BATHYMETRIC AND HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY OF THE COASTAL WATERS OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC Final Report to Institute Dominicano de Tecnologia Industrial (INDOTEC) prepared by Anthony F. -~mos, Research Associate The University of Texas Marine Science Institute Port Aransas Marine Laboratory Port Aransas, Texas 78373 24 June 1979 THE PROXIMITY OF DEEP WATER TO TROPICAL COASTLINES Anthony F. Amos - 1978 CHAPTER V SITE CHARACTERISTICS INTRODUCTION. . • . . • • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 1 THE DATA BASE. . • • • • • • • • . • • • • . . • • • • • • • • . . • • • • • . • . . • . • • • . . l Bathym.etric Data........................................ 1 Hydrographic Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF SUITABLE BATHYMETRIC LOCATIONS .••. 14 TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SURFACE AND DEEP WATERS (6.T) . . . . . . . . • . • . . . • . • . • • • • • . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . 82 DETAILED STUDY OF A CARIBBEAN REGION•.•.•••••.•.•.•.•..• 89 Data Dist!'ibution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Geographical Bias.••.•..•......••••..•.••••.•••..•• 93 Seasonal Bