nesian limestone are the Avant, Dewey, and Hogshooter. In Texas a few reef-like masses in rocks of the Canyon group of Pennsylvanian age may contain magnesian limestone. Dolomite and dolomitic limestone occur as thin beds in several Permian red bed formations which crop out in the western part of the area. (See fig. IO.) The dolo· mite beds in tl)e Permian strata are a part of a series of chemical precipitates formed in dessication basins. Tl.!ere is an appar· ent cyclic repetition of greenish shale, dolomite, and gypsum or anhydrite over· lain by red shale of presumably . conti­ nental origin. Underground, where pro· tected from erosion or from removal by solution, sodium chloride and other read­ ily soluble salts commonly overlie the gyp· sum as a continuation of the dessication cycle. The dolomite beds are at the base of the main gypsum beds on the outcrop and are transitional with them. The con­ tact zone is fairly sharp but marked by interfingering of tl)e two materials. In the Texas part of the tributary area a dolomitic limestone, the Merkel, occurs near the top of the Permian Clear Fork group and extends through Runnels, Tay­ lor, Jones, Stonewall, Knox, and Foard counties, Texas. Ordinarily it consists of dolomitic limestone from I to 2 feet thick or two separate strata about 2 feet thick separated by a shale break. Dolomites appear at the base of several gypsum beds in the Blaine and Dog Creek formations across Coke, Nolan, Fisher, Stonewall, King, Knox, Foard, Cottle, Childress, and Hardeman counties, Texas. ' Of these dolomite beds, the Acme dolomite is I to 10 feet thick, and the Guthrie is 2 to IO ·feet, the Mangum is about 3 feet, the Childress is. not more than 2 feet thick, and the Sweetwater dolomite is from I to 3 feet thick. Solution of the gypsum has made the dolomite beds slump and break into great piles which could be quarried with ease. Stratigraphically one of the highest beds of dolomite is the Alihates. This rock is found along the Canadian River in Potter and Moore counties, Texas (10) .8 It is a massive, white, crystalline dolomite, cherty in places, usually separated by shale into two beds, of whicl). one is about 9 ·feet thick and the other about 2 feet. Thick­nesses up to 11. 7 feet are reported. This dolomite contains acid-insoluble residues of 1.16 to 2.16 percent and R20 3 of 0.36 to 0.84 percent; the calculated dolomite content is from 91.3 to 96.3 ·percent and that of calcite is from 0.98 to 6.00 percent. In southwestern Oklahoma three thin dolomite beds have been recognized in the Blaine · formation of Permian age. The Mangum dolomite is located near the top of the Blaine formation. It contains more · than 5 percent silica and may be highly calcitic in some locations. Thirty feet below the Mangum is the Creta dolomite which is 1 to 2 feet thick and is very pure. In the northern part of the south­western Blaine outcrops, the Jester dolo­mite occupies almost the same stratigraphic position as the Creta in the southern part of the area. North of the Canadian River four dolomites have been recognized in the Blaine formation. These dolomite beds are 1 to 2 feetthick. The Woodward group which is divided into the Dog Creek, Whitehorse, Day Creek, and Cloud Chief members overlies the Blaine formation. The most promi­nent dolomite bed in the Woodward group is the Day Creek dolomite which ranges up to 5 feet and averages 2 feet in thick· ness. The Greenfield dolomite occurs near the base of the Whitehorse sandstone. Analyses show an MgO content of 22.08 and . 25.28 percent. In the Weatherford area two dolomites are recognized in the Permian rocks. The lower bed is the Greenfield dolomite 60 feet below the top of the Whitehorse, and the upper bed is at the base of the Quar­termaster formation. The bed ai the base of the Quartermaster is 6 to 15 feet thick and is probably equivalent to the Day Creek dolomite. In the Weatherford area •Literature reference. are given in the bibliocraphy, p. 99. the Greenfield dolomite may contain more magnesia than theoretically pure dolomite. RESERVES Reserves of high-grade dolomite . in the Arbuckle group in the Arbuckle and Wichita Mountains of southern Oklahoma are very great. Although studied in detail in only a few places, it is probable that over one-fifth of the 7,000-foot Arbuckle group is composed of high-grade dolomite. Quarry sites are plentiful, but transporta­tion facilities are available at only a few places. The various thin dolomite beds in the Permian rocks of the Trinity River trib­utary area can be traced in outcrop over great distances. The Bureau of Economic Geology of The University of Texas has estimated reserves of 30,000,000 tons of dolomite and dolomitic limestone from Permia·n rocks within the Texas portion of · the Trinity River tributary area. At least an equal quantity of material is available in western Oklahoma. However, it seems at present improbable that the Permian dolomite beds will be utilized in the near future except possibly for local use as crushed stone or building stone because of the great reserves of high-grade rock avail­ . able in the Arbuckle and Wichita Moun­tains within the tributary area, in the Llano-Burnet region south of the tributary area, and elsewhere in the United States. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION Dolomite production in Oklahoma is scheduled befort: tl]e end of 1947, to put Oklahoma dolomite on the market for in­dustrial uses for the first time, from a large quarry west of Troy, Johnston County, according to The Hopper, volume 8, no. 3, Oklahoma Geological Survey, March 1948. A crushing and screening plant is under construction at Troy and a narrow gauge spur line is to connect it with the quarry site west of town, The dolomite to be quarried is the Royer dolo­mite of the Arbuckle group. The produc­mg company is the Rock Products l\fanu­facturing Corporation of Ada, Oklahoma. ANALYSES Acid CaC03 MgC03 Dolomite Calcite County (bed) Sample insoluble R,03 CaO MgO (calculated) Total (calculated) TEXAS Moore County (Alibates) ___________ _ (Alibates) ____________ (80) (81) 1.46 2.14 0.36 0.84 30.60 31.10 20.84 19.82 54.61 55.50 43.60 41.44 100.03 99.92 96.20 91.30 2.50 6.00 Nolan County (Claytonville) _..... (109) 1.44 0.64 34.56 17.12 61.67 35.90 99.55 Potter County (Alibates) ___________. (Alibates) ---·-------­(Alibates) ____________ ( Alibates) ----------· IA!ibates) ___________ (Alibates) ________ ___ (76) (77) (78) (79) (82) (83) l.80 1.52 1.74 2.16 2.16 1.16 0.64 0.40 0.76 0.74 0.46 0.48 30.40 30.80 30.10 29.80 29.90 31.00 20.90 20.64 20.90 20.90 20.80 20.72 54.25 54.97 53.72 53.18 53.36 55.32 43.70 43.16 43.70 43.70 43.52 43.34 100.39 100.05 99.92 99.78 99.50 100.30 96.30 95.10 96.30 96.30 95.80 95.50 2.05 3.40 1.52 0.98 1.43 3.58 Insoluble Sample residue Al203 Fe203 Mn02 P20s CaO MgO co, Total CaC03 MgCOa OKLAHOMA Blaine County (Blaine) _______ ____ ________ __ 2246 (Blaine) _________ ____________ 2247 4.00 3.40 2.49 1.43 0.57 0.43 tr. tr. tr. tr. 29.16 30.04 19.30 19.86 43.74 45.24 9CJ.26 100.40 52.04 53.61 40.36 41.53 Cherokee County (Tyner) __ ___________________ 2752 1.72 0.26 1.07 0.08 tr. 45.92 7.38 44.35 100.78 81.95 15.43 Comanche County (Strange) ___________________6129 (Strange) ___ ________________ 6418 1.48 0.70 0.65 0.35 0.29 0.43 0.04 0.04 tr. tr. 30.18 31.20 20.46 20.64 46.73 46,29 99.83 99.69 53.86 55.68 42.79 43.16 Jackson County (Mangum) ­--------------··5556 5.00 1.00 0.71 0.03 tr. 43.85 7:10 42.15 99.84 78.25 14.85 J ackson County (Creta) ___________ __ __________ 5558 3.70 0.91 0.86 0.02 tr. 31.87 18.30 44.98 99.64 56.88 38.27 Johnston County (Royer) ______________________ 2182 {Royer) __ __ __________________2183 1.02 l.Q6 1.12 0.79 0.36 0.29 0 0 0 0 29.16 31.4.9 21.36 20.00 46.20 46.59 99.22 100.17 52.04 56.20 44.67 41.83 Kiowa County (Kindblade) ______________ .6147 (Kindblade) _______ __ ··-· 7780 0.72 1.68 0.4.0 0.64 0.14 0.37 tr. 0.01 0 0 30.95 31.68 20.70 20.08 47.70 46.10 100.61 100.56. 55.20 56.51 43.20 42.00 Murray County (Butterly) ------­----------­7782 {Butterly) __________ __ _____ _7783 9.02 1.24 0.42 0.41 0.73 0.29 0.02 0.03 0 0 29.72 30.84 17.94 20.62 42.28 46.66 100.13 100.09 53.00 55.05 37.60 43.15 Osage County (Wildhorse) ___ ___________6107 2.68 1.12 1.93 0.44 tr. 31.00 18.00 44.85 100.02 55.40 37.50 Analyses from Moore and Potter counties, Texas, from (10). Analysis 109 from Nolan County from files of Bureau of Economic Geology, R. M. Wheeler, analyst, dated January 17, 1944. Oklahoma analyses from (1). Loss on ignitionCounty Total Fe H20 at (105°­ (formation) SiOz AhOa as Fe20a CaO MgO K 20 503 P205 105° C 950° C) Johnston ----------------------0.41 0.177 0.157 30.71 21.18 0.051 0.029 0.031 0.004 0.11 47.26 (Royer dolomite from Troy area, average of 9 CaCOs =54.81 MgCOa = 44.29 calculated analyses) Data from The Hopper, vol. 8, no. 3, p. 22, Oklahoma Geol. Survey, March 1948. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. BEACH, J. 0., and ENGLISH, S. G., Dolomite and magnesium limestone: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Min. Rept. 6, 17 pp., 1940. 2. BOWLES, OLIVER, and JENSEN, M. S., Lihie­stone and dolomite in the chemical and processing industries: U. S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 7169, pp. 1-15, 1941. 3. COLBY, S. F., Occurrences and uses of dolo­mite in the United States: U. S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 7192, pp. 1-21, 1941. 4. DECKER, C. E., Progress report on the classi­fication of the Timbered Hills and Arbuckle groups of rocks; Arbuckle and Wichita Mountains, Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Sur­vey, Circ. 22, 62 pp., 1939. 5. HATMAKER, PAUL, Utilization of dolomite and high-magnesium limestone: U. S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 6524, 18 pp., 1931. 6. LLOYD, A. M., and THOMPSON, W. C., Cor­relation of Permian outcrops on eastern side of the west Texas basin: Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol., vol. 13, pp. 945-956, 1929. 7. , PATION, L. T., The geology of Potter County: Univ. Texas Bull. 2330, pp. 10-11, 20, 39-46, 1923. 8. ScHALLIS, A., Dolomite base refractories: U. S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 7227, pp. 1-11, 1942. 9. SuFFEL, G. G., Dolomites of western Okla· homa: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Bull. 49, 155 pp., 1930. 10. WARREN, L. E., Notes on dolomite in Potter and Moore counties, Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, PP.· 259-264, 1943 [1946]. 11. WEITZ, J. H., High-grade dolomite deposits in the United States: U. S. Bur. Mines Inf. Cite. 7226, pp. 2-3, 64-65, 68-69, 71-72, 1942. GYPSUM AND ANHYDRITE D. M. Kinney, United States Geological Survey (Figure 11) Gypsum (CaS04.2H20) and anhydrite (CaS04 ) are widely distributed in the Permian rocks of western Oklahoma and north-central Texas. Rock gypsum crops out along the main drainages as white ledges, frequently tinted by included im­ purities or surface stained by the enclos­ ing red shales. Gypsum gives way to anhydrite down the dip of the beds; anhy­ drite only rarely crops out at the surface. The Trinity River tributary area produces almost 15 percent of the total United States tonnage output of crude · gypsum. Gypsum is very soft (Mohs scale, 2, easily scratched by the finger nail) and light in weight (specific gravity, 2,3) ; anhydrite is harder (hardness, 3 to 3.5) and heavier (specific gravity, 2.9). When crystalline and relatively free from inclu­sions, gypsum i~ colorless and transparent . and is called selenite; gypsum when mixed with clay and sand is known as gypsite. Material containing 90 percent CaS04.2H20 is satisfactory for most commercial uses, and much gypsum rock used in industry is below that percentage. When calcined between 300° and 350° F., gypsum loses its water of crystallization and a product, 2(CaS04).H20, is formed; this product upon the addition of water sets to a smooth compact material known as plaster. Approximately three-quarters of the total United States output of gypsum is calcined and used in the building trades as the base for plaster, Keene's cement, and prefabricated lath, wall · hoard, sheathing hoard, and tile. The remaining one-quarter of the United States produc­ tion is used principally as retarder in Portland cement; only a small quantity is used as agricultural gypsum. Anhydrite in small percentages can be substituted for gypsum as retarder in Portland cement; it can also be used as agricultural soil conditioner and as natural mineral filler but cannot he used for plaster. Gypsum is quarried in open pits and is then calcined in kettles following crush­ ing and grinding or in rotary kilns follow­ ing crushing to uniform size. The prod­ uet of the rotary kiln while still li,ot, is frequently ground to size to achieve a more uniform product. Besides adequate reserves of ·crude gypsum rock, th.e requirements for the establishment of a gypsum-product plant are cheap fuel for calcining and cheap transportation to population centers where the finished product can be marketed. Building materials can stand only limited transportation charges as they must cqm­pete with material from other producing localities; because of this gypsum plan.ts ·are generally located along established railroad lines. At the present time the principal markets for gypsum produced within the Trinity River tributary area are the large cities within the area. Calcined gypsum and gypsum products manufac­tured in Colorado, Kansas, and Arkansas limit the market of Trinity tributary area plants in a northerly and, to a lesseJ extent, in an easterly direction. Canadian gypsum is shipped to the Atlantic sea­ board and the Antillean islands. Under war-time construction restric­ tions, the demand for gypsum products lagged except for prefabricated building material which made remarkable gains. With the removal of building restrictions the demand for all calcined gypsum prod­ ucts should increase greatly. In addition, the use of gypsum as a retarder in cement and as soil conditioner in agriculture should create a strong demand for the un­ calcined product. OCCURRENCE OCCURRENCES IN THE PERMIAN ROCKS Within the Trinity River tributary area the commercially important gypsum de­posits are confined to sediments of Per­mian age. The Permian gypsum-hearing beds crop out from Woods County, Okla­homa, on th.e Kansas border southward to the valley of the Colorado River in Coke County, Texas, a distance of about 400 miles. The gypsum-bearing beds continue northward into Kansas; south of the Colo­rado River the Permian rocks are covered by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. No Permian rocks crop out within the Trinity River drainage basin, and gypsum deposits associated with these rocks are conse­quently outside the drainage basin. The gypsum beds thicken, thin, and in m~ny places lens out entirely along the line of outcr~p. However, a single bed or · series of beds at a given locality is remarkably consistent both in grade and th~ckness. 'Fhe gypsum-bearing shales com­monly form escarpments or low hills. A notable example of this topographic ex­pression of the gypsum beds is the Gypsum Hills along the southwestern side of the Cimarron River valley in Oklahoma. Regionally, the gypsum-bearing beds dip very gently to the west. Eastward and westward-flowing streams cutting through the flat-lying beds have given the line of outcrop . a highly serrated appearanc'e. T}Je gypsum and anhydrite occur in the Blaine and Cloud Chief formations in Oklahoma and the Double Mountain for­ mation in Texas. Individual beds may be locally as thick as 60 feet, and beds 20 feet thick over large areas are common. OTHER OCCURRENCES Anhydrite and some gypsum have been found in wells in the Trinity and Fred­ericksburg groups of the Cretaceous. The Ferry Lake anhydrite of the Trinity group is found in wells from Panola and Bowie counties westward in the east Texas por- Producers tion of the area. Anhydrite also occurs at depth in the cap rock of salt domes at a number of localities within the Trinity River basin and adjoining areas. None of these deposits are of commercial impor­tance at the present time. The distribu­tion of the gypsum-bearing Permian and Cretaceous rocks and the location of the gypsum products plants in the Trinity River tributary area are shown on the accompanying map (fig. 11) . RESERVES It has been estimated that in Oklahoma alone, reserves of 125 billion tons of gyp· sum are .available within 100 feet of the surface. In the entire Trinity River trib­utary area, the reserves of gypsum should be considered unlimited. Reserves of an­hydrite are many times those of gypsum, but they are under considerably greater cover. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION Operating companies within the Trin­ ity River tributary area, plant locations, and plant capacities are listed below. The Universal Atlas Cement Company mines gypsum for use as a retarder in Portland cement and does not calcine its output. The National Gypsum Company is reported to be doubling the capacity of · its calcining plant. The Concho Sand and Gravel Company produced crude gypsum in 1942 but closed down for the duration of the war. of Gypsum Name of Company Location of Plant OKLAHOMA Concho Sand and Gravel Company ..............._Q'Keene, Blaine County. Closed in 1942 for dura­tion of war. U. S. Gypsum Company .. ·------·--------..5outhard, Blaine County. 4 kettles. Universal Atlas Cement Company ___ ______Watonga, Blaine County. TEXAS Certain-teed Products Company, Chicago, ru...Acme, Hardeman County. 9 kettles. National Gypsum Company, Buffalo, N. Y.__Rotan, Fisher County. 4 kettles. The Celotex Corporation, Dallas, Texas. __Hamlin, Fisher County. 8 kettles. (formerly Texas Cement Plaster Company) U. S. Gypsum Company, Chicago, Illinois __$weetwater, Nolan County. 6 kettles. The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 100· K AN 0 35• - z EXPLANATION • Gypsum products plant X Counties where Cretaceous gypsum or anhydrite hove been reported in drill holes • Permian gypsum-beorinQ roclrma­tion, both of which are of Lower Creta­ceous age.-A kaolinitie clay from the Sims­boro sand member, Rockdale formation, Wilcox group 0£ lower Eocene age, is mined by the Trinity Portland Cement Company 5 miles north of Teague in Free­stone County and is shipped to Houston where it is mixed with oyster shells and manufactured into white cement. Elsewhere in the tributary area, hut out­ side t4e Trinity River drainage basin, the contact of the Austin chalk on the Eagle Ford shale can he traced northeastward through Grays~n and Fannin counties and southwestward through Hill and McLen­ nan counties, Texas. In McLennan County Austin chalk and Eagle Ford _ shale are quarried from these beds a few miles south­ west of Waco for use in the Universal Atlas Cement Company plant there. Kao­ lin and kaolinitic clay in the Simsboro sand member 0£ ftie Rockdale formation also are found in Limestone and Robert­ son counties, Texas. Oyster shells, dredged from the coastal hays in Texas, are used as a source of lime by cement plants in the Houston area. Galveston Bay is well sup­ plied with extensive deposits of oyster shell. · OKLAHOMA Oklahoma is well supplied with lime­ stone and shale suitable for Portland cement manufacture. Six main limestone areas are recognized: ( 1) northeastern, (2) north-central, (3) southern, (4) Wa­ panucka, ( 5) Arbuckle Mountain, and ( 6) Wichita Mountain. The northeastern area includes Chero­ kee County and the eastern part of Mayes County. Limestone suitable for Portland cement manufacture in this area is the Upper Ordovician Fernvale limestone of the Richmond group, the St. Clair lime­stone 0£ Silurian age, the Boone and Pit­kin limesto.nes of Mississippian age, and the Morrow formation of Pennsylvanian age. For the most part, the Bcione is too cherty for use as Portland cement mate· rial, hut the basal member of the Boone, the St. Joe limestone, and the Shor~ Creek • oolite member in · the upper part of the Boone are high-calcium limestones. · The eastern half of Kay County, the western part of Osage County, and almost all of Pawnee County comprise the north­central area. Rocks suitable for Portland cement are from the Wreford, Florence, Fort Riley, and Winfield formations in the . Chase group of Permian age, and the Her­ington limestone of the Sumner group, also Permian in age. In Pawnee and Osage counties suitable limestone beds are found throughout Carboniferous and Permian strata. In Pawnee County the Stonebreaker limestone member of the Buck Creek for­mation, the Brownsville limestone of the W aha unsee group, and the Red Eagle (?) limestone member of the Elmdale forma­tion, all of Pennsylvanian age, are high­calcium limestones. The southern area includes an east-west band of Cretaceous rocks cropping out south of the Arbuckle and Ouachita Moun· tains. The most important Portland cement rock in this area is the Goodland lime, stone of the Fredericksburg group which is Lower Cretaceous in age. Its outcrop extends from Love County through Mar­shall, Johnston, Atoka, Bryan, Choctaw, and McCurtain counties. The Goodland limestone is overlain by the Kiamichi formation whicl} contains shale suitable for Portland cement manufacture. The Wapanucka area in Atoka, Coal, Johnston, Pittsburg, Pontotoc, and Latimer counties includes outcrops of the Penn-. sylvanian Wapanucka limestone which is an important source of lime and crushed rock, particularly near Bromide in John­ston County. An underlying shale is suit­able for cement manufacture. The Arbuckle Mountains occupy all or part of Carter, Johnston, Murray; and Pon­totoc counties and contain great thick­nesses of limestone suitable for the manu­facture of Portland cement. These rocks include the Arbuckle limestone of Cam­ . brian and Ordovician age; the Simpson group and Viola limestone, both Ordovi­cian in age; the Hunton limestone which is Silurian and Devonian in age; and the Mississippian Sycamore limestone. The Simpson group contains shale beds well adapted for use · as raw material in Port­land cement manufacture. The Ordovician Sylvan shale crops out in Pontotoc County and is used, together with the Viola lime· stone, in, the manufacture of Portland cement in the plant of the Oklahoma Port· land Cement Company at Ada. In the Wichita Mountain region of Caddo, Comanche, and Kiowa counties, limestone suitable for Portland cement manufacture is present in the Arbuckle and the Viola limestones. The latter is confined to a few isolated hills. The Boone and Pitkin limestones in Muskogee and Sequoyah counties, the St. Clair limestone in Sequoyah County, the . Fort Scott limestone in Rogers County, and the Oolagah li~estone in Tulsa and Rogers counties, are suital>le for Portland cement manufacture and are adjacent to clay or shale deposits.· ANALYSES Portland cement materials from the Trinity River tributary area H10 County at (bed or 100° Ignition ma.terial) Sample Si02 AJ,Oa Fe20a MnO CaO MgO SOa Na.O K,O C. lo.. Total TEXAS Dallas____ .. --­ Se376 6.54 3.22 2.12 0.04 46.72 0.61 0.55 0.38 0.59 0.49 38.64 99.90 (Austin chalk) Dallas______ ___ Se377 9.08 4.59 2.23 0.11 44.44 0.62 om 0.74 0.72 0.38 36.80 99.78 (Austin chalk)Dallas_________ Dl 3.64 2.42 n.d. 50.92 0.46 0.67* -n.d.­ 42.10 (AuRtin chalk)Dallas ________ D2 12.78 8.22 n.d. 40.22 0.91 0.68* -n.d.­ 36.26 (Austin chalk) Dallas________ D3 3.74 2.74 n.d. 51.11 0.58 0.10* -n.d.­ 44.70 (Austin chalk) Dallas_________ D4 12.70 8.54 n.d. 41.33 0.62 0.10* -n.d.­ 36.02 (Austin chalk) Dallas_________ Se378 45.07 15.78 4.92 0.02 7.98 1.18 9.71 0.08 1.70 6.51 6.89 99.84 (Eagle Ford shale)Dallas________ Se379 56.71 19.74 5.74 0.02 1.28 1.91 0.25 0.36 1.67 4.00 8.62 100.30 (Eagle Ford shale)Dallas________ D5 64.71 20.80 4.1 5 n.d. 1.00 0.31 0.72* -n.d.­ 6.67 (Eagle Ford shale) H20 County (bed or material) Sample SiO:J. Al,Oa F e203 MnO Cao MgO so. Na20 K, O at 100° c. Ignition loss Total Dallas......... D6 57.74 21.49 7.05 n.d. 1.66 2.47 1.27* -n.d.­ 8.11 (Eagle Ford shale) Dallas......... D7 60.09 22.20 n.d. 2.80 n.d. 0.31 * -n.d.­ 12.35 (Eagle Ford shale) Dallas......... Ct711a 21.82 11.27 2.59 0.06 62.36 0.50 0.03 0.16 0.49 0.02 0.90 100.20 (Portland cement clinker) Dallas......... Ct71lb 21.35 9.90 1.91 0.10 62.78 0.72 1.70 0.08 0.41 0.10 1.20 100.25 (fresh Portland cement) *Sulfur (S). Samples Se376 and Se377 represent 25 and 15 to 20 feet of thickness sampled; sample Se378 repre1ents 8 to 10 feet of the top beds; sample Se379 represents 23 feet of thickness sampl<'011it POTTAWATOMIE COUNTY Midwest Materials and Construction Company TULSA COUNTY Arkansas River Sand Company Bagby Harris Sand Company Chandler Materials Company Layman and Company McMichael Concrete Company Smith Sand Company Standard Paving Company Tulsa Sand Company WOODS COUNTY Waynoka Sand and Gravel Company PRODUCTION OF ALL TYPES OF SAND AND GRAVEL IN THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA TEXAS Year Commercial Produc tion Value in Short tons dollars No. of Producers Non-.Commercial Production* Value in Short tons dol lars Total Production Value in Short tons dollars 1935__________ 1936__ _ _____ 1937__________ 1938__________ 1939____ ____ __ 1940__________ 1941_____ _____ 1942_________ 1943__________ 1944__ ___ ____ 2,042,469 2,44-0,581 2,535,040 2,017,295 2,415,261 2,266,603 4,142,081 6,128,736 3,875,447 3,486,013 1,584,231 2,135,656 1,958,150 1,542,816 1,581,744 1,541,474 2,876,583 4,884,270 3,204,435 2,862,070 26 25 301 34 37 32 341 581,504 982,064 778,711 1,161,737 975,696 894,054 1,210,562 1,181,604 777,465 415,046 86,149 198,858 119,671 361,709 212,017 200,874 181,234 164,339 95,081 92,231 2,623,973 3,422,645 3,313,751 3,179,032 3,390,957 3,160,657 5,352,643 7,310,340 4,652,912 3,901,056 1,670,380 2,334,514 2,077,821 1,904,525 1,793,761 1,742,348 3,057,817 5,048,609 3,299,517 2,954,301 OKLAHOMA 1935_____ ____ 1936__________ 1937_____ ___ 1938_________ 1939__________ 1940__________ 194L_______ 1942________ 1943_________ 1944___ ______ 442,477 723,357 633,757 433,697 550,491 490,817 817,030 1,689,234 1,332,613 735,156 287,447 426,832 651,397 244,245 975,696 250,384 557,200 1,202,940 1,006,704 334,165 191 21 131 18 16 16 734,385 596,805 283,102 376,859 975,696 538,453 646,070 1,419,461 808,346 520,946 47,826 96,238 46,737 105,967 212,017 22,610 46,475 743,648 185,113 75,932 1,176,865 1,320,162 916,859 810,556 1,526,187 1,029,270 1,463,100 3,108,695 2,140,959 1,256,102 335,273 523,070 394,395 350,212 516,466 272,994 603,675 1,946,588 1,191,817 610,097 *Municipal, county, and state organizations. 1May be more producers than shown. All data from United States Bureau of Mines. BIBLIOGRAPHY I.· ADKINS, W. S., Geology and mineral re­sources of McLennan County: Univ. Texas Bull. 2340, pp. 114-115, 1923 [19241. 2. BALDWIN, B. F., Report on mineral resources . of Collingsworth County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey Circ 29, pp. 1-2, 1941. 3. BEEDE, J. W., and BENTLEY, W. P., The geol­ogy of Coke County; Univ. Texas Bull. 1850, pp. 60-61, 64-65, 1918 [1921]. 4. , and WAITE, V. V., The geology of Runnels County: · Univ. Texas Bull. 1816, pp. 53, 55, 1918. 5. BROMAN, I. J., Report on road metals inves­tigation as a part of a mineral resource sur­vey in Limestone County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 7, pp. 3-4, 1936. 6. BUUARD, F. M., The geology of Grayson County, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 3125, 72 pp., 1931. 7. CRISWELL, D. R., Geologic studies in Young County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 49, pp. 4-5, 1942. 8. DuMBLE, E. T., The geology of east Texas: Univ. Texas.Bull. 1869, pp. 246-260, 377-378, 1918 [1920]. 9. EVANS, G. L., Report on stream terraces with special reference to sand and gravel deposits as a part of a mineral resource survey in Clay County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 13, pp. 1-7, 1936. 10. , Report on the gravel resources of Henderson County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 24, pp. 1-2, 1939. 11. , Report on the mineral resources of Baylor County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 31, pp. I, 12-14, 1941. 12. EVANS, 0. F., Preliminary report on road materials of western Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Circ. 17, pp. 1-19, 1928. 13. GouLD, C. N., Sandstone, in Preliminary re­port on the structural materials of Okla­homa: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Bull. 5, pp. 60-65, 1911. 14. HARRINGTON, HORACE, Report on the mineral resources of Houston County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 25, 2 pp., 1939. 15. HENDERSON, G. G., The geology of Tom Green County: Univ. Texas Bull. 2807, pp. 64-66, 1928. 16. HYDE, W. W., Mining, treatment methods, and costs at the East Texas Gravel Co.'s deposits near Bois D'Arc, Tex.: U. S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 6537, pp. 1-7, 1931. 17. LYLE, W. M., Report on the mineral resources of Wichita County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Survey Circ. 28, 55 pp., 1941. 18. NASH, J. P., Road-building materials in Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 1839, 1918. 19. PATrON, LT., The geology of Potter County: Univ. Texas Bull. 2330, pp. 109-110, 1923. 20. , The geology of Stonewall County, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 3027, p. 74, 1930. 21. POPPLEWELL, T. E., Mining methods and costs at the Hart spur pit of the Fort Worth Sand & Gravel Co. (Inc.), Fort Worth, Tex.: U. S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 6652, pp. 1-12, 1932. 22. REED, L. C., and LONGNECKER, 0. M., Jn., The geology of Hemphill County, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 3231, pp. 95-96, 1932 [1933). 23. ScoTr, GAYLE, and ARMSTRONG, J. M., The geology of Wise County, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 3224, pp. 67--08, 1932. 24. SHAW, EDMUND, The eand and gravel re­sources of the Trinity River district, Texas: Rock Products, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 66-71, 1928. 25. SHULER, E. W., The geology of Dallas County: Univ. Texas Bull. 1818, pp. 30-34, 1918. 26. SWANSON, H. E., Beneficiating glass eand: Rock Products, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 58--01, 84, 1945. 27. WINTON, W. M., The geology of Denton County: Univ. Texas Bull. · 2544, pp. 39-40, 4.4, 1925. 28. , and ADKINS, W. S., The geology of Tarrant County: Univ. Texas Bull. 1931, pp. 91-92, 1919 [1920). 29. , and Scorr, GAYLE, The geology of Johnson County: Univ. Texas Bull. 2229, pp. 33, 37-38, 1922. 30. ANONYMOUS, An extraordinary Texas sand and gravel pit: Rock Products, vol. 32, no. 6, 79 pp., 1929. 31. ANONYMOUS, Texas sand and gravel produc­tion standardized: Rock Products, vol. 34, no. 24, 17 pp., 1931. GLASS SAND AND OTHER SPEClAL SANDS D. M. Kinney, United States Goological Survey (Figure 17) Sands composed almost or quite entirely of quartz (Si02), and therefore called silica sands, are used mainly in the manu­ facture of glass and for filtering, abrasives, engine sand, molding sand, and placing sand. Silica in the form of quartz sand is the major ingredient in the manufacture of glass. Sand for the highest quality optical glass must contain at least 99.8 percent Si02 and not more than 0.15 percent Fe20 3 • Common bottle glass sand may contain as little as 95 percent Si02 but must contain less than 1 percent Fe20 3• Iron is very undesirable in glass sand as it affects the color. The maximum allowable alumina content of common glass sand is 4.0 per­cent. The presence Qf lime ( CaO) and magnesia (MgO) in small quantities is not highly objectionable, alt4ough magnesia raises the melting point of the mixture. Glass sand must pass a 20-mesh screen but only 2 to 3 percent may be finer than 80 mesh. The requirements for the other special uses. of sand are for the most part physi­cal. Filter sand must be of fairly uniform texture, and th{l grain size must be within certain limits. Abrasive sand, besides being dominantly of silica, is sold graded according to size. (See discussion of abra­sive sand in chapter on Natural Abra­sives.) The only requirements for engine sand is that it must have a minimum of small particles. Silica sand for lining fur. naces and metal molds must have a range of particle sizes and sufficient clay or added plastic fire clay to give the sand bonding properties. Placing sand is used in packing the saggers and between the shapes to keep the ware apart during the firing of refractories, whiteware, tile, and brick. High purity silica sand is required for placing sand for whiteware and refractories. Glass sand in the Trinity River tribu­tary area is mined in open pits using jets of water under pressure. The material is pumped to the plant where it is washed to remove the clay and much of the iron oxide. The sand is sold as moist sand, ·or as dry sand after having been dried in a rotary kiln. Glass sand produced in the Trinity River tributary area is used in the manu­facture of most of the glass produced in the southwestern United States. Because of the abundance of cheap fuel, particu­larly natural gas, much of the glass is manufactured in the vicinity of the glass sand deposits. Glass sand is also produced from the St. Peter sandstone in northern Arkansas and eastern Missouri; these com­peting sources severely limit the northern and eastern shipments of glass sands pro­duced in the Trinity River tributary area. In some instances glass sand from Arkan­sas is shipped by rail to glass plants located in the Texas part of the Trinity River tributary area; · OCCURRENCE Sands suitable for the manufacture of glass are found in the Simpson group of Ordovician age in the Arbuckle Mountain area in Oklahoma, the Burgen sandstone ot Ordovician age near Tahlequah in northeastern Oklahoma, the basal Creta­ceous Trinity sand in southeastern Okla· homa and north-central Texas, and in the Carrizo, Queen City, and Sparta sands of Eocene age in the Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas (fig. 17). The sands of the Simp­son group and the Burgen sandstone are suitable for making container glassware and plate glass. The sands in the basal Cretaceous and Eocene are suitable for container glass only. The glass sands in the Simpson group occur in the Oil Creek and McLish forma­tions in Johnston, Murray, Pontotoc, and Carter · counties. In the central Arbuckle · Mountains the Oil Creek sand is at the base. of the Simpson group and ranges in thickness from 150 to 400 feet. The McLish sand is about 165 feet thick and overlies the Oil Creek sand. Three companies pro­duce sand from the Oil Creek sand, and one company's quarry is in the Melish sand. The Burgen sand is exposed 5 miles The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 100· AN 0 ~1 z EXPLANATION Outcrops of strota containing glass sand and other special sands: Trinity sand -Cretaceous Ea Sparta sand 1 ~Burgen and Simpson sandstones -Ordovician • Queen City sand Claiborne group -Eocene • Gloss plant [E Comzo sand · Fig. 17. Distribution of glass sand and other special sands in the Trinity River tributary area. northeast of Tahlequah in Sequoyah Cou~ty, Oklahoma, and may be present at shallow depth at other localities in north­eastern Oklahoma. Northeast of Tahle­quah at least 50 feet of very pure silica sand are exposed. Both the Oil Creek and McLish sands of the Simpson group and the Burgen sand are correlated with the St. Peter sandstone which is mined exten­sively for glass sand in the Mississippi Valley. The basal Cretaceous Trinity sand extends from Parker County, Texas, west of Fort Worth northward and then east-1 ward in southern Oklahoma north of the Red River to the Arkansas border. The outcrop of the Trinity sand is from 5 to 20 miles in width, but deposits of sand suit­able for the manufacture of glass are rare. Much of the Trinity sand is poorly sorted and contains clay and other impurities. However, south of the main body of Trin­ity sand in Texas a sand deposit in the basal Trinity is being mined at Santa Anna in Coleman County. This deposit sup­plies a local plant manufacturing bottles and glass containers, the Owens-Illinois Glass Company at Waco, as well as other plants. Trinity sand outliers northwest of Santa Anna extending to the vicinity of Sweetwater in Nolan County may con­tain glass sands. This area is now under investigation. The Eocene Carrizo, Queen City, and Sparta sands of the Gulf Coastal Plain may have deposits of sand suitable for the manufacture of bottles, but for the most part sand lenses in these formations con­tain too much iron and are too fine grained. The basal Cretaceous Trinity sand and the Eocene Carrizo, Queen City, and Sparta sands cross the Trinity River basin, but deposits of sufficient purity for the manufacture of common bottle glass are rare. Glass sand used in this part of Texas is imported from northern Arkansas or southern Oklahoma. Small quantities . of placing sand are obtained by the Harbison Walker Re­fractories Company of Athens, Texas, from Carrizo sand soil about one-half mile west of Athens. RESERVES Reserves of high-grade glass i;and in the Oil Creek and McLish formations of the Simpson group in the Arbuckle Mountains are very large. These sands are of suffi­cient purity for the manufac:ture of c~n­tainer and plate glass, and with beneficia­tion they might be made acceptable for optical quality glass. Reserv_es of ~l~ss sand in the Burgen sandstone m the v1cm­ity of Tahlequah, Sequoyah County, are difficult to estimate because of the lack of outcrops, but they are of sufficient size to supply large-scale industrial development. Sands in the basal Cretaceous and Eocene rocks have not been investigated sufficiently to warrant any estimate of reserves. How­ever, large reserves are present at Santa Anna. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION Glass manufacturing companies in the tributary area in Texas are the Knox Glass Company at Palestine, the Owens-Illinois Glass Company at Waco, and Ball Broth­ers at Wichita Falls, Texas. There are 11 glass manufacturing plants in the Okla­homa portion of the Trinity :{liver tribu· tary area, making the State the center of the southwestern market. These are: American Window Glass Company, Okmulgee, Okmulgee County Ball Brothers, Okmulgee, Okmulgee County Bartlett-Collins Company, Sapulpa, Creek County Brockway Glass Company, Inc., Muskogee, Mus­ kogee County Corning Glass Works, Muskogee, Muskogee County Hazel-Atlas Glass Company, Ada, Pontotoc County, and Blackwell, Kay County Kerr and Company, Sand Springs, Tulsa County Liberty Glass Company, Sapulpa, Creek County Overmyer-Perram Glass Company, Tulsa, Tulsa County Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company, Henryetta, Okmulgee County . Southwestern Sheet Glass Company, Okmulgee, Okmulgee Coul}ty An appreciable amount of glass sand is produced in the tributary area, principally in Johnston and Pontotoc counties, Okla­homa, and at Santa Anna, Texas, but the production figures are not available for publication. • Geological Resources of Trinity River Tributary Area . Producers of Glass Sand Company Geologic Age of Sand Depotlt Santa Anna Silica Sand Company, Santa Anna, Texas________ _ ____ _ _______Trinity sand, C;etaceoiis Mill Creek Sand Company, Mill Creek, Oklahoma __ _________ ________ _____Oil Creek sand, Simpson group (Pennsylvania Glass Sand Corporation, Lewistown, Pa.)Sulphur Silica Company, Sulphur, Oklahoma.________________________________Oil Creek sand, Simpson group (Makins Operating Company, Oklahoma City) Mid-Continent Glass Sand Company, Roff, Oklahoma_________________________McLish sand, Simpson group Oklahoma Silica Sand Company, Hickory, Oklahoma___________________ _________Oil Creek sand, Simpson group BIBLIOGRAPHY I. BAKER, C. L., Foundry or moulding sand, Glass sand, in The geology of Texas, Vol. II, Structural and economic geology: Univ. Texas Bull. 3401, pp. 256-258, 1934 [19351. 2. BUTTRAM, FRANK, Glass sand : Oklahoma Geo!. Survey, BulL 6, pp. 88-90, 1910. 3. , The glass sands of Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geo!. Survey, Bull! 10, 91 pp.,0 1913. 4. HAM, W. E., Oklahoma raw materials for the glass industry: The Hopper, vol. 5, p. 31, Oklahoma Geol. Survey, 1945. · 5. , Geology and glass sand resources of the central Arbuckle Mountains: Oklahoma Geo!. Survey, Bull. 65, 103 pp., 1946. 6. RANDOLPH, J., Raw materials used in glass making: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Min. Rept. 9, 1941. 7. SELLARDS, E. H., and EvANS, G. L., Index to Texas mineral resources: Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, p. 370, 1943 [1946]. 8. STENZEL, H. B., Glass sands in Leon County, Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Min. Res. Circ. 9, 1 p., 1938. 9. , The geology of Leon County, Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 3818, pp. 246-248, 1938 [1939]. lO. WEIGEL, W. M., Technology and uses of silica and sand: U. S. Bur. Mines Bull. 266, 204 pp., 1927. SOLUBLE SALTS D. M. Kinney, United States Geological Survey (Figures 18, 19, 20) Potash salts, common salt (or halite), calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, bromide, magnesium sulfate, and sodium sulfate are highly soluble compounds which, because of their solubility in water, occur more Qr less together in nature. Bromine, although not produced as a salt, is present in brines as soluble bromides and is grouped with the s9luble salts. All these compounds are present in sea water, in bedded deposits derived from the evaporation of sea water, in connate waters Qf marine sedimentary formations, or in saline lakes in areas underlain by evaporite deposits. Through various phys­ical and chemical processes the different salts may be concentrated, makiiig feasible the commercial recovery of at least some · of the compounds. Gypsum and anhydrite are commonly of similar origin, but be­cause of their lesser solubility, they are treated in a separate chapter. POTASH Potash, strictly defined, implies the potassium oxide (K20). As originally applied in agriculture, the term "potash" referred to potassium carbonate (K2C08 ) . extracted from wood ashes, but it is now applied more loosely to various other potassium-bearing salts. · Potash is essen­ . tial to agriculture as a plant food and has many uses in industry. Since potash is produced commercially as any one of several potassium salts, for purposes of comparison tbe potash content is custom· arily expressed as "equivalent" potassium oxide (K20), although potassium oxide is neither found in nature nor produced commercially. Potentially, great potash reserves are present in the Permian rocks of the western part of the Trinity River tributary area, but the only commercial development has been near Carlsbad, New Mexico, to the west of the tributary area. The principal potassium-bearing min­erals in the evaporite rocks of the Permian basin are sylvite (KCl), langbeinite (2MgS04.K2S04), carnallite (KCI.MgCl2 .. H20), and polyhalite (K2S04.MgS04 .2CaS04 ). The sylvite occurs with varying · amounts of halite (NaCl), the mixture be~ ing known as "sylvinite." Sylvinite is the source of most of the potash output in New Mexico, although langbeinite is also mined. Polyhalite, although the most abundant of all the potassium minerals in the Permian basin, contains. only 15.6 percent equiva­lent potash aQd is not at present used as a commercial source of ,potash. Nearly 90 percent of the United States annual consumption of potash is used ·in the preparation of commercial fertilizers. Without potasl_i-bearing fertilizers, the cotton, tobacco, potato, citrus fruit, and truck crops would be greatly reduced. In industry potash or its derivatives are used in the manufacture of glass, pottery, soap, and matches. In the form of potassium nitrate (KN03 ) or saltpeter, it is an essen­tial ingredient in the manufacture of black powder and other explosives and is used in the preservation of meat. As potassiµm cyanide (KCN) it is used in the extraction of gold and silver from their ores and in photography and electroplating. In New Mexico, potash salts are mined from depths of 800· to 1000 feet by the room-and-pillar method. · The crude syl­vinite ore is either crushed and then .puri­fied by a system of solution and fractional crystallization, or ground and then con­centrated by floating either the halite or the sylvite. . Prior to World War I, the United States was dependent upon imports of potash, the bulk of which came from the great Stass­furt salt deposits of Germany. Cessation of imports caused a serious situation; the price of potash as potassium chloride or . sulfate roSe to over $900.00 a ton of avail­able K20. During that war, various domestic saline lakes, kelp, and industrial wastes were used as .sources of potash. Starting iQ 1911, the United States Geo­logical Survey and the Texas Bureau of Economic Geology collected informa.tion and publicized the possibility of finding potash in the thick salt-bearing Permian rocks of the Permian basin in Texas and New Mexico. This resulted in a number of Government and private drill tests and the discovery by a private company in 1925 of the potash deposits in Eddy County, New Mexico. Commercial production in New Mexico began in 1931, and since that time the United States has been virtually independent of foreign sources. OCCURRENCE Potash brine or potash minerals in well cores have been reported from Borden, Dawson, Dickens, Glasscock, Midland, Potter, and Randall counties, Texas, and · are probably present at places in the inter­vening counties of the Permian basin ·in the Trinity River 'tributary area. (See accompanying map, fig. 18, for reported occurrences and area showing potash pos-. sibilities.) Very little is known of the thickness, extent, and composition of the potash beds, the only data being from oil wells scattered over a great area and a few test holes drilled specifically for potash. Practically all the potash discovered so far is in the form of polyhalite, an excep· tion being the Jones area in southwestern Midland County where 5 feet of polyhalite and 6 feet of soluble potash salts:_perhaps sylvite--were penetrated in drill holes at depths ranging from 1,900 to 2,000 feet. From mine development and core drill holes in the Eddy County, New · Mexico, area, it is known that the potash minerals are concentrated in small subsidiary basins within the main Permian basin and are conc,entrated neaF points of structural de­formation. Because of the relatively small amount of drilling that has been done to date in the Trinity River tributary area, it is probable . that the best deposits may yet remain to he found. RESERVES From the great area over which poly· halite has been found in the Trinity River tributary area of western Texas and the thickness of the polyhalite beds in wells, it is apparent that the potash reserves of the Trinity River tributary area are very large. Reserves in the New Mexico potash field were estimated by the Geological Survey in 1940 at 75,000,000 tons of equiv­alent K20. Because the New Mexico potash deposits are shallower and can produce quantities far in excess of present domes· tic and export demands, it is improbable that the Texas polyhalite deposits will be developed until the New Mexican deposits have been seriously depleted. The Texas area is further handicapped because with one exception the deposits discovered to date consist principally of polyhalite, an unsatisfactory source of potash under pres­ent conditions. A future market for polyhalite might develop, however. For example, agricultural experiments indicate that for ·certain uses, polyhalite can be employed directly as a fertilizer. Further­more, polyhalite contains magnesium as well as potassium. The use of lightweight magnesium alloys has increased greatly during the war, and this may stimulate research into new sources of the metal. Should a method be devised to extract both magnesium and potassium from polyhalitP at a suffieiently low cost, the polyhalite beds may become of value. It should be pointed out, however, that the Carlsbad, New Mexico, area contains tremendous reserves of polyhalite which could be obtained from existing mines and with existing equipment. Tl}e opening up of the · deeper and still undevelOped deposits of Texas -is therefore likely to be long delayed. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. CLARKE, LoYAL, DAVIDSON, J. M., 111nd STORCH, H. H., A study of the properltes of polyhalite pertaining to the extraction of potash, pt. 3: U. S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 3061, 12 pp., 1931. 2. DARTON, N. H., Permian salt deposito of the south-central United States: U. S. G~ol. Sur­vey Bull. 715-M, pp. 205-223, 1921. 3. HOOTS, H. W., Geology of a part of. western Texas and southeastern New Me11co with special reference to salt and potash: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 780-B, pp. 33-126, 1925. 4. MANSFIELD, G. R., and LANG, W. B., The Texas-New Mexico potash deposit~, in The geology of Texas, Vol. II, Structural and eco­nomic geology: Univ. Texas Bull ..'3401, pp. 641-832, 1934 [19351. 5. PHALEN, W. C., Potash salts: their uses and occurrence in the United States: U. S. Geo!. Survey, Mineral Resources U. S., 1910, pt. 2, pp. 747-767, 1911. 6. Potash, in Minerals Yearbook: U. S. Bur. Mines, 1934-1945. 7. SELLARDS, E. H., and ScHOCH, E. P., Core drill tests for potash in Midland County, The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 0 35' u - 3: wi. ~ ''';{:::: ::::}:}'':::::::::{'::::':':::{:'::: Z"', Carlsbad ) potash ore.it EXPLANATION • Reported occurrence of potash in wells Area underlain by Permian salt-bearing beds having potash possibilities Fig. 18. Distribution of potash in the Trinity River tributary area. Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 2801, pp. 159-201, 192a 8. SMITH, H. I., Potash development in south· eastern New Mexico: Amer. Inst. Min. Met. . Eng., Contr., 52, 15 pp., 1933. 9. , Potash, in Industrial minerals and rocks, pp. 571-600, Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1937. 10. STORCH, H. H., A study of the properties of Texas polyhalite pertaining to the extraction of potash, pt. 2: U. S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 3032, 11 pp., 1930. 11. , and CLARKE, LOYAL, A study of the properties of Texas polyhalite pertain­ing to the extraction of potash: U. S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 3002, 19 pp., 1930. 12. , and F'RAAs, F., A study of the properties of Texas polyhalite pertaining to the extraction of potash, pt. 4: U. S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 3062, 7 pp. 1931. 13. , and FRACEN, N., A study of the properties of Texas-New Mexico polyhalite pertaining to the extraction of potash, pt. 5: U. S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 3116, 19 pp., 1931. 14. UooEN, J. A., Potash in the Texas Permian: Univ. Texas Bull. 17, 59 ·pp., 1915. 15. WHITE, DAVID, Potash reserves in west Texas: Mining and Metallurgy, no. 184, pp. 19-25, April, 1922. 16. WROTH, J. S., Commercial possibilities of the Texas-New Mexico potash deposits: U. S. Bur. Mines Bull. 316, 144 pp., 1930. COMMON SALT Common salt, the mineral halite (NaCl), is found at a number of places within the Trinity River tributary area. It occurs as salt domes or plugs-intruded into Creta· ceous and Tertiary sediments, as bedded deposits of rock salt in rocks of Permian age, as surface encrustations and brines in salines, and as brines . recovered inci­dental to petroleum production. Halite is soft (Mohs scale, 2.5) and light i:n weight (specific gravity, 2.1 to 2.6). When pure it is colorless, but in its natural state it is usually stained by small quantities of included impurities. In nature it is closely associated with gypsum or anhydrite and with small quantities of the soluble sulfates and chlorides of cal· cium, magnesium, and potassium. · Salt, although common and cheap, is ~ssential to life and the industrial growth of a nation. It is· used in large quantities in the preservation of meat and other foods and in the preparation of foodstuffs for market. Livestock also requfre consid­erable salt in their diet. However, the greatest use of salt, over 50 percent of the total United States output of 15,214,152 short tons in 1943, is in the chemical in· dustry. Salt is one of the basic raw mate­ rials in , the manufacture of the alkalies, Na2C03, NaHC03, and NaOH, hydro­ chloric acid (HCl), metallic sodium, and chlorine. 1 Increasing amounts of salt are being used in the manufacture of metallic magnesium, synthetic rubber, and plastics. Other industrial uses are in soap manu· facturing, textile processing, curing of hides and leather, refrigeration, and in the regeneration of zeolites used in the soften· ing of water. Salt may be recovered by underground mining methods from bedded deposits or salt plugs. The rock salt is then crushed and screened to the desired commercial sizes. Salt is also produced by injecting water into the salt-bearing formation and pumping the brine into pans where it is evaporated to dryness ·using natural gas, lignite, or solar evaporation. For the chemical industry, concentrated brine · as pumped from the ground needs no further treatment. In 1946, Texas produced about 7 per­cent of the total United States •output of salt and ranked fifth among the states in total production. Oklahoma's annual out­put is less than 10,000 short tons a year. The demand for salt is almost constant except for the development of new indus· try. The vresent demand for common salt in the Trinity River tributary area is · easily met by established operations, and any probable increased demand could also be satisfied. No great expansion in the area using salt produced in the Trinity River tributary area is possible because of competition from established salt produc· ers along the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana on the south and Kansas on the north. OCCURRENCE Salt plugs.-Within the Trinity River basin, salt was produced for many years from brine pumped from the salt dome near Palestine, Anderson . County, Texas. The top ·of the salt was 140 feet beneath the surface and the wells extended about 250 feet into salt. This operation was · abandoned in the early 1930's. Salt plugs are roughly circular in outline, vary from 1,000 feet tQ 2 miles in diameter, and extend to unknown but considerable depth;. the top of the salt may occur at any depth beneath the surface. Other known salt plugs within the basin are the Bethel and Keechi domes in-Anderson County, the Butler dome in Freestone County, the Oak­wood dome in Freestone and Leon counties, the Madisonville dome in Madison County, tl).e Kittrell dome in Houston and Walker counties, the Moss Bluff dome in Liberty and Chambers counties, the Lost Lake dome in Chambers County, and the Davis Hill and South Liberty domes in Liberty County (fig. 19). The depth to salt of many of these domes may make the production of brine more feasible than the production of rock salt, especially as many of the salt domes are close to abundant sources of lig­nite and natural gas, fuels for the evapora.' tion of the brine. At the Grand Saline dome, Van Zandt County, Texas, in the Trinity River trib· utary area but outside the drainage basin, the Morton Salt Company niines rock salt from its Kleer salt mine at a depth of about 1,000 feet. The rock salt is topped at 238 feet, but active mining has been below 700 feet. Brine was formerly produced from wells in the northwestern part of the dome. Other· known salt domes in the Trinity River tributary area are the Haines­ville dome in Wood . County: the Steen, Mt. Sylvan, East Tyler, Whitehouse, Bullard, and Brooks domes in Smith. County; the Brushy Creek, Boggy Creek, and Concord domes in Anderson County; the LaRue dome in Henderson County; the Marquez dome in Leon County; the Barbers Hill dome in Chambers County; the Esperson, Hankamer, Hull, and _North Dayton domes in Liberty County; and the Batson and Saratoga domes in Hardin County. Bedded salt deposits.-'-In Kansas and western Oklahoma the salt-bearing beds are in the Permian Wellington formation; but over most of Texas west of a line drawn between Sterling County and western Hardeman County, rock salt probably occurs in slightly younger beds, the Clear Fork and Double Mount<1-in groups of the . Permian. The salt beds usually do not crop out at the surface because they either are covered by younger rocks, were not deposited on the eastern edge of the Per­mian basin, or have been removed by solu­tion. The rock salt beds of the Permian basin in the Trinity River tributary area vary in combined thickness from nothing to more than 1,000 feet. At Colorado City, Mitchell County, Texas, salt brine was produced from a depth of 850 feet; the discovery well for this deposit reported 140 feet of rock salt between 850 and 1,000 feet. In many localities in the tributary area, known salt beds are within 750 feet of the surface, and rarely are they deeper than 1,500 feet. Saline lakes, springs, and flood plains.­ In the early days salt was recovered from saline lakes, springs, and river flood plains of western Oklahoma and northern Texas in the Trinity River tributary area. Saline lakes are still the source for most of Oklahoma's small output of salt. The principal flowing salt springs of Oklahoma are along the Cimarron River in Woods, Harper, and Woodward counties; on Salt Creek southeast of Southard in Blaine County; on the North Fork of the Red River south of Carter in Beckham County; on Sandy Creek south of Eldorado in Jackson County, and on Jhe Elm Fork of the Red River in northern Harmon County. The stream below the springs in Blaine County carries 77 pounds of salt per barrel of 42 gallons. Oil field waters.-Salt water is fre­quently pumped with petroleum in the oil fields of the area. The disposal of this waste water is a constant expense since it cannot be dumped into surface drainage channels. The usual method of disposal is to reinject the water underground into · depleted or barren sands. The oil field brines are not as saturated as are brines recovered from rock salt beds, but they frequently contain other valuable solutes. At West Tulsa, Oklahoma, salt, bromine, and calcium chloride have been produced from oil field waters. Using oil field brines as a source of salt and other valu­able constituents is technically feasible but · not ordinarily done as the cost of installa­tion of equipment is high. 100· KAN EXPLANATION Soll in surface saline x Soll dome SoII in salines, producing ® Soll dome, producing 0 sail deposils Areo underlain by Permian bedded Soll dome, post production ~ @ solt deposils brine from Permian bedded Former producing locolily of e Fig. 19. Distribution of common salt in the Trinity River tributary area. -35' Scale 2~ri:::Es3::E..,~o====:::E""'""'s~b====:::E""'~16o DRAWN BY .Miles ANN CONNOR RESERVES Reserves of common salt in salt plugs of the Trinity River basin are very large and capable of supplying the demands of the area for hundreds of years. Most of the deposits will have to be developed by brine wells, but a few are shallow enough to be mined by conventional methods. The operating mine at Grand Saline in the Trinity River tributary area close to but outside the basin has large reserves capa­ble of supplying the present demands of the area; other salt plugs in the Trinity River tributary area could also be devel­oped. The bedded rock salt deposits of the Permian basin have unlimited reserves of rock salt at comparatively shallow depths which could be developed by brine wells. The saline lakes of western Texas and western Oklahoma have large reserves of common salt which will continue to produce small quantities of salt. PRODUCERS AND PRODUCTION Op~rating salt companies within the Trinity River tributary area, plant loca­tions, plant capacities, and the type of product are given below: The salt output of Texas and Oklahoma, including salt in brine, for a ten-year period is given in the following table. The Oklahoma production is nearly all from the tributary area; the Texas pro­duction is that of the entire State of Texas. Producers TEXAS OKLAHOMA Year Short tons Value · Short tons Value 1934.______ 208,979 $612,586 1 1935______ 1936._____ 1937______ 268,809 316,006 364,780 563,514 615,815 623,037 1 1938 ____ 1939_____ _ 324,449 352,008 624,096 604,663 1940 _____ '4-02,165 792;214 1941______ 656,569 194­2______ 821,111 1943______ 1,127,854 1944_____ 1,147,397 1945______ 1,100,7911946_ ____ 1,098,589 1,713,508 2,202,527 3,610,532 1,353,756 1,336,162 1,356,676 10,743 8,305 7,716 $42,737 35,132 30,496 1 lNot available for publication. Data from United States Bureau of Mines. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. BAKER, C. L., Rock salt, in The geology of Texas, Vol. II, Structural and economic geol­ogy: Univ. Texas Bull. 3401, pp. 618-623, 1934 (1935]. 2. DARTON, N. H., Permian salt deposits of the south-central United States: U. S. Geol. Sur­vey Bull. 715-M, pp. 205-223, 1921. 3. HooTS, H. W., Geology of a part of western Texas and southeastern New Mexico, with special reference to salt and potash: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 780--B, pp. 33-126, 1926. 4. PHALEN, W. C., Salt resources of the United States: U. ·S. Geol. Survey Bull. 669, pp. 116­129, 1919. . 5. Salt, in Minerals Yearbook: U. S. Bur. Mines, 1934-1946. 6. SNIDER, L. C., The gypsum and salt of Okla· homa: Oklahoma Geol. Survey, Bull. 11, pp. 202-214, 1913. of Salt Name of {:ompany Location of Plant TEXAS Morton Salt CompanY----------------------------------------------------------------------------Grand Saline, Van Zandt County Evaporated salt (open pans or vacuum pans), pressed blocks from evaporated <>alt. Rock salt and pressed blocks from rock salt. OKLAHOMA Eklund-Blackmon Salt CompanY----------------------------------------------------------------Freedom, Woods County Solar evaporated salt. Emanuel, R. J·---------------------------·----------·------------------------------------------------------Erick, Harmon County Solar evaporated salt. Oklahoma Salt Industries Company_____________________________________ __ _ ___________________Sayre, Beckham County Stockman, D·-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------··Vinson, Harmon County Solar evaporated salt, used locally as cattle salt. CALCIUM CHLORIDE Calcium chloride, CaC12, is one of the principal dissolved salts contained in brine after the extraction of common salt. In its anhydrous form it is a white, highly deliquescent substance whose commercial utility depends upon its hygroscopic prop· erties or the low freeZing point of its solu· tions. Large quantities of calcium chloride are known in oil field brines and alkali lake brines of the Trinity River tributary area but, for the most part, the material is not recovered. Over 50 percent of the total United States calcium chloride output is used by state and local governments for laying dust on highways and in making sta­bilized roads. Large quantities ;ire alsq used for ice control on sidewalks and highways, for curing and hardening con, crete, for dust proofing coal, coke, and other materials, for circulating brines in refrigerating plants, and for an antifreeze in certain types of outdoor mechanical equipment. Other minor uses of calcium chloride are as a laboratory desiccant, in drying gas in gas works, as a de-humidi­fier for air-conditioning rooms holding deHcate precision i!_lstruments, for making calcium soap lul:iricants, and for the extraction of lithium from spodumene. Brine pumped from wells is first evap· orated until the sodium chloride has crys­tallized out, and then by fractional crystal­lization under controlled composition and temperature conditions, calcium chloride is separated from magnesium chloride and magnesium sulfate. For some purposes calcium chloride with magnesium chlo­ride and sulfate is acceptable, and for this purpose the residual liquor following pre· cipitation of common salt is thus merely evaporated to dryness. Natural calcium chloride constitutes only a small percentage of the total out· put, as great quantities are formed as a by-product in the chemical industry, espe· cially the Solvay process for manufactl!r· ing sodium carbonate. By-product Solvay­process calcium chloride is formed by the reaction of limestone and sodium chloride.­Most of the by-product calcium chloride is not recovered; the amount recovered depends upon the current demand for the refined product. It has been estimated that 90 percent qf the calcium chloride derived from chemical plants and sodium chloride brines is wasted. The demand for calcium chloride imme­diately following the war should be good because qf postponed road developments by state and local governments. Natural calcium chloride produced from brine in the Trinity River tributary area can com­pete with the artificial by-product material only by reason of disparity in freight rates. Manufactured calcium chloride is pro­duced at a number of localities along the Gulf Coast. OCCURRENCE In the Trinity River tributary area cal­cium chloride is found in varying quanti­ties in all brines recovered for the pro· duction of common salt, or may be recov· ered from oil well brines. Analyses of oil field waters from different sources show that the concentration of calcium chloride varies within considerable limits. The high calcium chloride waters may offer opportunities for profitable extraction if other dissolved materials (sodium chlo­ride, bromine, potash, · and magnesium chloride) are recovered in the same oper­ation. The Texas Salt Products Company, a subsidiary of The Texas Company, pro· duced evaporated salt, bromine, and cal­cium chloride from oil fi,eld brines at West Tulsa, Oklahoma, prior to 1936 but aban· cloned the operation in that year (fig. 20). The best source within the tributary area for calcium chloride from natural sources is probably waste bitterns from salt refining. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. BAKER, C. L., Mineral salts, bromine, and calcium chloride, and iodine, in The geology of Texas, Vol. II, Structural and economic geology: Univ. Texas Bull. 3401, pp. 634-635, 1934 [1935]. 2. CooNs, A. T., Salt, bromine, calcium chloride, and iodine: U. S. Bur. Mines Minerals Year­book, 1936, pp. 923, 929, 1937. 3. SELLARDS, E. H., and EVANS, G. L., Index to Texas mineral resources: Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, p. 365, 1943 [1946]. 4·. TYLER, P. M., Calcium chloride: U. S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 6781, 16 pp., 1934. 5. , Minor industrial minerals, in Industrial minerals and rocks, pp. 510-511, Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1937. The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 100 · KAN EXPLANATION Praduclion from saline lake of: Reported occurrence in saline lakes al: i Magnesium sulfaleSodium sullale Bromine0 Sodium su\fale 0 Pasl produclion from oil lield brines of bromine, X Magnesium sulfale magnesium chloride, and calcium chloride Reported occurrence in underground waler of : Area underlain by Permian soil-bearing beds !:> Magnesium chloride~ Sodium sulfale Fig. 20. Distribution of calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, magnesium sulfate, soruum sulfate, and bromine in the Trinity River tributary area. MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE Magnesium chloride, MgCl2, is a white, bitter, deliquescent salt which because of its hygroscopic characteristics does not occur as a solid under normal conditions but may be found in bedded deposits under cover. It is generally found with other highly soluble salts of potassium, calcium, and magnesium in sea water, the brines of salt lakes, and the bitterns remammg after the crystallization of common salt. Magnesium chloride as brine in the electrolytic separation of magnesium metal supplies 85 percent of the United States potential output. In the past the principal sources of magnesium chloride brines in the United States were wells in Michigan and sea water in North Carolina, but since 1941 sea water taken from the Gulf of Mexic~ near Freeport, Texas, has become an important source. Because of its hygro­scopic properties, magnesium chloride like calcium chloride can be used to lay dust on roads. Much of the calcium chloride marketed in the United States for this purpose contains both calcium and mag­n~ium chlorides. Magnesium· chloride is also used in magnesite stucco and Sorel cement, but these uses are in decline. The producing capacity of metallic magnesium malJ'Ufacturing plants in the United States expanded 90 times during the war, far beyond the peace-time require­ments of the nation. Early in 1944 the magnesium output was curtailed to 60 per­cent of total capacity. Established plants using sea water or magnesium-rich well brines appear adequate to supply the United States demands for many years. OCCURRENCE Within the Trinity River tributary area magnes_ium chloride-rich brines are known from upper Permian horizons near Gail in Borden County, Texas (fig. 20). This occurrence was drilled by the Ozark Chem­ical Company of Tulsa, Oklahoma, in 1942, who also investigated methods of recover­ing commercial products from the brine. High magnesium chloride brines in many other localities underlain by the salt beds of the Permian basin of north and west Texas are very possible. Magnesium chlo­ride is also found in the brines of shallow wells underlying tl.l.e alkali lakes of the High Plains. During the war the Union Potash and Chemical . Company at Carls­bad, New Mexico, recovered magnesium chloride in the separation of potassium sulfate from langbeinite. The magnesium chloride recovered in this operation was shipped to Austin, Texas, for conversion to the metal. Brin~s recovered incidental to petrqleum production offer another source of mag­nesium chloride; · the brines of certain Qil fields carry a much higher concentration of magnesium chloride than do others. RESERVES Reserves of magnesium chloride in the brines of surface and subsurface waters of the Trinity River tributary area are very' large, but with the perfection of the large­scale plants for the extraction of mag­nesium chloride from sea water or subsur­face brines from Michigan, it is improb­able that these reserves will be developed soon. However, considerable magnesium chloride may be produced from the brines as a by-product in the extraction of other valuable salts. BIBLIOGRAPHY L Magnesium compounds and miscellaneous salines, in Minerals Yearbook: U. S. Bur. Mines, 1935-1945. 2. SELLARDS, E. H., and EvANs, G. L., Index to · Texas mineral resources: Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, pp. 365, 372, 1943 [1946]. BROMINE Bromine is a dark reddish-brown, highly corrosive volatile liquid. It is found in sea water and other brines probably as bromides of magnesium and sodium. Sea water contains about 1 pound of bromine in 2,000 gallons of water. The principal use of bromine is in the manufacture . of ethylene dibromide, a colorless, volatile, emulsifiable, poison­ous liquid prepared by the action of bro­mine on ethylene gas. Ethylene dibromide is used in the manufacture of tetraethyl lead for addition to gasoline to improve antiknock qualities. Large quantities are used in the manufacture of war gases (especially tear gas) , aniline dyes, and some synthetic rubber. Bromine is also used in photographic reagents, disinfec· tants, medicine, fumigation, and chemical synthesis. Bromine is separated from brine in a number of ways. In the Ethyl-Dow Cor­poration process, sea water is acidified, oxidized with chlorine, and then blown out with compressed air in towers. The bro­mine is recovered' as sodium bromide­bromate using Na2C08 ; acidification yields bromine. Another continuous process uses an electric current for oxidation of the bromides. A batch process of making bro· mine uses sulfuric acid and an oxidizing agent (sodium chlorate or manganese dioxide). The use of tetraethyl lead to improve antiknock qualities ~£ gasoline has in­creased each year. With the resumption of civilian travel following the war, the demand for leaded gasoline is continuing to improve. The large plants to extract bromine from sea water on the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts appear adequate to supply all dooiands of the immediate future. Such a plant is located at Freeport, Texas, on the Gulf Coast. OCCURRENCE In the Trinity River . tributary area bromine, probably as magnesium bromide, is present in the alkali lakes of north and west Texas and in oil field brines (fig. 20). Some of the lakes in the High Plains con­tain relatively high percentages of bro­mine. Drill cores from some of the salt domes in south.eastern Texas have a strong odor of bromine or iodine. The only out· put reported from the tributary area was by The Texas Salt Products Company at West Tulsa, Oklahoma, prior to 1936. RESERVES Bromine reserves in the alkali lakes, oil field brines, and salt domes are probably very large, but it is doubtful that they can compete with the efficient large-scale plants using sea water· which are located on the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana. It is possible that bromine can be pro­duced in relatively small amounts from brines other than sea water which have been treated for the extraction of other dissolved salts. ­ BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. BAKER, C. L., Bromine and calcium chloride and iodine, in The geology of Texas, Vol. II, Structural and economic geology: Univ. Texas Bull. 3401, pp. 634-635, 691, 1934 [1935]. 2. Magnesium compounds and miscellaneous sa­lines, in Minerals Yearbook: U. S. Bur. Mines, 1935-1945. 3. TYLER, P. M., and CLiNTON, A. B., Bromine and iodine: U. S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 6387, 26 pp., 1930. MAGNESIUM SULFATE Magnesium sulfate, MgSO 40 occurs in nature as kieserite, MgS04.H20, or epsom­ ite, MgS04.7H20. Kieserite occurs in bedded salt deposits with other saline minerals; epsomite occurs as an efB.ores­ cence on rocks and is especially common on mine walls. Magnesium sulfate com­ monly occurs in solution in subsurface brines of the Permian basin of Texas and in the surface waters of the larger alkali lakes of the High Plains. Magnesium sulfate in aqueous solution is used in coagulating rayon, in tanning hides, in the preparation of pharmaceu­ ticals, and in the preparation of commer­ cial fertilizers. The United States uses between 20 and 30 thousand tons of mag­ nesium sulfate a year. Magnesium sulfate may be made by neu­ tralizing caustic-calcined magnesia with sulfuric acid solution, and this manufac­ tured product competes with the natural · magnesium sulfate. OCCURRENCE In the Trinity River tributary area mag­nesium sulfate was recovered from shal­low well brines in an alkali lake bed near O'Donnell, Texas, by the Arizona Chemi­cal Company, a subsidiary of the Ameri­can Cyanamid and Chemical Corporation. Brines from other alkali lakes, waste water from petroleum production, and subsur­face waters recovered from wells. drilled in the Permian basin of north and west Texas, all contain magnesium sulfate to some extent (fig. 20). Recently 44 per­cent of the dissolved salts of a brine from a well in the Permian rocks of Eddy County, New Mexico, was reported as magnesium sulfate. RESERVES Undoubtedly large reserves of magne­sium sulfate are present in the surface and subsurface waters . of north and west Texas and the oil field brines of the remaining parts of the Trinity River trib­utary area. However, these brines could not be processed for the magnesium sulfate content alone, but if sodium sulfate, mag· nesium chloride, calcium chloride, bro­mine, and other dissolved salts were re· covered, tbe liquor might be treated at a profit. BIBUOGRAPHY 1. Magnesium compounds and miscellaneous sa­lines, in Minerals Yearbook: U.S. Bur. Mines, 1935-1945. 2. SELLARDS, E. H., and EVANS, G. L., Index to Texas mineral resources: Univ. Texas Pub. 4301, p. 373, 1943 [1946]. SODIUM SULFATE Sodium sulfate, Na2SO" is one of the basic compounds in the chemical industry. In the United States it occurs as brines of alkali lakes in many of the western states. Althoug4 some sodium sulfate has always been recovered from this source, until recently most of the commercial sodium sulfate was salt cake, a by-product in manufacturing hydrochloric acid from common salt and sulfuric acid. In the Trinity River tributary area natural so­dium sulfate occurs in most of the alkali lakes of north and west Texas. A number of . sodium sulfate minerals occur in alkali lakes; the more important are thenardit~ (Na2S04), glauberite (Na2S04.CaS04), and mirabilite (Na2S04 .lOH20). Except thenardite which is white, all the minerals are transparent, color­ less crystals that are bitter or salty to the taste. Much of the sodium sulfate is in the brine which saturates the sand and silt of the lake fiil. In a few alkali lake beds, sodium. sulfate minerals, principally mira­ bilite, occur beneath a few feet of elastic sediment. The greatest industrial use of sodium sulfate is in the manufacture of kraft paper by the sulfate process of making wood pulp. Other uses are in the manufacture of heavy chemicals, rayon and textiles, glass. the standardization of dyes, and as a flux in metallurgy. Natural sodium sulfate is produced by pumping the brine from shallow lakes and evaporating to dryness or precipitating the contained solids under carefully controlled temperature conditions. A recent trend to abandon the sulfuric acid method of manufacture of hydro­chloric acid for the gaseous combination of hydrogen and chlorine has resulted in a shortage of salt cake. · The deficiency has been made up by imports of large quantities of sodium sulfate from Germany before the war and imports of natural sodium sulfate from Saskatchewan, Can­aida. The domestic output of natural sodium sulfate from alkali lake brines has increased markedly, but the total quantity from this source is only a small percentage of the United States consumption. The development of a large kraft paper indus­try using the pine forests of the South has created an important market for sodium sulfate produced from alkali lakes of the Trinity River tributary area. OCCURRENCE In the Trinity River tributary area, sodium sulfate is reported from alkali lakes in Bailey, Cochran, Gaines, Hockley, Howard, Lamb, Lynn, and Terry counties (fig. 20). Sodium sulfate is also known from underground waters of the Creta· ceous rocks of central Texas and the Pennsylvanian rocks at Mineral Wells, Palo Pinto County, Texas. The probable source of the sodium sulfate in the alkali lakes is the underlying Permain gypsifer· ous rocks of the Permian basin. Sodium sulfate is being produced in the Trinity River tributary area by the Arizona Chemical Company, a subsidiary of the American Cyanamid and Chemical Cor­poration, in plants at O'Donnell, Lynn County, and Brownfield, Terry County, Texas. The product goes almost entirely to the kraft paper industry. The first out­put was in 1938. RESERVES Great quantities of sodium sulfate exist in the brines of alkali lakes and well waters in the western part 0£ the Trinity River tributary area. A relatively new and rapidly expanding market for sodium sul· fate exists in the kraft paper industry which uses the pine forests 0£ east Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana. However, to compete with foreign sodium sulfate which can be imported at Gui£ ports at a compar· atively low price or salt cake which can be manufactured from sulfur and salt pro· duced along the Gulf Coast, the cost 0£ production of the natural sodium sulfate must be kept at a minimum. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. BAKER, C. L., Sodium sulphate (Glauher salt), in The geology of Texas, Vol. II, Structural and economic geology: Univ. Texas Bull. 3401, pp. 637-640, 1934 [1935). 2. MEIGS, C. C., BASSETT, H.P., and SLAUGHTER, G. B., Report on Texas alkali lakes: Univ. Texas Bull. 2234, 59 pp., 1922. 3. TYLER, P. M., Sodium sulfate: U. S. Bur. Mines Inf. Circ. 6833, 39 pp., 1935. 4. WELLS, R. C., Sodium carbonate and sodium sulphate, in Industrial minerals and rocks, pp. 739-748, Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1937. 5. , Sodium sulfate: its sources and uses: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 717, 40 pp., 1923. STONE H. B. Stenzel and H. C. Fountain, Bureau of Economic Goology, The University of Texas, and D. M. Kinney, United States Geological Survey (Figure 21) Stone, as used in this chapter, is a term applied to all types of natural stone used in the building and construction indus· tries. For convenience the subject is dis­cussed under two main headings: dimen· sion stone and crushed or broken stone. Dimension stone is stone sold in blocks or slabs, usually of specified shapes and sizes. Crushed and broken stone, on the other hand, is stone of varying dimensions and irregular shape. In 1939, a year not influ­enced by war demands, the United States produced 117,463,510 tons of building stones of all types valued at $135,703,819. Of this tonnage, 2.0 percent was dimension stone and 98.0 percent was crushed or broken stone distributed by uses as fol­lows: road metal and concrete aggregate, 82.5 percent; railroad ballast, 6.0 percent; riprap, 4.9 percent; asphalt filler, 0.2 per­cent; other uses, 4.4 percent. Materials suitablei for dimension or crush,ed and broken stone are abundant in many parts of the Trinity tributary area east of the High Plains and north and west of the outcrop of the Austin chalk. Toward the Gulf Coast, deposits of suitable mate· rial become progressively scarcer. Scar· city of usable stone also characterizes some of the High Plains region in the western part of the tributary area. , Certain varieties of dimension stone which have sotne outstanding characteris­tics to recommend them and which are well established in the trade are, in some in­stances, shipped long distances; but, in general, stone, and especially crushed and broken stone, is a low-priced commodity which can stand only very limited trans· portation charges. The improvement in transportation facilities which· would re­sult from the canalization of the Trinity River would expand the market for stone which at present can be used only locally and might result in the opening of unde­veloped deposits which are known to exist along the course of the river to supply the growing demand for stone in the indus­trial area of Dallas and Fort Worth to the nort4, and Houston and Galveston to the south. DIMENSION STONE The use of stone as a building material dates back to antiquity as is attested by the ruins of Stonehenge in England, the Roman aqueducts, and the pyramids of Egypt. Originally large structures were built almost wholly of natural stone, but through · the years many man-made sub­stitutes for stone have been used, some in very early times. Unburned bricks were in use in ancient Egypt, for instance, and many of tqe Gothic churches of Medieval Europe were built of burned brick. Steel and concrete are almost universally used as the framework of modern large struc­tures, dimension stone being used merely as a facing and ornament; and many smaller buildings are constructed almost entirely of manufactured materials such as brick, hollow tile, and concrete, and in recent years there has been a decline in the uses of dimension stone for commercial buildings. . The dimension stone industry was fur­ther affected by the depression of the 1930's and by the restrictions in building during the war years. Nevertheless dimen­sion stone makes an enduring and digni-· fied structure and is still used widely in public and commercial buildings and for the more substantial and costly type of residences. An increased demand for dimension stone is probable as a result of renewed building activity following the war. Dimension stone is shaped into slabs, . mill blocks, monumental stone, paving. block, curbings, flagstones, cut stone, blocks or rough-trimmed blocks, all of which must conform to more or less rigidly specified dimensions and shapes, depending on the use to which the stone is to be put. The specified dimensions are obtained by sawing, cutting, or splitting with specially designed tools or machines. Dimension stone is cut from many vari· eties of rock. Granite, limestone, dolomite, marble, and sandstone from the Trinity tributary area 'have ~11 been used as dimen­ sion stone. Silicified wood and glauconite rock also have been used to a minor extent. The essential characteristics of a good dimension stone are soundness and free· dom from impurities which would dete· riorate on exposure to the weather. Above . all, the stone should be free from closely spaced fractures, joints, and other planes of weakness which would prevent the cut­ ting of sound blocks of the required size and shape. Color and surface texture are important properties especially in monumental, orna· mental, and veneer stones. Clear, bright colors and interesting color patterns are desirable qualities. Surface texture refers to the appearance of the cut or rough· trimmed surface. Some stones, notably limestone and glauconite rock, contain fos­ sils or cavities once occupied by fossils. · Others have characteristic forms of frac· tures on rough trimming. This rough sur· face texture, used chiefly on outside walls, gives the stone an interesting appearance. Examples are the Hall of State and other buildings of the State Fair at Dallas. Some stones, among which are granite, basalt, marble, silicified wood and some hard limestones, have the ability to take and retain a high polish and are in de­ mand for monumental stone and interior hallways. Workability of a stone is a desirable quality and may be highly important for some uses. Hardness is usually of little importance except where the stone is sub· jected to abrasion; extreme hardness may make the stone too difficult or expensive to work. Strength is of course important, but the strength of any sound dimension stone is usually far in excess of any stress to which it is likely to be subjected in modern structures. OCCURRENCE In the Trinity tributary area, rock . suitable for dimension stone occurs in geologic formations ranging in age from pre-Cambrian to Tertiary (fig. 21.) The pre-Cambrian rocks are igneous rocks exposed in the Wichita and Arbuckle Mountains of southern Oklahoma. Sand­stone, limestone, and dolomite are wide­spread in rocks of diverse ages of the area, but the marble and glauconite rocks are limited to single formations. Silicified wood, although widespread in deposits of Cretaceous and Tertiary age, is of minor importance a!J a building stone; glaiiconite rock likewise is of very minor importance. GRANITE Granite is an · igneous rock composed principally of quartz and feldspars with minor amounts of dark accessory minerals. Granites vary in color from very light gray to red, depending upon the proportions of dark minerals present and the color of the feldspar. In texture, they may range from very fine grained to coarse grained or porphyritic. In the building and monu­ment trade the term granite is applied in a very loose sense and includes almost any hard igneous rock capable of being shaped into a dimension stone or polished for use in monuments. Gray granite may be a quartz monzonite, a granodiorite, or a diorite, and black granite may be a gabbro or basalt. In the Trinity tributary area, granite is produced from pre-Cambrian rocks in the Wichita and Arbuckle Mountains in Okla­homa (fig. 21). The Wichita Mountain district includes parts of Comanche Greer ' ' and Jackson counties. IgneQus rocks rang­ing in composition from anorthosite gab­bro to granite are exposed in a number of places in this area. The granites are fine to medium grained; some porphyritic varie­ties also are present. Varieties of granite present are: flesh-red, reddish brown, and medium to dark gray. The anorthosite gabbro _is a coarse-grained bluish-black heavy rock. Some of the granite areas have widely spaced joint patterns, making pos­sible the remqval of large dimension stone; granites in other areas are so jointed that only small dimension stone or crushed stone can be produced. At present, granite quarries are operated at Granite, Greer County, and at Roosevelt, Cold Spnngs, Mountain Park, and Snyder in Kiowa EXPLANATION Son Angelo sandstone -Perr:n1an Stone quarr~ (Duncan sandstone in Ol­ .: a:: <( >­ <( w :; :;:: 0 :::: :" 0 a:: a:: .., :; 6.0 t------+------;--'----+----­ 2.0.i-------t----+----+----t----t-----1----+-----+------j 192S Minimum Year 0707 o'--------=2~00s,0---,~o~o,~-oo---...J ,o~o~o,-----=4~,o~o~o---=6,~.,----7~07o.io~---2.io_oo---,4,io_---,6-,Loo-o Drainage area in square miles Fig. 28. Extremes of yearly runoff, depth in inches, at Romayor, Texas, and comparable upstream runoff of the Trinity River. Table 1. Extremes of yearly runoff, depth in inches, and discharge in second-feet at Romaror, Texas, and comparable upstream data for Trinity River of Texas, water years 1925-1946. Drainage Disch. in sec. ft. Runoff depth area, Disch. in sec. ft. per square mile in inches square M in. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Station miles \ Aver. 1925 1941 Aver. 1925 1941 Ave r. 1925 1941 West Fork Trinity River at Fort Worth___ 2,501 480 104 1,444 .192 .042 .574 2.61 0.57 7.79 Trinity River at Dallas________ 6,001 "l,693 380 4,054 •.282 .063 .676 "3.83 0.85 9.17 Trinity River near Rosser____ 8,057 "2,704 5,968 •.336 .741 "4.56 10.06 Trinity River near Oakwood... 12,840 5,379 657 11,010 .419 .051 .857 5.69 0.69 11.63 Trinity River near Mid'YBY---­14,390 •6,391 12,900 •.444 .896 b6.03 12.16 Trinity River at Riverside_____ 15,510 7,312 782 14,550 .471 .050 .938 6.39 0.68 12.73 Trinity River at Romayor_ _ 17,190 8,162 913 16,930 .475 .053 .985 6.45 0.72 13.37 &Average for 1925-46 which conforms with period of record at Romayor. hEstimated average for 1925-46. for this flood year increased from the head­waters to the mouth at a greater rate than that for the average runoff condition. The drought year of 1925·affected runoff con­ditions in essentially a uniform manner; the average annual runoff for the entire basin remained below 1.0 inch, or an arid condition prevailed throughout the basin 12 10 . . 5 8 0 4 0 during 1925. Table 2 and figure 29 show the extremes of yearly runoff for the Trin· ity River at Romayor and comparable up­stream run off in acre-feet. These data are presented to show the wide variation in the volume of flow along the Trinity River and are comparable to the runoff data that have been expressed in inches of runoff. Drainage area, Annual nmoff acre-feet 1quare Minimum Maximum Station miles Average 1925 1941 West Fork Trinity River at Fort Worth...---·------------------------·-­ 2,501 348,000 "75,300 1,040,000 Trinity River at Dallas........------------­Trinity River near Rosser.................. 6,001 8,057 1,230,000 · 1,960,000 "275,000 b2,940,000 b4,320,000 Trinity River near Oakwood............ 12,840 3,890,000 476,000 7,970,000 Trinity River near Midway____ __ _ _ 14,390 •4,630,000 b9,340,000 Trinity River near Riverside............ 15,510 5,290,000 566,000 10,500,000 Trinity River near Romayor.............. 17,190 5,910,000 661,000 12,300,000 •Runoff has been lees. hftunoff has been greater. · CEatimated. The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 The United States Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Corps of Engineers, United States Army, the Texas Board of Water Engineers, and others, was main­taining 16 stream flow stations and three reservoir stations on the Trinity River and its principal tributaries in 1946. The oper­ation of these 19 stations will be continued and four new stations will be established in this basin during 1947. The basic data collected at stream flow stations in the past are utilized ·in preparing stable and eco­nomically designed engineering structures for flood control and for all other water utilization projects. The records which are published in the United States Geological Survey annual series of water-supply papers show the total volume and daily maximum and minimum rates of flow for the periods for which records have been collected. A summary of these records is contained in tables 3 and 4. The data Table 3. Average discharge, runoff depth in inches, and runoff in acre-feet, Trinity River basin. Average Average Drainage disch. runoff Average area, Average sec. ft. depth yearly run· Years of square disch. per sq. in off in acre· Gaging station or area record miles sec. ft. mile inches feet Gaging Station West Fork Trinity River at Bridgeport...____________ 1909, 1911-29 1,010 219 .217 2.94 159,000 West Fork Trinity River at Fort Worth______________ 1921-46 2,501 '480 •.192 ·2.61 •348,000 West Fork Trinity River at Grand Prairie__________ 1926-46 2,956 627 .212 2.88 454,000 Trinity River at Dallas.. 1904--46 6,001 '1,575 ".262 •3.56 1,140,000 Trinity River at Dallas.. 1925-46 6,001 '1,693 ".282 8 3.83 1,230,000 Trinity River near Rosser -------------­---------­ 1940-46 8,057 b3,984 b.494 b6.70 2,820,000 Trinity River near Oakwood ---------------------­ 1924-46 12,840 5,379 .419 5.69 3,890,000 Trinity River near Midway -----------­-----------­Trinity River at 1940-46 1904--06 l 14,390 b8,876 b.617 b8.37 b6,430,000 Riverside --------­------------­ 1924-46 s 15,510 7,312 .471 6.39 5,290,000 Trinity River at Romayor ---------------------­Big Sandy Creek near 1925-46 17,190 8,162 .475 6.45 5,910,000 Brid11:eport -----------------­ 1938-46 346 •135 C.390 •5.29 •91,100 clear Fork Trinity River at Fort Worth_____________ Elm Fork Trinity River near Carrollton_____ _______ Denton Creek near Roanoke --------------------­­East Fork Trinity River 1925-46 1908-46 1925-27} 1940-46 522 2,542 634 106 870 223 .203 .342 .352 2.75 4.64 4.78 76,700 630,000 161,000 near Rockwall -----------­Cedar Creek near 1924-46 831 488 .587 7.97 353,000 Mabank ----­------------------­ 1940-46 741 b623 b.841 bll.41 b451,000 Chambers Creek near Corsicana --------­----------­ 1940-46 958 b746 •.779 bl0.57 b540,000 Richland Creek near Richland -----­----­---------­Area between 1940-46 760 b607 •.799 bl0.84 b439,000 Dallas, Rockwall to Oakwood ---------­-----------­Oakwood to Riverside____ Riverside to Romayor.... 6,008 2,670 1,680 3,198 1,933 850 .532 .724 .506 7.22 9.82 6.88 2,320,000 1,400,000 615,000 l\Affectcd by storage and diversions for municipal water f:'Upply, part of which returns to river below station as sewage effluent. hAveragc based on complete water year records beginning with 1940. The analy~is of longer periods of records in the Trinity River basin indicates that the long·time average is from 63 to 73 percent of the average for 1940-46. This average figure, therefore, is probably considerably higher than the true a'·era2'e runoff. CRecord for comparatively short period of 9 years, and probably greater than may be expected over a long period of time. show that average runoff yields vary across the basin. The average discharge in sec· ond-feet per square mile, for long periods of" record, ranges from 0.217 second-foot at the Bridgeport station, to 0.475 second· foot at tbe Romayor station. The average yield for some intervening areas varies in an inverse proportion with that of rainfall. For the 6,008 square miles below the Dallas and Rockwall stations, and above the station at Oakwood, the average dis­charge per square mile is 0.518 second­foot, and the area of 2,670 square miles from Oakwood downstream to Riverside has an average discharge of 0.724 second­foot per square mile. Below Riverside the average discharge per square mile drops to 0.506 second-foot, or less than the inter­vening area above Oakwood and below Dallas where the rainfall 1s less. These records clearly indicate that detailed studies of runoff of the respective regions must be made before costly developments are made to use available water resources. Runoff records of comparatively short duration may be misleading at times. Complete records of yearly flow have been obtained since 1940 at tbe Rosser and Midway stations on the Trinity River. Comparing these data with comparable records for the same and longer periods of time at the Dallas, Oakwood, and Riv­erside stations on the Trinity River, it is found that the average Trinity River runoff for the period 1940 to 1946, from Dallas to Romayor, was from 137 to lp5 percent larger than the average runoff for the longer periods of record that extend Table 4. Average and extremes of discharge, in second-feet, of all stream fiow stations operating in 1946 water year, Trinity River basin. Drainage Average area Miu. annual Years of square Max. disch. disch. disch. S ta ti on record miles sec. ft . eec. ft. sec. ft. West Fork Trinity River at 1909, Bridgeport ------------------------­ •1911-29 1,010 219 . West Fork Trinity River at Fort Worth -----------------------­ •1921-46 2,501 85,000 0 480 West Fork Trinity River at Grand Prairie___ __ ________________ 1926-46 2,956 ·29,500 3.2 627 Trinity River at Dallas__________ •1904--46 6,001 184,000 6.8 1,575 Trinity River near Rosser.... 1940--46 8,057 34 •3,984 Trinity River near Oakwood Trinity River near Midway__ •1924-46 1940-46 12,840 14,390 153,000 '146,000 22 100 5,379 •8,876 Trinity River at Riverside --------------------------­ •1904-06} 1924-46 15,510 121,000 70 7,312 Trinity River at Romayor..__ Trinity River at Liberty_____ _ 1925-46 "1938-46 17,190 17,500 111,000 114,000 132 8,162 Big Sandy Creek near Bridgeport -------------------------­ 1938-46 346 53,000 0 135 Clear Fork Trinity River at Fort Worth____ ________________ 1925-46 522 c74,300 0 106 Elm Fork Trinity River near Carrollton__ _______________ _ •1908-46 2,542 0 870 Denton Creek near Roanoke ----------------------------­ 1925-27} 1940-46 634 '49,700 0 223 East Fork Trinity River near Rockwall.______ ___ ____ __ _ ____ •1924-46 831 .64,800 0 488 Cedar Creek near Mabank.. 1940-46 741 '44,800 0 .623 Chambers Creek near Corsicana ---------------------------­ 1940-46 958 '48,0SJO 0 •746 Richland Creek near Richland ------------------­----------­ 1940-46 760 "65,000 0 .607 1lGreater flood known to have occurred; discharge not know11. hAverage based on complete water-year records beginnin;.; with 1940. The analysis of longer periods of records in the Trinity River basin indicates tl·at the long-time average is from 63 to 73 percent of the average for l94o-46. Thia average figure, therefore, 15 probab ly considerably higher than the true average runoff. co ccurred in 1922. dUnited States Weather Bureau has coll ected re•:Mcis of gage heights at these loca tions as follows : Dallas, Riverside, and Liberty, since 1903; Oakwood, since 1904 ; Bridgeport, 1909-1930 ; Fort Worth, since 1910; Carrollton, 1ince 1923; and Rockwall, since 1942, The University of Texas Publication Nq. 4824 through 22 or more years (see fig. 30). It is believed, therefore, that the records col­lected since 1940 on Chambers, Cedar, and Richland creeks, tributaries of the Trinity River, are also considerably greater than the long-period average yield of these respective basins. 24 . 20 :. "' ~ . ru "' 0 l .... "' 0 12 .5. I i5 8 4 0 5-year drought of 1909-1913, hut the extent to whic4 this low runoff prevailed downstream from Dallas is not definitely known. The Dallas and Carrollton records are of great importance in that designing engineers have factual data from which to design water ~upply reservoirs that may . ·Droughts.-Prolonged droughts or low flows are controlling factors in developing a dependable water supply. Runoff rec­ords for the Trinity River at Dallas extend through a 43-year period, 1904-1946. The Dallas records are indicative of the importance of long-time records. During the 5-year period 1909-1913, the average annual flow ranged from 139 to 416 l!econd-feet, and the average flow was only 252 second-feet, as compared with the 43-year average flow of 1,575 second feet. Records of runoff are available for the Elm Fork Trinity River near Dallas since . 1908, but there a,re no other records of comparable length in the Trinity R_iver basin. The Elm Fork record reflects the meet water requirements for a similar low­flow period of 5-years duration. Reservoirs and levees.-The history of reservoir and levee construction in the Trinity River basin is a record of engineer­ing endeavor to build stable but economi­cal structures that will cope with nature and, at the same time, satisfy the water­supply needs of a rapidly developing region. Early resel'.voirs such as Lake Worth and White Rock Lake (see table 6 and fig. 32) were soon found to be inade-• quate. The subsequent construction of Bridgeport, Eagle Mountain, and Moun­tain Creek reservoirs, and Lake Dallas provided a combined storage . of 757,000 acre-feet of water in the basin . above Dallas. These storage structures are inade­quate for complete flood protection, and Lake Dallas, completed in 1927, is known to he insufficient for current water supply needs if an extended drought, such as that of 1909-1913, should recur. Levee construction has been employed for flood protection along many reaches of the Trinity River and its tributaries. Except for the Dallas levee system, the constructed levees have been found to he inadequate. Flood discharges; which are· considerably less than current engineering estimates of possible peak flows, have destroyed or seriously damaged the levees. The Corps of Engineers, United States Army, is constructing tl}e following major reservoirs: Benbrook Reservoir, on Clear Fork Trinity River above Fort Worth; Grapevine Reservoir, on Denton Creek near Grapevine; and Lavon Reservoir, on East Fork Trinity River above Rockwall. These are multiple-purpose reservoirs that will provide added_flood protection and water for municipal and industrial uses. The Cocps of Engineers is now making surveys and plans for the enlargement of Lake Dallas. Other major developments are being investigated on the lower river and on tributaries of the Trinity River. STREAMS OTHER THAN THOSE IN THE TRINITY RIVER BASIN The 99th meridian, which is .a short distance to the west of the extreme western edge of the Trinity River Msin, divides the Trinity River tributary area into two approximately equal parts. The average annual rainfall .of 29.7 inches, for prac­ tical purposes, follows this dividing line. All stre;ims to the west · of this divide, except the Canadian River, originate on the High_ Plains of the Texas Panhandle and follow a southeastern course to the Gulf of Mexico. The Canadian River traverses the west­ ern half of the area from west to east. Although the average annual runoff in the Texas Panhandle is one inch or less, rec­ ords of the Canadian River show that the average annual runoff at Canadian, Texas, for the period 1938 to 1946 was 674,000 acre-feet (or equivalent to an average annual runoff of 0.54 inch from the river's drainage area of 23,280 square miles above that point). This stream, when properly developed, will provide substantial quan­tities of water for future developments in this semi-arid region. Headwater streams of the Red, Brazos, and Colorado rivers to the south of the Canadian River produce useless quantities of water for continuous supplies for municipal, industrial, and irrigation pur­poses in the High Plains. The small runoff in the streams of this region comes from narrow basins averaging less than 2 miles in width that parallel the streams across the plains. Between these fingecing basins lies about 26,000 square miles of prairie land that contributes no runoff to the streams. Fortunately, surface soils coupled with flat topography, indented with many depressions locally known as lakes, are conducive to the infiltration of rainfall to the many favorable underground water reservoirs of this prairie region. Ground water is the source of water supply on the prairie that now irrigates over 650,000 acres and supplies water for municipal and industrial uses. Runoff from the roll­ing country just east of the High Plains escarpment is slightly more than that to the west. A few perennial springs such as those . in Quitaque Creek near Quitaque and Roaring Springs near Matador, Texas, contribute small flows that drain from the ground-water reservoirs under the High Plains to the west. The total average annual runoff of the headwater streams of t4e Red, Brazos, and Colorado rivers from west of the lOOth meridian (see fig. 27 and table 5), or a north-south line passing through Ballinger, Texas, is about 1,000,000 acre-feet, drain­ ing from 21,400 square miles. The surface-water resource of this large west Texas region is less than that of the 6,001 square miles of the Trinity River above Dallas. Progressing down the basins of the Red, Brazos, and Colorado rivers, substantial increases in the surface-water resources occur. The Red River expands from a small stream in the west to a major river of the nation as it crosses the Texas­ Arkansas State line. The average annual runoff of the Red River at that point (Index, Arkansas) is 10,310,000 acre-feet. The Pease, Salt Fork of Red, North Fork of Red, Wichita, Little Wichita, and Washita rivers, Muddy Boggy Creek, Kiamichi and Little rivers, are Red River tributaries listed in downstream order that combine to make up the major river at Index, Arkansas. The runoff per square mile increases as the stream moves eastward. Sulphur River and Cypress Creek rising in northeast Texas are tributaries that enter the Red River in northwestern Loui­siana. The average annual rainfall ranges from 38 inches a:t the headwaters to 48 inches at the Texas-Louisiana State line. The average annual runoff per square mile is 11.7 inches per year from the Sulphur River near Darden, Texas, and 10.6 inches from Cypress Creek near Jefferson, Texas. These yields are only exceeded by streams in the extreme eastern part of Oklahoma an_d Texas. Drought years reduce the flow of these streams to zero, and the average annual runoff under such conditions is reduced to that of an arid stream. Headwaters of the Sabine and Neches rivers are the remaining Texas streams that lie in the Trinity River tributary area. The average annual rainfall over their basins ranges from 38 to 48 inches. The runoff of these streams, in many respects, is similar to that of Sulphur River and Cypress Creek. The northern part of the Trinity River tributary area is drained by the Arkansas River and its major tributaries. The Arkansas River at Van Buren, Arkansas, Table 5. Extremes and average discharge in second-feet and average annual runoff in acre-feet in representative streams of the Trinity River tributary area except the Trinity River an1:l its tributaries. Average Period Drainage Aver. annual of area Max. disch. Min. disch. disch. run off Station Clecotd sq. mi. sec. ft. sec. ft. sec. ft. acre-ft. Arkansas Basin Arkansas River at Arkansas City, Kansas____ _____ __ ___________ 1921-46 44,700 30 1,423 1,030,000 Arkansas River at Van Buren, Arkansas -------------­ 1927-46 150,300 850,000 216 31,990 23,160,000 Walnut River at Winfield, Kansas --­-------------------------­ 1921-46 1,894 100,000 0 695 503,200 Salt Fork Arkansas River near Alva, Oklahoma______ 1938-46 1,020 27,000 0 97.7 70,730 Medicine Lodge River near Kiowa, Kansas________ 1938-46 1,000 24,600 0 137 99,180 Chikaskia River near Blackwell, Oklahoma______ 1936-46 1,680 100,000 404 292,500 •Cimarron River near Englewood, Kansas______ ___ 1938-42 10,470 233 168,700 Cimarron River at Oilton, Oklahoma -----------------------­ 1934-46 19,180 72,300 0 -1,220 883,200 Council Creek near Stillwater, Oklahoma__ ____ 1934-46 30.2 18,000 0 11.3 8,180 Verdigris River at Independence, Kansas ___ 1930-46 2,952 117,000 0 1,623 1,180,000 Caney River near Elgin, Kansas -----------------------------­ 1939-46 434 35,500 0 283 204,900 Neosho River near Commerce, Oklahoma ____ 1939-46 5,880 105,000 0.5 4,417 3,198,000 Spring River near Quapaw, Oklahoma__ ________ 1939-46 2,580 190,000 96 2,609 1,889,000 Elk River near Tiff City, Missouri -----------------------­-- 1939-46 84.S 137,000 24 1,008 729,800 Illinois River near Tahlequah, Oklahoma____ Dirty Creek near Warner, Oklahoma_____ _____ 1935-46 1939-46 933 229 76,200 4-2,000 5 0 993 224 718,900 162,200 Canadian River near Logan, New Mexico______ 1908-14} 1922-45 11,200 219,000 0 •408 295,400 Avera ge Period o! Drainage area Max. disch. Min. disch. Aver. disch. annual runoff Station Record sq. mi. sec. ft. sec. ft. sec. ft. acre-fr . Canadian River near Canadian, Texas ·---­-­------­ 1938-46 23,280 122,000 0 931 674,ooo Canadian River near Whitefield, Oklahoma ____ 1938-46 4·7,370 281,000 65 7,053 5,106,000 North Canadian River near Ft. Supply, Okla.._ 1937-46 8,920 17,4.00 0 127 91,940 North Canadian River near Oklahoma City, Okla.____ 1938-46 12,400 16,700 12 312 225,900 North Canadian River near Wetumka, Oklahoma ______ 1938-46 13,500 66,000 26 858 621,200 Wolf Creek near Shattuck, Oklahoma -----------------------­ 1938-46 908 24,000 0 50.6 36,630 Deep Fork near Dewar, Oklahoma -----------------------­ 1938--46 2,300 57,400 1.8 1,327 96.Q,700 Fourche Maline near Red Oak, Oklahoma______ 1939-46 121 26,300 0 148 107,100 Red River Basin Tierra Blanca Creek at Reservoir near Umbarger, Texas·------------­ 1938-46 ' 580 11,300 0 18.4 13,320 Prairie Dog Town Fork Red River near Estel-line, Texas ---· ----------------­ 1924-25} 1938-46 ' 1,470 56,000 0 . 140 101,400 Red River near Terral, Oklahoma ---­------------------­ 1938-46 ' 22,840 197,000 43 2,856 2,068,000 Red River near Colbert, Oklahoma -----------------------­ 1923-46 38,330 201,000 dl2 5,439 3,938,000 Red River at Index, Arkansas -------­---------­------­ 1936-46 46,580 297,000 400 14,240 10,310,000 North Tule Creek at Res· ervoir near Tulia, Texas 1939-46 ' 60 3,110 0 2.04 1,480 Salt Fork Red River at Mangum, Oklahoma._______ 1905-06} 1937-46 1,390 0 89.7 64,940 North Fork Red River near Headrick, Oklahoma ______ 1938-46 4,360 27,400 0 367 265,700 Elm Fork of North Fork Red River near Man­ 1930-31 l gum, Oklahoma_ __ ____________ 1938-46 s 834 27,800 0 96.1 69,570 Pease River near Crowell, Texas -------------------------------­ 1924-46 ' 2,4·10 106,000 0 221 160,000 Quitaque Creek near Quitaque, Texas______________ 1946 5.0 3,620 Cache Creek near Walters, Oklahoma__________ 1938-46 630 11,300 0 185 133,900 Little Wichita River near Archer City, Texas.___ ______ 1932-46 496 17,900 0 103 74,570 Washita River near Cheyenne, Oklahoma______ 1938-46 640 40,000 0 44.0 31,850 Washita River near Durwood, Oklahoma________ 1928-46 7,310 91,300 17 1,666 1,206,000 Rush Creek at Purdy, Oklahoma____________ 1940'--46 139 15,300 0 87.2 63,130 Muddy Boggy Creek near Farris, Oklahoma____________ 1937-46 1,120 61,900 0 1,059 766,700 Kiamichi River near Belzoni, Oklahoma____~---­ 1925-31} 1935-46 1,420 71,400 0 1,789 1,295,000 Little River near Horatio, Arkansas____ ____ ____ 1931-46 2,690 120,000 1.0 3,917 2,836,000 Sulphur River near Darden, Texas____________ _____ 1923-46 2,754 157,000 0 2,367 1,714,000 Cypress Creek near Jefferson, Texas__ _____________ 1924-46 848 57,100 0 663 480,000 Average Period of Drainage area Max. disch. Min. disch. Aver. disch. annual runoff Station Record sq. ml. sec. ft . eec. ft. sec. ft. acre-ft. Sabine River Basin Sabine River near Gladewater, Texas__ ____ __ _ Sabine River at Logansport, Louisiana____ Big Sandy Creek near Big Sandy, Texas ---­-----­Cherokee Bayou near Elderville, Texas ___ __ ______ _ 1932-46 1903-19}1922-46 1939-46 1939-46 2,846 4,858 235 110 138,000 92,000 38,000 10,200 5.6 16 7.7 0 2,184 3,239 256 173 1,581,000 2,345,000 185,300 125,200 Neches River Basin Neches River near Neches, Texas_______________ Neches River near Rockland, Texas____________ Mud Creek near Jacksonville, Texas__ _____ _ Angelina River near Lufkin, Texas ---------------­Angelina River at Borger, Texas ­--­-----------­ 1939-46 1903-10 l 1913-46 s 1939-46 1923-34} 1939-46 1928-46 1,129 3,539 382 1,575 3,435 45,500 49,800 23,4oO 38,200 49,900 0 3.0 0 2.3 13 1,013 2,516 379 1,418 3,238 733,400 1,822,000 274,400 1,027,000 2,344,000 Brazos River Basin Dou ble Mountain Fork Brazos River at Lubbock, Texas 1939-46 Double Mountain Fork Brazos 892 0 1.78 1,290 River Texas near Aspermont, -----------------­---------­ 1923-34} 1939-46 0 1,509 52,000 0 175 126,700 Brazos River at Seymour, Texas_________ Brazos River near Glen Rose, Texas_________ Brazos River near Waco, Texas_ __ ________ ________ Salt Fork Brazos River near Aspermont, Texas.. White River at 1923-46 1923-46 1898-1946 1923-25} 1939-46 •5,250 0 15,600 0 19,260 0 2,064 95,400 97,600 246,000 26,600 0 0 0 0 464 1,674 2,733 171 335,900 1,212,000 1,979,000 123,800 Plainview, Texas -------­----­Clear Fork Brazos River at Nugent, Texas_____ ______ _ Clear Fork Brazos River 1939-46 1924-46 ----­, ---­2,220 12,000 47,000 0 0 6.33 157 4,580 113,700 near Crystal Falls, Texas ---------------­------------­North Bosque River near Clifton, Texas___ _____ ____ __ ___ Leon River near Hasse, Texas__ __ _____ ____________ 1928-46 1923-46 1939-46 5,658 974 1,276 35,800 38,500 16,900 0 0 0 488 236 234 353,300 170,900 169,400 Colorado River Basin Colorado River at Ballinger, Texas ------­---­--­Colorado River at Winchell, Texas -------------­Elm Creek at 1907-46 1924--34} 1939-46 0 5,340 0 12,780 75,400 76,100 0 0 405 756 293,200 547,300 Ballinger, Texas --------------Concho River at 1932-46 458 26,100 0 57.7 41,770 San Angelo, Texas ·--------­North Concho River at Sterling City, Texas_______ _ Pecan Bayou at Brown-wood, Texas ··--············---­ 1915-46 1939-46 1924--28} 1929-46 0 4,217 0 615 1,614 230,000 25,000 0 52,700 0 0 0 184 9.71 ·207 133,200 7,030 149,900 "Data from "Oklahoma Water," Oklahoma Planning Resources Board. U. S. Department of Interior, Geological Survey. hPrior to completion of Conchas Reservoir in 1939. en oes not include non-contributing area on High Plains. dRegulated. "Flow affected by storage and diversions from Brownwood Reservoir. has an average annual discharge of 31,890 second-feet, or an average annual runoff of 23,100,000 acre-feet. The Arkansas River runoff is 43 percent of that from the whole Trinity River tributary area. The followi11g are the principal tributary streams of the Arkansas River in Okla· homa, listed in downstream order: Salt Fork Arkansas, Cimarron, Verdigris, Neo­sho (with its tributaries Spring and Elk), Illinois, and Canadian rivers. . The surface water resources are extremely limited for the streams in western and central Okla­. homa. The average annual yi~lds, in most instances, are usable quantities, hut the streams will remain dry, or the flow is of small quantities during· months of low rainfall. Eastern Oklahoma is a semi· humid region. Streams of that area yield large quantities of runoff · per unit area. In the mountainous region of southeastern Oklahoma, the Little River near Horatio, draining 2,690 square miles, has an aver­age annual runoff of 2, 770,000 acle-feet, or 1,020 acre-feet per square mile; the average annual runoff in depth in inches is 19.3 and is near the highest recorded in the entire Trinity River tributary area. Streams in eastern Oklahoma, however, are like others in the Trinity River trib­utary area . . They are sub.iect to wide ranges in daily flow, and in drought years the minimum discharge, with few. exceptions, drops to zero or very small quantities (see table 5). Although the average flow of the Arkansas River at Van Buren, Arkansas (drainage area, 150,300 square miles) is 31,890 second-feet, the daily flow droppecl ·to 216 second-feet (140,000,000 gallons per day) on August 19, 21, 1934. FLooo Ftows IN THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA In analyzing available hydrologic data for the southwestern portion of the United States, engineers have concluded that peak rates of flow recorded on all streams in the Trinity River tributary area are less than might he expected to occur in future years. Runoff records in the area and his­torical records of early flood heights span less than a J00-year period in most instances. The great storm of September 9 and 10, 1921, which menaced central Texas · and raised the discharge of the Little River at Cameron, Texas (drainage area, 7,034 square miles} to 647,000 second­feet, cannot be ignored. At Thrall, Texas, the center of tbe storm area, 39.7 inches of rain fell in a 36-hour period, and 12.l inches of rain fell on 10,000 square miles in the same period.15 • It is reasonable to presume that a similar storm can occur in. northeast Texas and, to a lesse.r degree, in the northern part of the Trinity River tributary area. G. G. Commons, hy~raulic engineer and former hydrologist for the Texas State Board of Water Engineers, has prepared maximum runoff curves that he considers applicable to Texas. Mr. Commons has made the following statement concerning the application of the flood runoff cu.rves to Oklahoma: "As a result of the studies which f made I believe that the 'North Texas' curve would apply in Oklahoma to the basin of the Washita River and would extend we;t to a line running north from Altus. It would also probably apply east of the Washita River, say to the rough hilly country in the eastern part of the State." The flood runoff curves are repro­duced, with tbe consent of the author, on figure 31. · RESERVOIRS IN THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA The impounding of wat~r }n reservoirs · for beneficial use hegap. )ti ~· the Trinity River tributary area over· SQ years ago. The construction of comparatively large reservoirs was begun. :by municipalities when other sources of supply failed to meet the growing demands for water. In some instances, industry has found it necessary t_o construct reservoirs to impound water for industrial needs. In recent years major reservoirs have been constructed for irri­gation, hydro~lectric power, and recrea­tional purposes, and flood control facilities have been incorporated as a major feature in the larger reservoirs. In 1947, forty _reservoirs, each having a capacity of 10,000 acre-feet or · more, were in operation in the ' Trinity River· tribu­tary area, and eleven new reservoirs of such capacity were under construction. Table 6 contains a list of these reservoirs, U5Sto~ rain(~ll in the United S~ate~ : Corp1 pf Engineera, U. S. Army, 1945. ·showing the cantrotled capacity when constructed, as well as the purpose of each reservoir. The location of each reservoir is shown on figure 32. Twenty-four of the completed reservoirs are operated exclu­sively for municipal or industrial water supplies. Five others are operated as mu· nicipal supplies, irrigation, or flood con· trol. Rita Blanca Reservoir and Buffalo . Lake in the Texas Panhandle and Murray Lake in south-central Oklahoma are for recreational use only. The primary pur­pose of the other ten reservoirs is flood control, but facilities for providing hydro· electric power and the conservation of water for beneficial uses have been incor­porated where the constructing agency con­sidered these functions to be feasible. Eleven major reservoirs are now being constructed by the Corps of Engineers, United States Army. These will provide needed storage for flood coritrol and will impound water for beneficial uses. Hydro· electric plants will be installed at three of the new reservoirs, and water for irri· gation will be provided at two of the reser· voirs now under construction in the west· ern portion of the area. The combined capacity of the 40 reser· voirs now completed is 11,595,000 acre· feet, of which 5,720,000 acre.feet is con· tained in Lake Texoma (Denison) on the Red River. The eleven reservoirs now under construction will have a combined capacity of 7,187,000 acre·feet, or the 51 major reservoirs in the Trinity River trib· utary area will have a combined storage of 18,782,000 acre-feet when the present · construction program is completed . There are many smaller reservoirs not mentioned in this report which impound water for municipal, industrial, and other uses. . Although reservoirs have been or are being constructed at many strategic loca­tions on the streams of the Trinity River tributary area, there is yet an economical demand for additional reservoirs to pro­vide flood protection and water for various beneficial uses in communities and regions not yet served by water conservation facilities. QUALifY OF WATER IN THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA16 Rain or snow falling to the earth gather only small amounts of mineral matter from the atmosphere. Water, however, is 16Prepared by W. W. Hastings, District Chemist, United 5tates Geological Survey, Austin, Texas. 1000 800 600 400 ~ 6ooor---,~-,-,-,r---.~-,--,,,~-,--:;,..,--.-n 4000r---i~-r-t-rt---t~-+--+-+-i-,.""'"1'~-+--+-+-I • 200000 600000 1000000 10000 100000 FLOOD PEAKS TEXAS AND SIMILAR AREAS MAXIMUM RECORDED EXPERIENCE Prepared by: G G. Commons, Hydraulic Engineer Texas State Board of Water Engineers. 1944 DRAINAGE AREA -SQUARE MILES Fig. 31. ·Maximum record experience of flood peaks in Texas and similar areas. Table 6. Reservoirs (capacity, 10,000 acre-feet or more) operating or under construction in the Trinity River tributary area. Controlle d capacity when construc ted, Reservoir--stream-loca tion Use acre-feet Arkansas River Basin 1. Lake Ponca, Turkey Creek, near Ponca City, Oklahoma_______________ Municipal 16,000 2. Great Salt Plains, Salt Fork Arkansas River near Jet, Oklahoma..Flood control, wild 317,000 life refuge 3. Shell Creek Lake; Shell Creek near Tulsa, Oklahoma___________________ Jndustrial 15,300 4. Lake Hefner, Bluff Creek, and diversion from North Canadian River, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma_________________________________________________ Municipal 100,000 5. Carl Blackwell Lake, Stillwater Creek, Stillwater, Oklahoma________ Flood control, conser· 61,500 vation 6. •Hulah, Caney River, Hulah, Oklahoma..__________________________________________.Flood control, conser-295,000 vation 7. Lake O' The Cherokees (Pensacola), Neosho River, Langley, Oklahoma ------------------------------------------------------------------..Power, flood control, conservation 2,200,000 8. •fort Gibson, Neosho River, Fort Gibson, Oklahoma_____________________ power, flood control 1,290,000 9. Spavinaw Lake, Spavinaw Creek, Spavinaw, Oklahoma_________________ Municipal 32,000 10. Greenleaf Lake, Greenleaf Creek, Greenleaf, Oklahoma__________________flood control, conser· 16,000 vation 11. •Tenkiller Ferry, Illinois River, Gore, Oklahoma________________________flood control, power, 1,230,000 conservation 12. Rita Blanca, Rita Blanca Creek, Dalhart, Texas________________________Recreation 12,100 13. Shawnee Lake, Shawnee, Oklahoma_________________________________________________ Municipal 23,000 14. Holdenville Lake, Holdenville, Oklahoma ______________________________________ Municipal 12,000 15. Lake McAlester, Bull Creek, near McAlester, Oklahoma_______________ Municipal 46,000 16. •canton, North Canadian River, Canton, Oklahoma___________________flood control, irriga-. 390,000 ~-~ tioo 17. Lake Overholser, North Canadian River, Oklahoma City, Okla­ homa _______:________________________________________________________________________________Municipal 20,200 18. Fort Supply, Wolf Creek, Fort Supply, Oklahoma____________ ________________flood control, conser-108,000 vation 19. Okmulgee Lake, Salt Creek, Okmulgee, Oklahoma__________________________Municipal 15,000 20. •Wister, Poteau River, Wister, Oklahoma_____________________________________ flood control, conser-430,000 vation Red River Basin 21. Buffalo Lake (Umbarger), Tierra Blanca Creek, Umbarger, Texas ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Recreation 18,200 22. Lake Texoma (Denison), Red River, Denison, Texas_____________________ FJood control, power, 5,720,000 conservation 23. Lake Altus, North Fork Red River, Lugert, Oklahoma__________________ flood control, irriga-152,000 tion, municipal 24. Lawtonka Lake, Medicine Bluff Creek, Medicine Park, Okla· 'homa ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Municipal 42,300 25. Lake Kemp, Wichita River, Mabelle, Texas____________________________________Jrrigation 438,000 26. Lake Kemp Diversion, Wichita River, Mankins, Texas___________________Jrrigation 40,000 27. Lake Wichita, Holiday Creek, Wichita Falls, Texas__________ ____ _________ Municipal 12,200 28. Lake Kickapoo, North Fork Little Wichita River near Archer City, Texas·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Municipal 106,000 29. Murray Lake, Anadarche Creek, near Ardmore, Oklahoma............Recreation 153,000 30. Lake Crook, Pine Creek, Paris, Texas ---------------------------------------------Municipal 11,000 31. Ellison, Ellison Creek, Daingerfield, Texas_______________________________________Jndustrial 24,700 Trinity River Basin 32. Bridgeport, West Fork Trinity River, Bridgeport, Texas________________ Flood control, munici-291,000 pal 33. Eagle Mountain, West Fork Trinity River, Fort Worth, Texas......Flood control, munici­214,000 pal 34. Lake Worth, West Fork Trinity River, Fort Worth, Texas______________ Municipal 30,700 35. •Benbrook, Clear Fork Trinity River, Fort Worth, Texas______________ Flood control, water 259,000 supply Controlled capacity when constructed, Reservoir-strenm-loca tion Use acre-feet 36. Mountain Creek, Mountain Creek, Grand Prairie, Texas________________ Industrial 30,200 37. Lake Dallas, Elm Fork Trinity River, Lake Dallas, Texas__________ Municipal 194,000 38. •Grapevine, Denton Creek, Grapevine, Texas______________________________________Flood control, munici-434,000 pal 39. •Lavon, East Fork Trinity River, Rockwall, Texas__________________________flood control, munici-423,000 pal 40. White Rock Lake, White Rock Creek, Dallas, Texas_____ __ ______________Municipal 18,100 Brazos River Basin 41. Possum Kingdom, Brazos River, Graford, Texas__ __ _ _______________ _ __ __ Flood control, power, 725,000 water supply 42. •Whitney, Brazos River, Whitney, Texas____________________________________________ Flood control, power, 2,020,000 water supply 43. Lake Sweetwater, Cottonwood and Bitters Creeks, Sweetwater, Texas --------------------------------------------------------------Municipal 10,000 Lake Abilene, Elm Creek, Abilene, Tex1;1s ________________________________ _____Municipal 44. 45,000 45. Fort Phantom Hill, Big Elm Creek, Nugei;it, Texas -------------------------Municipal 70,000 46. Lake Cisco, Sandy Creek, Cisco, Texas------------------------------------------Municipal 45,000 47. Lake Waco, Bosque River, Waco, Texas__ _ _________________ ________Municipal 39,000 Colorado River Basin 48. Lake Nasworthy, South Concho River, San Angelo, Texas____ __ ______ _ Municipal 10,700 49. •san Angelo, North Concho River, San Angelo, Texas_________ ______.__.Flood control, munici· 391,000 pal, irrigation 50. Brownwood, Pecan Bayou, Brownwood, Texas________________ _ ______Municipal, irrigation 161,000 51. •Hords Creek, Hords Creek, Coleman, Texas____________ _ _____ _______ f1ood control, munici-24,600 al a under construc tion. an except~onally good ~olven.t, and a.s soon as it reaches the earth it begins to d1ssolve the minerals in the soils and rocks through which and over which it passes. The amounts and character of the mineral mat­ter dissolved by water depend on the physical structure and the amounts of sQl· uble substances in the rocks and soils with which the water has been in contact and the length of time the water has reacted with these materials. Mineral impurities in water then depend upon the conditions under which the water has accumulated, which are largely beyond the control of the water consumer. During heavy rains ·when large volumes of water run.-off into the streams, surface water is generally less highly mineralized than during low stages whe:q the flow may be -largely maintained by more concen­trated ground-water flow. Flood water flowing rapidly over the ground has a relatively high velocity, and there is less opportunity for flood flow to dissolve the minerals in the rocks and soils than with ground water that percolates slowly through the rocks. Information on the chemical quality of the surface water of the Trinity River tributary are~ is meager. The available data consist largely of analyses of a few single samples collected at 78 points from streams in Oklahoma and the analysis of daily samples collected for a period of a year or more at 11 points in Oklahoma and 7 points on principal streams in Texas (see fig. 27). A few scattered analyses of single samples collected at various points in the Trinity River tributary area in Texas have been made. Average an~lyses of sev­eral rivers in Oklahoma and Texas where samples were obtained regularly for con­siderable periods are shown in table 7. Surface waters in the Tdnity River trib­utary area differ widely in quality, some being so highly mineralized at times as to be unfit for nearly all uses, whereas others are very low in mineral content, being suitable for all uses. Water containing less than 500 parts per million of dissolved -solids generally is satisfactory for nearly all industrial and domestic uses except for difficulties-resulting from its hardness or excessive content of certain constituents. Water containing more than 1,000 parts per million is likely to include enough of certain constituents to make the water un­suitable for some purposes. Industrial water-USE! requirements vary, but a water containing more than 500 parts per_mil· lion dissolved solids seldom can be used for industrial process except for cooling purposes. The . harmfulness of irrigation water is so dependent on the kind of min­ . erals in solutiqn in the water, on the types of land and crops, on the manner of use and on the drainage, that no fixed limits can be adopted. However, water contain­ing more than about 2,500 parts per mil­lion may have harmful effects on certain crops. Water having a hardness above 250 parts ·per million is considered very hard and usually can be profitably softened for municipal or industrial uses. TRINITY RIVER BASIN The water in the Trinity River Basin is rather low in mineral content and gener­ally would be acceptable for most. indus­trial and domestic uses. Immediately below Fort Worth and Dallas the compo­sition of the river water may be altered considerably .at low stages by sewage efiluent. Available records show that the water near the head of the Trinity River basin is somewhat lower in mineral con­tent than is generally found in the down­stream reaches of the Trinity River basin. The surface water throughout most of the basin would be considered moderately hard. As revealed by the average analysis in tab1e 7 for the Trinity River at Roma)'or the quality of the river water at this point is very good. TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA To ~e east of the Trinity River basin in Texas. and eastern Oklahoma, surface water comes in contact with relatively insoluble materials, ·and generally the water in this area is moderately hard to soft and low in dissolved solids except when polluted with oil field brines or other wastes. Nearly all of the stream water in Oklahoma and Texas east of about the 98th meridian, tributary to the Arkansas and Red rivers, generally has a mineral content below 500 parts per million and would be satisfactory for municipal and most industrial uses (see table 7, average analyses for Sabine, Washita, and Illinois rivers). However, some of the water in this arj:la is somewhat harder than is gen­erally accepted for use by most industries without treatment. Analyses of samples collected from streams west of the 98th meridian in Okla­homa and Texas indicate that the water in many streams, though satisfactory for irri­gation or for some municipal uses, may at some times be too highly mineralized and too hard for industrial uses. Tributaries of the Colorado, the Brazos, the Red, and principal tributaries of the Arkansas to the west, such as the Salt Fork, the Cimarron, and the Canadian, are at times too highly mineralized for praCtically any use. Streams arising in or traversing the Per­mian basin and coming in contact with the Permian or Pennsylvanian rocks are generally of very poor chemical quality during periods of low flow, though flood flows are dilute enough to be usable for most purposes. The-concentration of the river water that would be impounded in larger reservoirs in this area is such as to prohibit its use except for limited indus­trial uses, but perfectly satisfactory for Table 7. Average analyses of certain river waters in the Trinity River tributary area. (Parts per million.) Brazos River Colorado Illinois Sabine River Trinity Rive" at Possum River at Red River Washita River River at Logan1· at Romayor, Kingdom Dam, Colorado at Denison near Durwood, near Gore, port, Louisiana Texas Texas City, Texas Dam, Texas Oklahoma Oklahoma Calcium (Ca) ----··--··-----·--·-­Magnesium (Mg) __________________ 22 6.6 41 4.5 119 23 53 12 78 21 80 23 34 4.1 Sodium and potassium (Na+K) __________ 124 39 220 243 114 25 8.5 Bicarbonate (HCO. ) ·-----·----­Sulfate (SO,) ----·-------··---------­Chloride (Cl) ·-----=-···-----·-----­Nitrate (NO.) __ ________________ _____ Dissolved solids____ __ ____ __ _________ 43 14 214 0.2 468 114 30 57 2.0 257 144 242 352 1.6 1,030 120 97 360 3.9 847 140 129 195 1.7 607 187 143 30 3.7 452 119 4.2 4.0 0.5 128 Total hardness as caco•.... · 82 121 -' 39~ 182 281 .. 2,94 1_02 \ EXPLANATION Lakes in operCllion ond under cons!ruclion Fig. 32. Reservoirs of 10,000 acre-feet or more capacity in the Trinity River tributary area. 224 ' The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 domestic use though rather hard (see tablt'I 7, Brazos and Colorado rivers). The lim­ited runoff from the High Plains is usually quite similar to the composition of the ground water in that area, ·being charac-· terized by low mineral content but very hard. The impoundment of water on · some streams results in the marked improve­ment in quality through the storage of dilute flood flows in this area. _ Although the dissolved mineral content in the Red River above Denison Dam at Gainesville, Texas, frequently exceeds 2,000 parts, the water impounded in Lake Texoma, formed by Denison Dam, though very h!ird, would ~e satisfactory for many _ industrial uses and for domestic purposes (see table 7). CONCLUSIONS The surface-water resources of the Trin­ity River basin are only partially devel­oped. Over 80 percent of the runoff now flows to the Gulf of Mexico unused. Look­ing into the future, it might be of interest to make a preliminary estimate of the ulti­mate available surface-water supply from the Trinity River at and above Dallas, Texas, representing only a portion of this basin. The average discharge of the river at Da1las is one billion gallons daily. The flow, however, has varied from 4.4 million gallons per day on September 11, 1924, to 119 bi11ion gallons per day on May 25, 1908. Assuming that it would be possible to impound and utilize the total flow with­out evaporation or other losses, and that the water was used one time only the Trin­ity River at Dallas would sustai~ a popu­lation of about 6,700,000 people, allowina an average daily per capita i;;upply of 150 ga1lons. It is not possible to impound and utilize all of the flood flow; yet that part of the flow that can be made available can be used many times, thus expanding developments to -inestimable proportions. To serve the entire basin above Dallas and fully develop the water resources, res­ ervoirs must be properly distributed over the area, pollution must be controlled, and water used in multiple operations. A sys­ tematic plan, unit_ing reservoir operations for properly controlling the total runoff and purifying used water of the upper Trinity basin, would make this natural resource available for multiple uses. Many of the newly developed industrial processes require large quantities of water, cooling systems will increase in number, and irrigation may be employed more widely, thus increasing future per capita demands. _Hence, the maximum popula­tion to be sustained froni surface water in the Trinity River basin above Dallas will depend upon the efficient manner in which this circulating resource is developed and utilized. What has been said for the Trinity River at and above Da11as applies generally to other portions of the Trinity River tribu­tary area. In the western half of the area, however, the surface-water resources are lesser in extent, but some surface water is yet available for future developments. The available records of the quality of water in th~ Trinity River tributary area indicate that the surface water -east of about the 98th meridian would generally be more encouraging for industrial devel-· opment than would the water found in streams in -western portions of the area .. The streams of good quality in the eastern margin of the area may be adversely affected at times by contribution of sewage, mine drainage, industrial wastes, and oil field brines. As the developments expand throughout the Trinity River tributary area, water con­trol and utilization problems will become more complex. Thus, reliable records of stream flow, reservoir contents, siltation of reservoirs, silt loads of the streams, rec· · ords of the quality of water, water teiD· peratures, and the records of water diverted by the various users will he needed to develop fully the surface water resources of the area. BIBLIOGRAPHY U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR--GEOLOCICAL SURVEY STREAM FLOW Reports containing the daily, monthly, and annual flow at stream flow stations shown on. figure 27, as well as a number of similar stations now _cliscontinued, are contained in the annual series of water­ supp l y papers entitled "Surface Water Supply of the United States," published by the United States Geological Survey. In addition, these publications also contain information on measurements of streams at miscellaneous points, occasional meas­urements of springs, and other related data. Special reports containing runoff data resulting from a number of unusual storms that have occurred since 1921 have been published by the Geological Surv~y. The collection of these data is done under cooperative agreements with the Corps of Engineers, United States Army, the Oklahoma Planning and Resources Board, the Texas State Bollrd of Water Engineers, and a few municipalities. Water-Supply Papers containing results of customary records of stream flow W.S.P. No. W.S.P. No. W.S.P. No. W.S.P. No. YEAR PART 7° PART Sb YEAR PART 7a PART a• 1899_______ 37 37 1924_____ 587 588• 1900_______ 1925________ 50 50 607 608 1901._____ 1926_______ 627 628 75 75 84 84 647 648 1902________ 1927_______ 1903______ 99 99 667 668 1928_____ ___ 1904_______ 1929______ 131 132 687 688 1905________ 174 1930__ ______ 703 173 702 1906_ ______ 193L_____ 209 210 117 718 1932________ 1907-08.. 247 248 732 733 1909________ 1933________ 267 268 747 748 1910________ 1934_______ 287 288 762 763 l91L______ 1935________ 307 308 787 788 1912.__ __ _ 1936_____ ___ 807 327 328 808 1913________ 1937________ 357 358 827 828 1914___ _____ 387 388 1938........ 857 858 1915________ 1939______ 407 408 877 878 1916._______ 437 438 897 898 1940________ 1917________ 194L____ 457 458 927 928 1918__ _____ 1942________ 477 478 957 958 1943________ 1919-20.. 507 508 977 978 192L_____ 1944_ __ _ 527 528 1007 1008 1922_ __ __ _ 1945________ 547 548 1037 1038 1923________ 1946________ 567 568 • • 1947_______ • *In process of publication. :lPart 7 contains stream Bow data collected in the Arkan· sas and Red River basins. bPart 8 contains stream flow data collected for all other sections of Texas with the exception of the Rio Grande. Detailed information on the stage and discharge of many streams during major floods has been included in special reports published by the Geological Survey. The more recent of these reports also contain other pertinent hydrologic information and analyses and compilations of data relating to earlier noteworthy floods. Reports relat­ing to droughts, water losses, and other pertinent ,data are included. The following list gives the numbers and titles of these reports. W.S.P. No. Title 488 The floods in central Texas in September 1921 680 Droughts of 1930-34 771 Floods in the United States, magnitude and frequency 772 Studies of relations of rainfall and run­off in the United States 796--G Major Texas floods of 1935 816 Major Texas floods of 1936 820 Droughts of 1936 837 Inventory of unpublished hydrologic data 842 Floods in Canadian and Pecos River basins of New Mexico, May and June 1937 846 Natural water losses in selected drainage basina 847 Maximum discharges at stream measure­ment stations (United States) through September 30, 1938 850 Summary of records of surface waters of Texas, 1898-1937 914 Texas floods of 1938 and 1939 1046 Texas floods of 1940 QUALITY OF WATER Reports giving chemical analyses of sur­face water are now issued annually by the Geological Survey as water-supply papers entitled "Quality of Surface Waters of the United States." Water-Supply Papers containing chemical analyses of surface water YEAR W.S.P. No. 1941______________________ ________________ 942 1942__________________________________ 950 1943___ :___________________________________________________ 970 1944______________________________________ 1022 1945_________________________ _ _______________________ • 1946________________________________________________ • 1947_______________________________________ • • In process of publication. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE-WEATHEll BUREAU (a) Climatological Data: Monthly and annual publication of precipitation, temperature, etc. (b) Hydrologic Bulletin: Hourly and daily precipitation, Lower Mississippi West Gulf District•. ( c) Daily river stages at river gage stations on the principal rivers of the United Stjltes: Annual publication. OTHER -¥EDERAL AGENCIES The Corps of Engineers, United States Army, and the United States Department of Agriculture have various published re­ports that contain hydrologic data for regions in the Trinity River tributary area investigated by those agencies. STATE AGENCIES OKLAHOMA Oklahoma Planning and Resources Board "Oklahoma Water": Summary of rainfall, sur­ face and ground water resources, and a bibliography of publications relating to the water resources of Oklahoma. TEXAS Texas Board of Water Engineers "Progress report for the period September 1, 1944, to August 31, 1946": Report of the activities of the State Board and a bibliog­raphy of the Board's published reports and publications of the United States Geological Survey, Water Resources Branch, which relate to Texas. GROUND-WATER RESOURCES OF THE TRINITY RIVER TRIBUTARY AREA IN TEXAS W; N. White, Texas State Board of Water Engineers .ritd· (Figure 33) This section is devoted chiefly to ground water in the Texas portion of the Trinity River tributary area, hut some mention is made of these l'.esources and their develop­ment in adjoining portions of Oklahoma. For convenience the outcropping rocks of the region, both water-hearing and non­water-hearing, have been classed into groups according to their age from older to younger: Cambrian to Mississippian, Pennsylvaniau, Permian and Triassic, Lower Cretaceous, Upper Cretaceous, Lower Eocene, Middle and Upper Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene, and Pleistocene. The principal outcropping areas of the rocks of these groups are shown on the map (fig. 33). Mississippian and older rocks are of slight importance as a source of ground water in the area and are not discussed in this section of the report. All of the rocks are of sedimentary origin. The Pennsylvanian rocks appear at the surface near the center of the Trinity River tributary area in Texas between the . Colorado River and the Oklahoma boundary. The Permian and Triassic rocks crop out · in a large territory in the Osage plains, extendi~g from t4e Pennsylvanian outcrop area westward to the eastern escarpment of .the High Plains. The Permian rocks occupy the greater part of that territory, the overlying Tri~ssic rocks being present only in the western and southwestern parts of it. Formations of the Lower Cretaceous 'or Comanche series crop out in the Cross Timber and the Black and Grand Prairie regions of north-central Texas in a broad belt bordering the Pennsylvanian outcrop on the east. . They appear also along the southern and southeastern edges of the Llano Estacado or South Plains and in the Edwards Plateau a.t the southwestern extremity of the area. Rocks of the Up­per Cretaceous or Gulf series appear at the surface in a hand of varying width bordering the main belt of the outcrop of the Lower Cretaceous rocks on the east. Thence eastward imd southeastward on the Coastal Plain, successively younger rocks appear and are grouped as follows: Lower Eocene; Middle and. Upper Eocene; Mio­cene and Pliocene. The youngest sedi­ments considered are of Pleistocene age, which crop out in a wide belt bordering the Gulf Coast and occur in other parts of the area in stream terraces, which are not shown on the map. The Pliocene de­posits are at the surface or near the sur­face in most of the High Plains in the extreme western part of the area. A few dominant structural features of importance in connection with ground water supply are as follows: The Penn­sylvanian and Permian rocks generally dip tQwards the west and northwest whereas the Tri~sic rocks as a rule dip toward the southeast. The Cretaceous rocks are comparatively flat in the High Plains and Edwards Plateau, but in other parts of the region, they generally dip towards the east and southeast at a fairly steep gradient. The post-Cretaceous · rocks of the Coastal Plain ordinarily dip towards the Gulf. An important exception occurs on the west flank of the Sabine uplift near the Texas­Louisiana line where the rocks dip west­erly into the Tyler basin. The High Plains deposits (Ogallala formation) were laid dow~ on an uneven surface of Cretaceous, Permian, and Triassic rocks and partly on this account differ widely in thickness in different parts of the Plains. Faults of varying magnitude occur in many parts of the region, and in places the regional dip is absent or is reversed. These features are too numerous to he discussed in this paper. Most of the ground water developed in the Trinity River tributary area in Texas is obtained from comparatively few aqui­fers. They are as follows according to the age of the rocks from older to younger: sands of the Trinity group of the Lower Cretaceous series; the Woodbine sand of the Upper Cretaceous series; sands of the Wilcox group and Carrizo sand of Lower Eocene age; sands of the Goliad­Willis-Lissie group of Pliocene and The University of ·Texas PubUcation No. 4824 100° 0 z EXPLANATION Outcrops of Upper Cret?ceous Outcrops of Pleistocene stroto stroto ~ ~ Outcrops of Low.er Cretaceous Outcrops of Pliocene and strata ~. Miocene stroto ~ Outcrops of .Tri assic ono Outcrops of Middle and Upper Permian strata -~ ~ Eocene strata Oulcrops of Pennsylvanian Outcrops of Lower Eocene strata ~ strata ITIIIIIill1l Ill Outcrops of Mississippian k> Cambrian strata Fig. 33. Distribution of strata in the Trinity River tributary area. 35• I S A S Pleistocene age, which are usually classed together because of the difficulty of identi­ fying them in wells; sands and gravels of the High Plains deposits (Ogallala formation) of upper Tertiary age; and the basal Beaumont sands of Pleistocene age. Less important aquifers are the Paluxy sand, which is the upper sand of the Trinity group ; the Catahoula sand; the Oakville sandstone; and sands in the Lagarto clay. The water-bearing properties of the rocks of the different groups and the development of water supplies from them are described in the following pages. For convenience the rocks are described geo­ graphically in the order of their occur· rence from west to east and southeast, starting with the High Plains deposits (Ogallala formation) . The reports referred to in the text and listed in the bibliography on page 237 are devoted primarily to ground water. It should be mentioned here that informa­ tion in various publications of The Uni­ versity of Texas, Bureau of Economic Geol­ ogy, has been of great assistance in the preparation of some of the reports. OGALLALA FORMATION The Ogallala formation yields more ground water than any other aquifer in the Trinity River area. The formation is com­posed of silt and fine-grained sand but contains some coarse sand and gravel. The coarser sediments which usually yield water freely to wells are present to all horizons but are most prominent in the lower part of the formation. The forma­tion lies at or near the surface throughout most of the High Plains area. It was laid down on an uneven floor of Cretaceous, Triassic, and Permian rocks, which had been eroded into valleys and ridges before the Ogallala was deposited. The Ogallala deposits range from a few feet to 500 feet or more in thickness. They are thickest in parts of the North Plains (north Qf the Canadian River) and thinnest in the extreme southern part of the Llano Estacado or South Plains. In the South Plains between Amarillo and Lubbock, where they are most extensively developed for irrigation, they average between 200 and 300 feet in thickness. Practically all the water used in the High Plains region in Texas is obtained from these deposits. Comparatively large quantities are used for public and indus­ trial supply, but by far the greatest . use is for irrigation. The rapid development of wells for irrigation in the region is believed tQ be unprecedented anywhere in the United States. In 1934 only 300 irriga­ tion wells were in operation, and 35,000 acres were under well-water irrigation. In 1946 it was estimated that 5,500 wells were in use and about 650,000 acres were sup­ plied from them. The heaviest develop­ ment is in nine counties as follows: Hale, Lubbock, Swisher, Floyd, Deaf Smith, Lamb, Castro, Bailey, and Hockley. · All the cities and towns of the Plains obtain water from wells. Amarillo, the largest, uses an average of about 8 million gallons a day and Lubbock, the next in size, an average of 5 to 6 million gallons a day. Other large users are Plainview, Borger, Pampa, Hereford, Brownfield, Lamesa, Dalhart, Littlefield, Levelland, Dumas, Fl<;>ydada, Canyon, and Perryton. Several industrial plants north and northeast of Amarillo are supplied from wells with an average daily pumpage of about 20 million gallons. In the entire High Plains region in Texas the present total withdrawal of water from the Ogallala deposits, expressed as an average throughout the year, is esti­mated to be about 700 million gallons a day. Smaller but important developments of the Ogallala aquifer for irrigation also have been made in Texas and in Cimarron County in the Panhandle of Oklahoma. The Ogallala water is hard but is com· paratively low in total dissolved solids. It is well adapted for irrigation and is acceptable for public supply and most industrial uses. In the greater part of the High Plains in Texas, water encountered below the Ogallala beds is too highly min­eralized for irrigation _or most other uses. In a few localities, however, water of fairly good quality is obtained from underlying Triassic sandstone or from basal Cretaceous sand. This is discussed later in the section. Among the areal reports on the geology and ground-water resources of the High Plains in Texas are those of Gould (22,23) 17 and Baker (6). Since 1937 a more or less continuous study of ground water in the High Plains has been in progress as part of the State· wide program of ground water investiga­tions by the Texas Board of Water Engi· neers in cooperation with the Federal Geo­logical Survey. Six progress reports have been published in mimeographed form by the Board of Water Engineers, the first in 1938 and the last in 1946 ( 13) . The prog• ress report for 1940 was published as United States Geological S~rvey · Water­Supply Paper 889-F (40). These reports treat of tbe geology of the Plains and source of the ground water, hut they are devoted mainly tQ the development of ground water for irrigation in different parts of the region and the effect of this development . on the ground water in storage as shown by the water levels in observation wells. Water well surveys have been made in 29 counties of the Plains, and the results by counties have been published in mimeo· graphed form by the State Board of Water Engineers and cooperating agencies (31). Reports dealing with ground water in the vicinity of Amarillo ( 5) , Lubbock (27), Lamesa (3), Denver City (1), and the Sunray-Etter area in Moore County (36) have been released in mimeographed or typewritten form. The occurrence of ground water in the Ogallala formation and other rocks in Texas and Cimarron counties in Oklahoma, comprising the greater part of the High Plains in that State, is discussed in Bulle­tins 59 (33) and 64 (34) of the Oklahoma Geological Survey. TRIASSIC ROCKS Rocks qf Triassic age underlie most of the Llano Estacada or South Plains and a part of the North Plains in Texas. They appear ~t the surface in the valley of the Canadian River in Oldham, Potter, and Deaf Smith counties and in a belt of vary­ing width at the base of the eastern escarp· ment of the Plains. This belt is only a fraction of a mile to about a mile in width in Motley and Dickens counties, hut 1'1Literature references are given in the bibliography on p. 237. farther south in Howard and Mitchell counties it reaches a width 0£ about 50 miles. Altogether the area of .2, 213, 216, 220, 224 Thatcher: 105 Coltexo Corporation: 51 Columbian Carbon Company: 51 Columbian-Phillips Company:• 51 Comanche County, Oklahoma : 25, 70, 96, 98, 117, 118, 129, 137. 165. 189, 198 Comanche County, Texas : 17, 73, 114, 115 Combined Carbon Company: 51 Combs, Taft: 168 Como: 38, 41 Commerce, Oklahoma: 214 Commerce, Texas : 234 Commons, G. G. : 217 common salt: 19. 148, 152-156 Conchas reservoir : 216 Concho: 137 River: 137, 216 Sand and Gravel Company: 101 Concord dome: 153 concrete aggregate : 132, 136 light weight: 62, 82 uses of: 125 connate waters : 148 Consumers Lignite Company: 41 Continental Carbon Company: 51 Oil Company: 80, 81 Cooke County: 17, 24, 25, 27, 29, 115, 169, 171 Cook's Mountain, quarry on: 172 copper : 20, 180-184 coquina : 109 Corning Glass Works: 147 Corrigan: 61, 62, 139, 172, 236 Coricana: 87, 210, 211 Cotten, James A.: 10 Cottle County: 96. 137, 140 Cotton County : 63, 70, 80. 121 Cottonwood Creek : 220 Council Creek: 214 covellite: 181 Cowley County: 105, 108 cracking : 53 Craig County : 41, 121 Crandall: 133, 138 Crawford: 234 Creek County: 88, 121, 146, 147 Crescent Carbon Company: 51 Creta dolomite, analYBes : 98 Cretaceous rocks, Lower: 232-234 Upper: 234 Crisp: 138 Crockett: 77, 172, 236 Crosby County: 60, 63, 92, 115, 231 Crosbyton: 60. 63 Cross Mountains : 195 Ashel, ranch : 63 Crowell: 215, 236 Crown Carbon Company: 51 crushed and broken stone: 164, 173-174 cryptocryStalline rock: 65 Crystal Falls: 216 Granite Company: 168 Cunningham : 105 cuprite: 181 Custer County: 63, 88 Cypress Creek: 214, 215 Daingerfield : 41, 192, 194, 219, 235 Dalhart : 219, 230 · Dallam County : 14 Dallas : 7, 19, 81, 86, 87, 101, 118, 120, 125, 128, 130, 133, 136, 138, 140, 164, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 220, 221, 224, 233, 234 County: 19, 83, 86, 87, 116, 118, 120, 128, 129, 138, 140, 234 Lime Company: 118 station: 211, 212 Dalton coal: 35 Darco: 38 Corporation: 41 Darden: 214, 215 Davis : 96, 198 Brick Company : 88 Estate: 78 Hill dome: 153 zinc field : 198 Dawson coal: 30 analYBis : 40 Dawson County: 149 Dayton : 236 Deaf Smith County: 230. 231 Decatur: 27, 23·3 Deep Fork: 215 Deer Creek limestone: 114 Defense Plant Corporation: 41, 192 definition of terms, stream flow data: 201 of Trinity River tributary area·: 7 Delta County : 86, 121 Denison: 118, 218, 219 Dam: 221, 224 reservoir : 219 Denmark: 56. 57 Dennis Bridge limestone: 114 Denton : 83, 140, 233 County: 83, 87, 128. 133. 169, 171 Creek: 133, 210, 211, 213, 220 Denver City: 281 Dewar : 215 Dewey County: 68, 80, 92, 187 Devil's Backbone: 25 Bend of Neches River: 172 Dexter : 105 Dialville: 191 diatomaceous earth: 57 diatomite : 57-60 diatoms : 57 Dickens County : 60, 68, 64, 92, 149, 194, 231 dickite: 75 diesel oil: 53 dimension stone : 109, 164-178 diorite : 165 Dirty Creek : 214 distillation: 53 Dockum: 60 Dolese Bros. : 118 dolomite : 18, 109, 165, 173 analyses : 98 and limestone: 169 and magnesian limestone: 18, 98-99 p~uction: 97, 174 Donley County: 92, 202 Dorothy Spur : 140 Dott, Robert H . : 7, 15 Double Mountain Fork: 137, 216, 283 Doucette: 236 Dougherty : 24, 25, 26 deposits : 29 Dover: 136 drilling clays : 18, 75, 89-92 mud : 67, 71. 72. 89 rotary: 81 Dripping Springs: 139 droughts: 212 Drummond: 186 dry gases : 4 7 Dublin : 238, 234 Duck Creek : 68 limestone, ana)ySes : 116 marl, analySes: 130 Dumas : 230 Dumble, E. T.: 88 Durwood: 215, 221 Dustin: 64 Eagle Ford: 130, 138 shale, analyses: 129, 130 Eagle Mountain reservoir: 212, 219 Eagletown: 198 Eardley-Wilmot, V. L.: 65 East Fork: 139, 210, 211, 213, 220 Eastland: 82, 87 County: 17, 35, 82, 83, 87, 114, 116, 171 East St. Louis: 194 East Texas Gravel Company: 138, 139 East Tyler dome: 153 Eckel, E. C. : 116. 124, 130 Eckhardt, Carl. Jr. : 32 Eddy County: 149. 161 Eden-Burch Lumber Company deposit: 61 Edith post office: 26 Edwards limestone, analyses: 116 Plateau: 233 · Egypt, pyramids : 164 Eklund-Blackmon Salt Company: 166 elaterite: 21 Elderville: 216 Eldorado: 163 El&'in: 214 · sandstone: 171 Elk Granite Company: 168 Elk River: 214. Zl7 Ellis County, Oklahoma: 63, 80, 92 E..'!lis County, Texas: 19, 83, 86,. 87, 120, 128, 133, 138 140 . • Ellis Glazing Company: 88 Ellison Creek: 219 reservoir: 219 Elm·Creek: 216, 220 limestone: 114 Elm Fork: 133, 137, 139, 163, 210, 211, 212, 216, 220 EI Paso smelter: 180, 184 Emanuel, R. J.: 166 Emory: 38 engine sand: 148 England: 72 Stonehenge: 164 En&'lewood: 214 Enid : 88, 186 Enloe: 121 Ennis: 2.84 Eocene rocks, Middle and Upper: 236 Lower: 234-286 eolian action: 186 epaomite: 161 Erath County: 17, 20, 86, 83, 116, 118, 171, 173, 234 Erick: 166 Esperson dome: 168 Estelline: 216 ethane: 47 Ethyl-Dow Corporation process : 161 Etter area: 231 evaporite deposits: 148 Evans, A. M. : 190 Evans, Glen : 60 E'l'ansvllle: 88 Exell helium plant: 105, 108 Falls County: 65, 116, 284 Fannin County: 88, 86, 128 Farmersville: 120 Farrell, Mrs. H. F.: 140 Farris: 216 Faulkner, J, A., land: 78 Faxon-: 187 feldspar: 63, 66, 170 Ferris: 87, 188, 188 Brick Company: 87 ferromanganese: 194 fertilizers: 46, 120, 124, 148, 149 filter sand : 148 water: 61 fire brick producers : 87 fire clay: 87 fireworks : 72 Fisher County: 19, 72, 78, 74, 96, 101, 171, 231 Flttstown: 169 flood flows: 217 plains: 158 Florida : 124 Floydada.: 280 Floyd County: 137, 188, 140, 230 foam glass : 62 Foard County: 96, 171, 181, 236 Foraker limestone: 114 Forest: 80 Fort Bend Count¥: 176 Fort Gibson: 219 reservoir : 219 Fort Phantom Hill: 220 Fort Riley limestone: 114 Fort Scott limestone: 114 anal:vsls: 121 Fort Smith: 29 Fort SuppJ:v: 216, 219 l'CllerYQ!f; H9 Fort.Worth: 19, 26, 87, 106, 128, 180, 138, 136, 138, 139, 140, 146, 164, 201, 208, 209, 210, 211, 213, 219, 221, 233, 284 and Denver City Railroad : 139 limestone, analyses: 116 Sand and Gravel Company, Inc.: 140 foundries : 43 Fountain, H. C.: 10, 21, 29, 31; 46, 66, 72, 82, 93, 109, 164. 185 Fourche Maline: 215 Fouts. John M.: 15 Fox, B. U. : 118 Limestone Quarry: 169 France: 56, 67 Franklin County : 17, 38, 86 Fra.nkoma Potteries, Inc. : 88 Frasch process : 176, 177 Frederick : 137 Freedom: 166 Freeport: 160, 161 _F~~ne County: 17, 19, 38, 39, 86, 121, 128, 130, 158, Frisco Railroad : 188 station: 27 fuel oil: 58 Fuller Memorial Park: 172 fuller's earth: 18, 76, 80 production: 81 gabbro: 166 gaging stations: 204, 210-211 data: 212 Gail: 160 Gaines County: 162 Gainesville: 171. 224, 233 Galbraith. F. W. : 185 &'alena: 198 Galveston: 164 Bay: 7. 19. 118, 128 Gann Sand and Gravel Company: 140 · Garcia. Jesse: 41 Garfield County: 63, 88, 136, 137, 181 Garland: 233, 284 garnet: 66 Garrison: 38, 87 Brick Company: 87 Garvll: 234 Garvin County : 68, 64, 70, 71, 137, 181 Garza County : 63, 92, 231 gasoline: 61, 58 General Atlas Carbon Division of General PropertiesCompany, Inc.~ 51 General Refractories Company: 87 &'eology of Trinity River tributary area: 11 Georges Creek: 137 ·Georgetown limestone, anal:vaes: 116 Georgia, Cartersville: 70 Germany: 29, 46. 162 salt deposits : 148 Gilford-Hill & Company; Inc. : 138, 140 Gilman Granite Company: 168 Gilmer: 188 gilsonite: 21 Gin&'er: 88 Gladewater: 216 &'lance pitch: 21 Gla88cock County: 14, 149 glass, optical: 143, 146 glass sand: 19, 170 and other sands: 143-147, 1'13 g!auberite: 162 glauconite: 120, 166, 169 rock: 172 Glen Rose: 216 limestone : 116 Glover: 198 · Goethels, George R.: 7 goethite: 185 Goliad-Willia-LiBBie &'roup: 227 Goltry : 187 Goodland limestone, anal:vaes: 116 Goodnight: 60 Goodrich: 286 Good Roads Gravel Company: 140 Gordon: 35 Mountain: 26 Gordou, C. H.: 282 Gore: 219, 221 Gotebo: 96 The University of T.exas Publication No. 4824 Gould, C. N. : 281 Grady County: 187 Graford: 220 grah!'mite: 17, 21, 26, 29 analyses : 27, 28 Granbury : 137, 139 Grand Prairie: 138, 210, 211, 220, 234 Grand Sa.line: 156 · dome: 153 granite: 20, 61, 65, 165-168, 173 Granite: 137, 165, 168 granodiorite: 165 Grange Hall school: 171, 172 Grant County: 63, 137, 181 Grapevine : 140. 213, 220 reservoir: 213. 220 graphite: 81 gravel: 19, 57. 132-142 producers: 138 gravity, A.P.I. or Baum~: 53 Gray County: 51, 92 Grayson County: 83, 115, 118, 121, 128, 171 Great Salt Plains reservoir : 219 ' · · greenhouses, peat in: 45 Greenleaf: 219 Creek : 219 Lake reservoir: 219 Greenville: 284 Greer County: 63, 88, 137, 140, 165, 168, 181 · Gregg County: 17, 38, 86, 235. · · grinding pebbles: 18, 56-60 · ·· grit: 65 ground-water resources : 227-237 Groveton : 61, 172 Gulf Coastal Plain : 14 Gulf of Mexico: 160, 177, 200, 201, 202, 224 Gunsight .limestone: 114 gypgum: 19, 125, 131, 148, 152, 181 and anhydrite: 100-104 Gypsum Hills : '101 Haden, W. D.: 118 Hainesville dome: 163 Hale County: 137, 230 halite: 148, 152 Hall Bros. Rock Crusher: 118, 138 Hall County: 137 · halloysite: 75 Haltom City pit: 140 ,! ·.-,; Ham, w.E.: 73 . Hamilton County: 116 Hamlin: 101, 189 . .. Sand and .Gravel Company: 139 . Handley: 233 · . · Hankamer dome: :158 . . ..... Harbison-Walker Refractories Company : 87, 146. · Hardeman County: 19, 96, 101, 158, 171, .181 Hardin County: 163 · · · Harmon County·: 20, 137, 153, 156. Creek deposit : 61 Harper County: 63, 64, 153 Harrell, W. T.: 195 Harris, Bagby, Sand Company: 140 Harris County: 41 Harrison County: 17, 88, 41, 42, 86, 87, 188· Hartley County: 19, 60, 63, 64, 80, 92, 1.08 Hartshorne sandstone: 171 . Haskell, Oklahoma: 137 .. County, Oklahoma: 63, 64; 80, 92, 121 Haskell, Texas: 188, 286 . County, Texas: 114, 138, 181; .286: · Hasse: 216 Hassell Mountain: 191 Hassell's well: 27 haydite: 82 producers : 87 ···: Hazel-Atlas GliLsa Company: 147 Headrick: 215 Hearne: 138 heavy spar: 67 helium: 19, 47, 105-108 hematite: 169, 185, 189 Hemphill County: 62, 63, 64· Henderson: 87, 235 Clay Products Company: 87 County: 17, 19, 38, 39, 41, 42, 86, 87, 120, 121, 183, 138. 153. 172. 173, 188, 191 Hendricke, T. A.: 10, 21, 31. 40, 53 Henryetta: 88, 147, 192 coal, analysis : 89, 40 Hereford : 280 Herington limestone: 114 Hewett, D. F. : 195 H. & G. H. Railroad: 138 Hickory: 147 Higginsville limestone: 114 'High Plains : 18 highways: 11 Hill County : 19, 83, 86, 120, 128 Hill, R. T.: 284 Hill, S. M., and Son: 41 Hillsboro: 288 Hillsdale: 181 Gravel Company: 139 history of project : 7 Hobart : 168 Hockley County: 137, 162, 230 Hogue Pottery: 87 Hogshooter limestone: 114 analysis: 121 · Holdenville: 219 Lake reservoir : 219 Holiday Creek: 219 Home Creek limestone: 114 Homer: 172 Boness, C. W.: 65 Hood County: 115, 137, 139 Hooks: 138 Hoover, Thoe., land: 27 Hope-Sober open pit mine: 198 Hopkins County: .17,. 38, 39, 41, 86, 87, 9? . Horatio, APkansas: 215 · Horatio, Oklahoma: 217 Borda Creek: 220 i>"' ''"-. reservoir:.220 . ... . Hornberger', Joseph: 35 · .· · . Houston: 19, 41, 61, 70, 74, 81, 92, US, 128, 183~ .136, 139, 164, 188, 192, 194 . . ... .-. ,. .." County: 17, 18, 19, 20, 38, 39, 45, 77, ·so, ·as, 120, 121, 153, 171, 172, .173,.188 . Division, The Champfon Paper &· Fij>er Pl>lllPany '· 118 . ··•·• . '•· .· .. •' Ship Channel: 7 · ·. : · . i Howard County : 18, 70, 92, 137, 140, is2, 28.1 Hoyt switch: 38 · Huber, J. M., Corporation:: 61· Hudson Creek: 196 Hughes County: 63 Hulah: 219 ···.·. Hull dome·: 163 humus content of peat: 45 Hunt County : 86, 120, 121 Hurricane Bayou : 77 Hurst Station : 140 Hutchinson County: 51 hydrated lime, production: 118 hydrogenation: 54 hydrogen sulfide: 47 hygroscopic water: 7o Idaho: 124, 180 I. & G. N. Railroad: 62 Illinois, Chicago: 101 East St. Louis : 194 '·.·.;: River: 214, 217, 2i9, 221 impsonite: i 7, 21, 26, 29 analyses: 28 Impson Valley : 27 incendiary bombs : 93 Independence : 214 Index: 213, 214, 215 Indiahoma: 137 Indian Creek : 63, 137. 235 industry, water requirements of: 201 infusorial earth : 57 insulating material: 62 iodine : 161 ···. ·, Iowa Park: 137 iron: 20, 185-,198 ore: 125, 181, 185, 189, 192 analyses : 190 ironstone gravel: 182 irrigation : 230 Irving: 188 Jack Cou:O:ty: 17, 85, 114, 116, 171 J ackford Creek: 27 Jacksboro: 208, 282 limestone, analyses: 116 Jackson County: 98, 121, 158, 165 Jacksonville: 171, 192, 216 Jagger Bend limestone: 114 J arvls Chapel: 24, 25, 28, 29 Jefferies and Betts: 189, 140 Jetferson: 214, 215 Jenke, A. L.: 10, 56, 57, 76, 82, 89, 12(), 198 Jermyn: 85 Jester: 137 Jet: 219 Johnson, Charles Eneu, & Company: 51 Johnson copper prospect: 198 Johnson County: 88 Johnson, W. H.: 87 Johnston County: 17, 26, 71, 96, 97, 98, 114, 117, 118, 121, 129, 187, 139, 143, 147, 168, 189, 194, 198 Jones area: 149 County: 96, 114, 116, 118, 169, 171, 181 Jones, C. ·A.: 92 Jones, W. L., & Son: 118 Joplin area chats : 17 4 Jude: 189 Jumbo Mine: 27 Kansas : 12, 100, 153, 170, 171 Arkansas City: 214 Cowley County: 105, 108 Cunningham: 105 Deocter: 105 Elgin: 214 Englewood~ 214 Independence: 214 Kansas City: 168 Kfow11: 214 Otis: 105 Winfield: 214 Kansas City, Kansas : 168 Kansas City, Missouri: 194 kaolin: 128 kaolinite: 75 kaolinltic clay: 128, 180 Kaufman: 120 County: 19, 86, 115, 120, 133, 138, 139 Kay County: 68, 86, 88, 118, 128, 137, 140, 147, 169 Keechi salt dome: 115, 153 Keene's cement: 100. 173 Kelley, John C.: 64 Kelley Products: 63, 64 pit: 68 Kelley Stone Company: 118, 169 Kelley; Walter: 140 Kelley, W. R.• and Son: 81 Kennedy, H. S.: 15 Kennedy, William: 38 Kent County: 68, ·64 kerosene : 53 .Kerr and Company: 147 Klamichi: 27 River: 214, 215 shale, anal:vses : 180 kieselguhr: 57 kieserite: 161 Kilgore: 235 Kilgore, John M.: 118 Kindhlade dolomite, analyses: 98 King County: 96, 171, -181 Kingfisher County: 63, 136, 181 Kinney, D. M.: 10, 72, 93, 100, 105, · 109, 125, 132, 143, 148, 153. 164. 176. 185, 194 . Kiowa County: 63, 70, 96, 98, 129, i37, 165, 168, 189, 198 Granite· Company: 168 Kansas: 214 Kleer salt mine: 158 Knight pit: 138 Knox City: 181, 236 County: 96, 137, 171, 181, 236 Glass Company: 146 kraft paper lnduritry: 162, 168 Lagarto clay : 230 Lagow Materials Company: 188 Lain Gravel Company: 139 Lain, J. Lambert: 118 Lake Abilene reservoil": 220 Lake Altus reservoir : 219 Lake Cisco reservoir : 220 Lake Crook reservoir: 219 Lake Dallas: 212, 213, 220 reservoir : 220 Lake Hefner reservoir : 219 Lake Kemp reservoir: 219 Lake Kickapoo reservoir: 219· Lake McAlester reservoir: 219 Lake Nasworthy reservoir: 220 Lake O' The Cherokees reservoir: 219 Lake Overholser reservoir: 219 Lake Pinto sandstone: 171 Lake Ponca: 219 Lake Suverior district: 118 Lake Sweetwater reservoir : 220 Lake Texoma: 218, 224 reservoir: 219 Lake Waco reservoir: 220 Lake Wichita reservoir: 219 Lake Worth: 212 reservoir: 219 Lamar County: 83, 85, 86, 115, 121 Lamb County: 60, 92, 162, 230 Creek: 138 Lamesa: 230, 231 laminated iron ore: 188 Lancaster: 138 langbeinite: 148, 160 Langley: 219 LaRue dome: 153 Latimer County: 65, 114, 129 Lavon: 120 reservoir: 213, 220 Lawton: 96, 118, 198 Lawtonka Lake reservoir: 219 Layman and Company: 140 Layton, C. R., Sand and Gravel Company: 140 lead: 20, 181, 196 and zinc: 198-199 Leary: 137 Lecompton limestone: 114 Lee County: 45, 46 LeFlore County: 25, 26, 28, 29, 121 Lehigh Portland Cement Company: 130 Lela: 181 Lenevah limestone: 114 Leona: 77 Leon County: 17, 18, 19, 20, 38, 39, 45, 77, 86, 120, 121, 153, 172, 173, 188 River: 216 · levees: 212-213 Levelland: 230 Lewistown: 147 Liberty: 7, 176, 212 County: 19, 20, 133, 138, 140, 147, 153, 176, 177, 236 light oils : 33 light weight concrete aggregate: 62, 82 lignite: 17, 81-44 lime: 112 agricultural: 124 producers : 117. 118 limestone: 19, 20, 61, 109-119, 125, 128, 131, 165 agricultural : 112, 178 and dolomite: 169 caliche and shell deposits: 109-119 crushed, production: 174 dimension stone, producers : 169 magnesian: 18, 93-99, 109, 169, 173 producers : 117. 118 Limestone County: 17, 38, 65, 86, 115, 120, 128, 173, 235 liming agents: 112 limonite: 71, 169, 185 Lincoln County: 24. 181 Linden: 192 mine: 198 Lindsay: 137 lithographic limestone: 109 lithopone: 67 litter, veat for: 45 Littlefield : 60, 230 Little River: 26, 181, 214, 215, 217 Little Wichita River: 213, 215, 219 Livingston: 236 Llano-Burnet area: 93 Llano Estacado: 13, 136, 233, 236 Llanoria: 13 locks, navigation: 7 Logan County: 181 Logan: 214 Logansport: 216, 221 M6 The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 Lone Star: 41, 192 Cement Company: 118, 128, 130 Steel Company: 41, 185, 190, 191; 192 Long Glade peat bog: 45 Longnecker, Oscar: 62, 63 Longview: 192 Lonsdale, John T.: 7 Loraine: 231 Lost Lake dome: 153 Loug)llin, G. F.: 16 Louisiana: 65, 93, 161, 163, 214, 236 Logansport: 216, 221 Shreveport: 87 Love County: 17, 26, 129 Lovefield Potteries : 87 Lovelady: 38 Loveland: 236 Lower Cretaceous rocks: 232-234 Lower Eocene rocks : 234-235 Lower Hartshorne coal: 39 analyses : 40 Lower Witteville coal: 39 anaJyses : 40 · Lowrance ranch: 71 Lubbock: 63, 64, 92, 138, 216, 230. 231 County: 115, 230 lubricating oil: 53 Lueders: 118, 169 district: 169 limestone: 114, 116 Lufkin: 172. 216, 236 Lugert: 219 Lynn County: 20. 63. 64. 92. 162 Mabank:' 210, 211 Mabelle: 219 Madaras Steel Corporation of Texas: 192 Madison County: 17, 18, 19, 38. 77, 86, 153, 173 Madisonville: 236 dome: 153 magnesian limestone: 18, 93-99, 109, 169, 173 magnesium: 149 chloride: 20, 148, 158, 160 metal: 93 metallic : 93 sulfate: 20, 148, 158, 161-162 Mainstreet limestone, analyses : 116 Major County: 181 Makins Operating Company: 147 malachite: 181 Malakoff: 88. 41. 87 Brick Company: 87 Fuel Company: 38, 41 manganese: 20, 194-195, 196 Mangum: 88. 216 Brick & Tile Company : 88 dolomite, ana!Yses : 98 Manitou: 70 Mankins: 219 manufactured asphalt: 25, 53 gas: 47 marble: 20, 61, 165, 170 Marble City: 170 marca8ite: 169 Marcy Expedition: 181 Marion County: 17, 38, 86, 188, 191, 235 Marlin: 115 Marquez dome: 153 Marshall: 38, 41, 86, 87, 286 Brick Company: 87 County: 17, 26, 129 Pottery Company: 87 Martin Brick Company: 87 Martin, Will. farm: 74 Matador: 213, 232 Matagorda County: 176 Mayes County: 11, 128 McAdoo: 63 McAlester : 113, 192, 219 coal, analyses : 39, 40 Fuel Company: 41 McCammon, John: 117 McCarty, M. A.: 140 McCasland, J. J.: 138 McClain County: 70, 181 McCulloch County: 85 McCurtain County: 17, 26, 63, 65, 129, 170, 194, 195, McElreath, R. T. : 138 Mcintosh County: 63. 121 McKinley Bayou: 187 McKinney: 283, 234 McKinney, R. W.: 81, 118 McLennan County: 80, 83. 86, 115, 116, 118, 121, 128, 130, 137, 139, 140, 234 McMichael Concrete Company: 140 Meadows, Joe: 140 · Medford: 187 Medicine Bluff Creek: 219 Medicine Lodge River: 214 Medicine Park: 219 Meers: 198 Memphis: 137, 138 Mercury: 232 Merkel: 282 Merriman limestone: 114 Merritt, C. A.: 184 metabentonite: 76 metallic magnesium: 93 methane: 47 meteoric watera : 184 Mexia: 235 Mexico: 72 Miami: 63 -Picher area: 198 -Picher field: 199 Michigan: 160, 180 Mid-Continent Glass Sand Company: 147 Middle Eocene rocks: 236 Midland: 92 County: 14, 149 Midway: 208, 209, 210, 211 Midwest Materials and Construction Company: 140 Milam County: 42, 45, 46 Miles: 232 Mill Creek: 71, 96, 147, 168 Sand Company: 147 mill scale: 131 Miller locality : 72 Miller, R. L.: 10, 31, 47 property : 73, 7 4 Millerton: 234 Mills County: 73 millstones : 18, 65, 170 Milo: 137 Mllwhite Company, Inc., The: 70, 74, 81 Minco: 137 Mineral Wells: 87, 187, 139, 162, 282 Clay Products Company: 87 mining methods, strip-pit: 77 mines, strip : 41 wagon: 41 Miocene rocks : 236 mirabilite: 162 miscellaneous stone. production: 174 Mission State Park: 172 Mississippi Valley: 146 Missouri: 11, 70, 143 Kansas City: 194 St. Louis: 188 Tift' City: 214 Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad: 138 Mitchell Gravel Company: 138, 189, 158, 231 molding sands : 61 molybdenum: 181 Montague County: 14, 17, 24, 25, 27, 29, 35, 138, 138, 139, 181 Montana: 124, 180 montmorillonite: 62, 75 -beidellite group : 76 monzonite. quartz: 165 Moore County: 19, 51, 97, 98. 108. 231 Carbon Company: 51 Morgan Construction Company: 118 Morita: 70 Morris County: 17. 38, 41, 86, 188, 190, 191, 192 Morton Salt Company: 153, 156 Moss Bluff salt dome: 20, 158, 176, 177 Motley County: 231 Mountain Creek : 220 reservoir: 212, 220 Mountain Park: 165, 168 Granite Company: 168 Mountain View: 137 Mount Haven: 191 mine: 192 Mount Pleasant: 86, 87 Mt. Sylvan dome: 153 Mud Creek: 216 mud, drilling: 67. 71. 72. 81, 89 Index 241 Muddy Boggy Creek: 214, 215 Mudrite Chemicals Company, Inc.: 74 Muenster: 25 Mulberry Canyon : 60 Munday: 236 Murdock irravel pit: 138 Murray County: 17, 24, 25, 26, 29, 71, 96, 98, 121, 129, 187, 143, 168, 189, 198, 218 Lake reservoir: 219 Muskogee: 88, 137 County: 63, 88, 129, 141>, 146, 147 Materials Company: 88 Silica Company: 64 l\lyers, lll. C. : 140 Nacimiento copper deposits : 180 Nacogdoches : 7 4, 81, 118, 235 County: 17, 2-0, 38, 80, 86, 87, 173, 188, 235 nacrite: 75 National Gypsum Company: 101 National Lead Company: 192 natural abrasives: 56-66, 109, 143, 170, 173 natural asphalt: 21, 25 natural gas: 17, 47-52 natural gasoline : 4 7, 50 natural waxes: 21 Navarro County: 17, 38, 86, 87, 115, 120, 173 navigation locks : 7 Nebraska: 12 Neche1 River: 172, 202, 214, 216 Devil's Bend of: 172 Neeley, Edwin D. : 139 Nelson, Gaylord: 130 Neosho River: 214, 217, 219 Netherlands : 45 Nevada: 60, 180 Neva limestone: 114 New Braunfels : 192 Newcastle: 35, 137, 140 New Glover school: 171 New Mexico: 10, 13, 14, 19, 180, 192 Carlsbad: 93, 148, 149, 160 Eddy County: 149, 161 Logan: 214 San Juan County: 105 Shlprock: 105 New Willard: 236 New York. Buffalo: 101 New York: 192 nickel: 181 Noble County: 181 Nocona: 232 Nolan County: 18, 19, 72, 73, 74, 96, 98, 101, 115, 137, 189, 146, 171 district: 73. 74 nontronite: 75 Norman: 137 Norman, ii. R.: 7 North Basin iron ores: 188, 189, 191 mine: 192 North Bosque River: 216 North Canadian River: 137, 215, 219 North Carolina : 160 North Concho River: 216 North Dayton dome: 153 North Fork: 137, 153, 213, 215, 219 North Tule Creek: 215 novaculite: 65, 170 Arkansas : 194, 195 Nowata County: 55, 121 Nugent: 216, 220 Oakes. M. C. : 121 Oakville sandstone: 230 Oakwood : 208, 209, 210, 211 dome: 153 Ochoa: 13 octane: 53 O'Donnell: 20, 161, 162 0111.ce of Price Administration: 70, 75 Ogallala formation: 227, 280-231 Ohio: 105 oil field waters : 153 oil, light: 33 oil-refining industry: 75 oilstones : 18, 65 Oilton: 214 O'Keene: 101 Okfuskee County: 63, 64, 121, 187, 181 Oklahoma A. & M. Collesre: 124 City: 88, 137, 147, 215, 219 County: 88, 137 Geological Survey: 62, 63, 73, 231 Planning and Resources Board: 225, 226 Portland Cement Company: 129, 130, 189 Salt Industries Company: 156 Silica Sand Company: 147 Okmulgee: 146, 219 County: 88, 146, 147 Lake reservoir: 219 Old Glove.r: 172 Oldham County: 19, 108, 137, 139. 231 Old Slo:>e. l\line: 27 oolitic limestone: 109 Oologah limestone: 114 opaline material: 62 optical glass: 142, 146 Ord pit: 138 Oreg:on: 60 Orient: 137 Osage: 137 County: 98, 108, 121, 128, 137 Plains: 11-12 Sand Company: 140 Osborn, L. W.: 117 Ostrea virginica: 109 Otae ·Sand and Gravel Company: 140 Otis: 105 Otis Chalk community: 70 Ouachita Mountains: 12, 13, 17, 20, 25, 65; 129, 170, 171, 194, 195, 198, 199, 236 Overmyer-Perram Glass Company: 147 Owens-Illinois Glass Company : 146 oyster shells: 19, 112, 128, 131 producers: 118 Ozark Chemical Company: 160 Ozark dome: 11, 113 Pacific Ocean : 202 pa.eking material, peat for : 45 Paducah: 137, 140, 232 Page: 25, 29 deposit: 26 Page, Holland: 140 paint pigment: 67 paints: 67 Palestine: 24, 25, 115, 128, 146,.152, 235 salt dome: 115, 117, 128 Palmer: 87 Palo Pinto Coal Company: 87 County: 17, 35, 40, 42, 83, 86, 87, 114, 116, 137, 139, 162, 171 limestone: 114 Paluxy sand: 230 Pampa: 230 Panhandle of Texas: 50 Carbon Company: 51 field: 108 Panola Couiity: 17, 38, 50, 86, 101 Pan-Tex Clay Products Company: 87 Paoli: 71, 181 paraffin base petroleum : 53 paraffins : 21 Paris: 140, 219 Park, Forrest L. : 10, 15 Parker Brothers : 118 Parker County: 17, 19, 35, 83, 87, 114, 115, 146, 171, 233 Parson, Jewel and Gene: 168 Parsons Brothers: 168 Parson's Slough: 138 Pastura copper deposits: 180 Patton land : 27 Pauls Valley: 71, 137 Pawhuska limestone: 114 Pawnee County: 128, 129, 137, 140, 181 limestone: 114 analyses : 121 Peacock: 137, 140 Pease River: 137, 213, 215 peat: 17, 31, 36, 45-46 pebbles, grindin11:: 18, 56-60 Pecan Bayou : 138, 216, 220 Pecan Creek: 25 Pecan .Gap: 121 Pederson, F. L.: 140 Peerless Carbon Black Company: 51 The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 Pennsylvania, Lewistown: 147 Philadelphia: 87 Pittsburgh: 87 Pennsylvanian Glass Sand Corporation: 147 Pennsylvanian rocks : 232 Pensacola Lake: 219 Permian basin: 18 rocks: 282 Perry Deer Park: 172 Perryton : 230 petroleum: 18, 21, 63-55 industry: 67, 89 Petroleum Administration for War: 50 Petrolia: 105 gas field: 105, 108 Philadelphia: 87 Phillips, D. M.: 117 Phillips, W. B.: 24, 84, 117 phosphate rock: 19, 120-126 Picher area: 198, 199 pig Iron : 192 Pillow Brothers : its pilot plants: 105 Pine Creek: 219 Pinedale : 172 Pioneer Sand and Gravel Company: 140 pipe still: 63 Pittsburg: 235 County: 26, 114, 129 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: 87 Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company: 147 placing sand: 148 Plainview: 137, 216, 230 plaster: 100. plasticity, water of: 76 plate-elass industries: 61 Plelst0cene rocks : 236 Pliocene rocks : · 236 Plummer, F. B.: 86 Point Blank deposit: 61 polishing materials : 66 Polk County: 18, 45, 61, 62, 80, 86, 139, 171, 172, 236 polyhalite: 148, 149 polymerization : 64 Ponca City: 219 Pond Creek: 137 Pontotoc County: 24, 61, 62, 86, 120, 121, 129, 130, 143, 147, 181, 189 porcelanites: 38 pore water: '15 Portland cement: 82, 100, 101, 185, 189, 191 materials: 19, 75, 109, 125-181, 173 producers: 180 Possum Kingdom Dam: 221 reservoir : 220 potash: 19, 148-162 mines: 98 salts: 98 potassium chloride: 148 cyanide: 148 nitrate: 148 oxide: 148 sulfate: 148 Potato Hills area: 65 Poteau River: 219 Pottawatomie County: 137, 140, 181 Potter County: 19, 80, 87, 97, 98, 105, 108, 130, 137, 189, 140, 149, 281 pottery: 86 producers : 87 Potts-Moore Gravel Company: 139 Prairie Dog Town Fork: 187, 216 producers- asphalt: 29 bleaching clay: 80, 81 brick and tile: 87 burning claYB : 86, 87, 88 carbon black: 61 celestite: 74 coke: 41 dolomite: 97 drilling clay : 92 fire brick : 87 glass sand : 14 7 &Tanlte: 168 gravel: 138 grinding pebbles : 67 gypsum: 101 haydlte: 87 Iron ore: 192 lignite: 41 lime: 117, 118 limestone : 117, 118 dimension stone: 169 natural &'as: 50, 61 OYBter shells 1 118 petroleum: 65 Portland cement: 130 pottery: 87 rice sand: 61 salt: 156 sand and gravel: 136, 138 volcanic ash : 63 productlon­agstone : 117 asphalt: 29 bentonite: 81 bituminous coal: ·42 bleaching clay: 80, 81 carbon black: 62 celestite: 74 clay, raw: 87 coke: 42, 48 crushed limestone: 174 crushed sandstone: 17 4 diatomlte: 60 dolomite: 97, 174 drilling clay: 92 fuller's earth: 81 glass sand: 147 granite dimension stone: 168 grinding pebbles : 57 gypsum : 104 helium: 108 iron ore : 192, 193 lead: 199 lignite: 42 lime: 118 limestone : 117 dimension stone: 169, 174 manganese: 194 miscellaneous stone : 174 natural gas: 60, 61 petroleum: 66 Portland cement: 130, 131 quicklime: 118 raw clay: 87 salt : 156 sand and gravel: 141 volcanic ash : 63, 64 zinc and lead : 199 project, history of: 7 propane: 47 Pryor Mountain tract: 190 public water supplies : 234 pulverulent limestone : 109, 173 and chalk : 66 pumicite: 61, 62, 63, 126 pumpage: 230 · pumping yields: 234 Pumroy mines: 26 Purdy: 215 Pushmataha County: 26, 28, 65 Py, Gene : 168 pyramids of Egypt: 164 pyrite: 169, 176 pyrobltumens: 21, 26 asphaltic: 27 quality of water: 2i8 papers on : 225 Quapaw : 214 quartz : 56, 63, 66, 170 conglomerate: 66 monzonite: 165 quartzltes: 65, 170 Quaternary gravels : 14 quicklime, production: 118 Quitaque: 188, 218, 215 Creek: 213, 215 Sand and Gravel Company : 138 Railey, Mrs. : 26 railroad lines : 11 rainfall: 202-203 average annual: 206 Raina County: 17, 88, 86, 178 Ralston: 187 Randall County: 149 Ranger limestone: 114 Rattlesnake field: 106 Ravia: 117, 168, 198 raw clay, production of: 87 Ray, W. J ., ranch: 27 Rayburn: 138, 188 Reagan: 187 red beds : 88, 114 d"POSila: 180, 184 Red Blutf : 63 Redland: 80 Red Oak: 216 Red River: 12, 63, 65, 80, 83, 86, 116, 188, 187, 188, 146, 158, 171, 202, 213, 214, 216, 218, 219, 221, 224, 225, 286 County: 38, 88, 86, 115 Red Rock Creek: 137 red ehales : 70 Reed, Lyman C. : 62, 63 Reese: 191 refractories : 76 refractory claya : 86 Reliance Clay Products Company: 87 Rendham: 70 reserves­ aephalta : 29 bituminous coal and lignite: 40 bleachfog clay : 80 bromine: 161 burning cl819 : 86 celestite: 74 copper: 18{ dlatomite: 60 dolomite : 97 drilling clay : 92 11Iaes sand: 146 grinding pebbles : 57 ground water: 236· gypsum: 101 helium: 108 Iron ore: 190-191 limestone: 117 magnesium chloride: 160 magnesium sulfate: 162 manganese : 194 natural gae : 60 peat: 46 petroleum: 65 phosphate rock: 124 Portland cement rock: 181 potash: 149 salt: 166 sand bodies : 61 sand and gravel: 136 sodium sulfate: 162 sulfur: 177 volcanic aah : 68 zinc and lead : 199 · Reservoir: 215 reservoirs: 212-213, 217-218 data on : 219-220 map of: 222 rhodochrosite: 186, 194 rice: 66 sand: 18, 61 producers: 61 size composition of: 61 Richland: 210, 211 Creek: 210, 211, 212 Ricker sandstone: 171 Rio Grande: 226 Rita Blanca Creek: 219 reservoir: 218, 219 Riverside: 61, 77, 80, 81, 208, 209, 210, 211 river terrace deposlta: 138 · river waters, anaiyaee: 221 road metal: 132 Roanoke: 171, 210, 211 Roarln11 Springs: 218 Robert Lee: 26 Roberta County: 68, 64, 116 Roberta, C. W., Sand & G?'!'vel Company: 188 Roberta, Dora, ranch:. 70 · Robertaon County: 17, 20, 88, 89, 46, 86, 128, 138, 172, 178 Roby: 74 area: 73 rock asphalt: 21 Rock Creek: 85 Rock Crossing: 63 Rock Island Railroad: 140 Rockland: 216 rock phosphate: 19, 120-126 Rock Producta Manufacturing Corporation: 97 rock salt: 162 Rockwall: 210, 211, 213, 220 County: 86 station : 211 Rocky Mountains: 13, 136 Roemer land: 27 Rolf: 147 Roger Mills County: 63, 92 Rogers County: 66, 114, 121, 129 Roman aqueducts: 164 Romayor: 19, 133, 138, 210, 211, 221 station: 207, 208, 209, 211, 212 Roosevelt: 166, 168 Granite Company: 168 Rosebud: 234 rosettes, sand-barite: 71 Rosser: 208, 209, 210, 211 Rotan: 101, 231 rotary drilling mud: 81 Royer dolomite, anal18es: 98 rubber: 67 synthetic: 63 Rule: 236 runoff: 206 data: 208, 209, 210-211, 214 Runnels County: 96, 114 Rush Creek: 215 Rusk: 171, 172, 188, 190, 191, 192, 194 County: 17, 38, 86, 87, 188, 236 Sabine River: 138, 188, 202, 214, 216, 221 Sadler: 171 Sagerton: 137 saline lakes: 148, 163 salines : 162 Sallisaw : 113, 118 salt cake: 162 : common: 19, 148, 152-156 deposita of Germany: 148 domes : 14, 19, 152, 176 plugs: 152-153 soluble: 19, 76, 148-163 uses: 152 Salt Creek: 163, 219 Salt Fork: 136, 137, 213, 214, 216, 216, 217, 219 River: 221 saltpeter: 148 Sampson Ridge: 25, 27 San Angelo: 216, 220 San Antonio: 126 sands: 19, 21, 61, 131, 170 barlte rosettes: 71 rice: 18, 61 silica: 143 special: 19, 143-147, 173 uses: 148 sand and gravel: 19, 132-142 producers: 136, 138 production: 141 sand and sandstone, abrasive: 60-61 Sandhill area: 235 San J aclnto County: 18, 19, 45, 61, 77, 183, 188, 139, 140, 171, 236 San Juan County : 106 Sand Springs: 147 sandstone: 20, 66, 71, 165, 170-172, 178 abrasive: 60-61, 143 arkosic: 170 crushed, production: 174 Sandy Creek: 163, 220 Santa Anna: 146, 147 Silica Sand Company: 147 Santa Fe Railroad: 139, 231 Sap.ulpa: 88, 146, 147 Brick & Tile Company: 88 Saratoga dome: 163 Sardis: 27 Saskatchewan: 162 Savanna sandstone: 171 The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 SaYTe: 166 Schoch, E. P.: 27, 39, 116 Scholle copper deposits : 180 Schotts Cap: 63 Scott, Gayle: 116, 130 Scurry County: 18, 63, 64, 80, 81, 231 Seagoville: 138, 139 sea water: 148, 160 sedimentary rocks: 93 Sedwick limestone: 114 Seminole County: 88, 181 sandstone : 171 Sequoyah County: 11, 20, 113, 118, 129, 146, 170 Seymour: 181, 216 Shackelford County: 114, 169 Shafer, G. H. : 61 shale: 128, 129, 131 Shattuck: 215 Shawnee: 219 Lake reservoir : 219 Shead, A. C.: 28, 71, 117 Sheaffer Tile Company, G. V.: 88 Sheffield Steel of Texas : 41, 192 Shell Creek: 219 Lake reservoir: 219 shell deposits: 19, 109-119, 169, 173 limestone: 109 ,.Sherman: 121, 233, 234 County: 137 ship channei, Houston: 7 Shiprock: 106 Shreveport: 87 shrinkage water: 75 Shuler, E. W.: 234 Sicily: 176 siderite: 186 Sidwell, Raymond: 63 signal flares: 70, 72, 93 silica sands : 143 silicified wood: 20, 165, 172-173 silver: 181, 198 Silverton : 63, 81 Clay Products Company: 81 Simpkins, Pedro : 117, 118 Simsboro: 130 sinks: 233 sinter: 125 size composition of rice sands : 61 of volcanic ash: 64 skimming: 63 slate: 61 Slough Creek: 137 smelter flux: 173 El Paso: 180, 184 Smith County: 17, 38, 86, 87, 115, 153, 188 Smith, Fred J ., Gravel Company: 188 Smith Sand Company: 140· Snyder, Oklahoma: 187, 165, 168 Snyder, Texas: 63, 231 soapstone: 61 sodiipn hydroxide: 67 sodium sulfate: 20, 148, 158, 162-163 soil conditioner: 100, 124 peat as: 45 soluble salts: 19, 76, 148-163 Solvay process: 157 Somervell County: 115, 118 Sorel cement : 160 Soule, J. H.: 190 sour gas: 47, 60 Southard: 101, 153 So!lth Basin iron ores: 188, 189, 191 South Concho River: 220 South Dakota: 193 Southern Rock Asphalt Company: 29 Southland Paper Mills : 235 South Liberty dome: 153 South Pease River: 63 Southwest Construction Company: 140 Southwest Stone Company: 118 Southwestern Sheet Glass Company: 147 Spain : 72 spar, heavy: 67 Spavinaw: 219 Creek: 219 Lake reservoir: 219 special sands: 19, 143-147, 173 sphalerite: 198 spiegeleisen: 194 sponge-iron plant: 192 Spring Creek : 63, 64, 137 Spring River: 214, 217 springs : 163, 213 Spur: 63 Standard Paving Company: 140 Stapp: 26 Starr Coals, Inc. : 192 No. 6 mine: 192 Stassfurt, Germany, salt deposits: 148 steel: 194 balls: 66 furnaces : 194 Steen dome: 163 Stenzel, H. B. : 10, 21, 29, 31, 33, 38, 45, 56, 72, 75, 80, 82, 93, 109, 164, 185 Stephens County, Oklahoma: 17, 25, 27, 28, 70 Stephens County, Texas: 17, 36, 61, 114, 171 Stephenville : 173, 233 Sterling County: 14, 163, 216 St. Clair Lime Company: 113, 118 St. Francis Mountains : 11 Stigler coal : 39 analyses : 40 Stillwater: 214, 219 Creek: 219 St. Jo: 24, 25, 28 St. Louis : 188 area: 70 St. Louis Southwestern Railroad: 138 Stockman, D.: 156 stone: 20, 93, 109, 117, 164-175 crushed and broken: 164, .173--174 dimension: 109, 164-173 Stonehenge, England: 164 Stonewall County: 96, 137, 139, 140, 171, 181 Strange dolomite, analyses : 98 Strafford: 137 stratigraphic sequence: 16 Strawn: 35, 40 Coal Company: 40 stream flow: 204 data, definition of terms : 201 gaging station data: 212 papers on: 224 Stringtown: 65 strip mines : 41 strip-pit mining methods: 77 strontium: 72 Stroud: 24 Stryker: 139 sulfur: 20, 176--179 sulfuric acid: 176 Sulfur River : 138 Sulphur: 29, 71, 137, 147 deposits : 26, 29 Fork: 38 River: 214, 215 Silica Company: 147 Springs: 87 Sunday Creek coal: 35 Sunray-Etter area: 231 surface water resources: 200-226 Surplus Property Administration : 41 Surratt survey: 192 Sweetwater, Tennessee: 70 Sweetwater, Texas: 73, 74, 101, 137, 139, 146, 220 area: 73 Creek : 137, 139 Swisher County: 63, 64, 80, 92, 230 Sylvan shale, analyses : 130 sylvinite: 148 sylvite: 148, 149 synthetic rubber: 63 Taff : 27 Tahlequah: 19, 143, 146, 214 Tahoka: 63, 64 Taloga: 137 Talpa limestone: 114 Tankersley: 137 tankers: 60, 64 . Tapp, Paul: 117 tar: 41 sands: 21 Tarrant County: 14, 19, 25, 83, 105, 116 118 120 180 183, 138, 140 • ' .' • Station: 120 Taseooa: 137 Taylor County: 70, 87, 96, 114, 115, 171, 181, 202 Teague: 128, 180 Tecumseh: 187 Tenklller ·Ferry reservoir: 219 Tennessee: 124, 198 Sweetwater: 70 tenorlte: 181 terms, definition of, stream flow data: 201 terrace deposits : 188 · Terral: 215 terrazzo: 173 : Terry County: 18, 20, 92, 162 Terry, W. M.: 28 Tetmeyer, Ed: 140 Texarkana: 192 Texas Brick Company: 87 Texas Cement Plaster Company: 101 Texas Construction Materials Company: 61, 139, 140 Texas County: 51, 52, 231 Texas Elf Carbon Company: 51 Texas Gulf Sulphur Company: 177 Texas Lightwe~ht Aggregate Company: 87 Texas Portland Cement Company: 120 Texas Salt Products Company: 157, 161 Texas Sand and Gravel Company: 139 Texas Silica Sand Company: 61, 139 Texas State Board of Water Engineers: 225, 226, 231, 234, 286 . Thatcher: 105 The Celotex Corporation: 101 The Champion Paper & Fiber Company, Houston Di­vision: 118 The Milwhlte Company, Inc.: 70, 74, 81 The Texas Company: 80, 81, 157 The Texas Salt Products Company : 157, 161 thenardite: 162 Thermo Fire Brick Company: 87 Thompson, Mr. : 195 Thompson ranch: 71 Thrall: 202, 217 Throckmorton County: 114, 181 Thu..,en, H. G. : 88 Thurber: 36 coal: 34, 85, 40 Thurman ~andstone: 171 Tibbets, E. W.: 140 Tierra Blanca Creek: 215, 219 Tiff City : 214 Tillman County: 70 Tishomingo: 137, 168 eranite: 168 titanium: 189 Titus County: 17, 38, 39, 41, 42, 86, 87 Tom Green County: 14, 114, 187, 171 topping: 53 transportation facilities: 10 trap rock: 178 Triassic rocks: 231 · tributary area, definition of : 7 geology of : 11 Tri-County Clay Company: 92 Trinidad: 38, 138, 138 Trinity: 62, 81, 286 Bay: 19 Clay Products Company: 81 County: 18, 38, 61, 62, 77, 80, 86, 172, 173, 227 Mills pit: 188 Portland Cement Company: 118, 128, 130 Tri-State Brick & Tile Manufacturing Company: 87 Troup: 87 Troy: 97, 98, 168 eranlte: 168 tubular still: 53 Tule Canyon: ·68 Tulia: 63 Tullahassee : 64 Tulsa: 20, 88, 187, 147, 160, 219 County: 88, 121, 129, 140, 147 Earth Products Company: 64 Sand Company: 140 Turkey Creek: 136, 219 sandstone: 171 Turlineton: 88 Twichell, Trigg: 10, 200 Two-Mile Creek: 77 Tyler: 235 basin: 235 Tyner dolomite, analyses : 98 Udden, J. A.: 117 Umbarger: 215, 219 reservoir: 219 Underwood, S. L., & Sons: 169 Union Potash and Chemical Company: 160 United Brick & Tile Company: 88 United Carbon Company: 51 United States Bureau of Mines: 72, 74 helium plants : 106 Universal Atlas Cement Company: 101, 118, 128, 130 Updegraff Sand and Stone Company: 118, 169 Upper Cretaceous rocks: 234 Upper Eocene rocks : 236 Upper Hartshorne coal: 39 analyses: 40 Upper Witteville coal : 39 Upshur County: 86, 138, 188, 191 Urbana: 19, 133, 138 Sand and Gravel Company: 139 U. S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau: 225 U. S. Gypsum Company: 101 uses­barite: 67 bleaching clays : 77 bromine: 160 burning clays : 82 calcium chloride: 157 celestite: 72 clays: 75 concrete : 125 crushed and broken stone: 173 dimension stone: 164 dolomitic limestone: 93 gypsum: 100 helium: 105 iron ores : 185 limestone: 109 magnesium chloride: 160 magnesium sulfate: 161 manganese: 194 peat: 45 phosphate rock: 120 Portland cement: 125 potash: 148 pulverulent limestone: 65 salt: 152 sand and gravel: 132 sands: 143 sodium sulfate: 162 sulfur: 176 volcanic ash: 62 water In reservoirs: 219--220 Utah: 105, 180 vacuum distillation: 53 Valencia Iron & Chemical Corporation: 192 Valiant: 234 vanadium: 29, 181 Van Buren: 214, 217 Van Zandt County!. 17, 20, 38, 86, 153, 156, 173, 188 Verden: 137 Verdigris River: 121, 214, 217 Vernon : 63, 236 Vilbig Bros.: 138 Vinson: 137, 156 Viola limestone, analyses: 130 Virginia: 193 vlrginica, Ostrea: 109 Vivian: 181 volcanic ash: 18, 62~4. 125 tuft: 63 Waco: 19, 118, 125, 128, 130, 137, 139, 146, 216, 220, 233, 234 Materials Company: 140 -Tex Materials Company: 118 Wade Brothers: 27 Wagoner County: 63, 80, 92, 137 wagon mines : 41 Waldrip: 35 Wal~~~ County: 18, 19, 38, 61, 62, 77, 80, 81, 86, 158, The University of Texas Publication No. 4824 Walnut River: 214 Springs : 187 Walters : 216 Wapanucka limestone: 114 analyses : 117 area: 128, 129 Warner: 214 sandstone: 171 Waskom: 87 Washington : 60 County: 66, 121 Washita County : 63, 73, 80, 181 River: 133, 137; 214, 215, 217, 221 Water Engineers, Texas State Board of : 226, 226, 231, 234, 236 water, connate: 148 filter: 61 hygroscopic: 76 meteoric : 184 of plasticity: 76 oil-field: 163 pore: 76 quality of: 218, 226 requirements of industry: 201 resources, ground: 227-237 surface: 200-226 shrinkage: 76 uses, in reservoirs : 219-220 water-eupp)y papers, list of: 226 Waterman Brick & Tile Company: 87 Watonga: 101 Watson: 198 Watson, 0. W.: 189 Waxahachie: 233 waxes: 63, 64 natural: 21 Waynoka: 136 Sand and Gravel Company: 140 Weakley peat bog: 46 Weather Bureau, U. S.: 226 Weatherford, Oklahoma: 73 Weatherford, Texas: 97, 233, 234 Webb County: 42 Weches: 172 greensand, analyses: 124 Weeks, A. W.: 117 Weissenborn, A. E.: 7, 10, 17, 66, 67, 76, 82, 180 Weleetka: 137 Wells, R. C.: 124 Weno limestone, analyses : 116 Westbrook: 281 West Cache Creek: 70, 137 Western Brick Company: 88 Western Sand and Gravel Company: 139 West"Fork: 140, 208, 209, 210, 211, 219 West Texas Sand and Gravel Company: 140 West Texas Stone Company: 118, 169 West Tulsa: 20, 163, 167, 161 wet gas: 60 Wetumka: ·216 Wewoka: 88 Brick & Tile Company: 88 Wharton County : 176 Wheeler, H. P.: 16 Wheeler, R. M.: 60, 98, 117 whetstones : 18, 66, 170 White, c. c. : 138 White, W. N.: 10, 227 White River: 187, 216 White Rock Creek: 62 White Rock Lake: 212 reservoir : 220 Whitefield : 216 Whitehouse dome: 163 Whitney: 220 reservoir : 220 Whitselle Brick & Lumber Company: 87 Wichita County: 63, 114, 116, 187, 181 Wichita Falls: 146, 219 Wichita Granite Company: 168 Wichita Mountains: 12, 17, 18, 20, 26, 93, 96, 97, 113, 117, 128, 129, 136, 166, 168, 170, 184, 186, 189, 191, 198, 199 Wild Life Refuge: 198 Wichita River: 137, 213, 219 Wilbarger County : 63, 114, 171, 236 Wilcox group: 227 Wildhorse dolomite, analyses: 98 Wild Life Refuge, Wichita Mountains:· 198 Williams mine and prospect: 26 ranch: 138 Williams, Sol H., Company: 64 Williamson County: 66 · Willis, Raymond, and· Company:· 168· Wilmer: 138 .Winchell: 216 Winfield, Kansas: 214 Winfield, Texas: 38, 41 limestone: 114 Winton, W. M. : 116, 130 Wise County: 17, 27, 34, 36, 42, ·83; 87, 114, 116, 117, 118 . Wister : 219 reservoir: 219 Wittmer Stone Company: 118, 169 Wolf Creek: 64, 215, 219 Wolfe, Ross R. : 178 Wolfe City: 120, 121 wood, silicified: 20, 166, 172-173 Woodbine sand: 227 Wood County: 17, 38, 39, 41, 42, 86, 163, 188 Woodford shale, analysis: 121 Woods County: 20, 63, 1110, 118, 186, 140, 1.63; 166, 169, 181 Woodward: 81 County: 18, 63, 80, 81, 86, 92,.163 Earthen Products Company: 81 Work Projects Administration: 80 Worrell, S. H.: 34 Wreford limestone: 114 wurzilite: 21 Wynnewood : 137 Wyoming: 180 Xact Products Company: 81, 92 Yahola: 137 Yellow Lake: 137 Young County: 17; 35, 42, 114, 137, 140, 171 Zavalla: 80, 81, 92, 172 zinc: 20, 196 and lead: 198-199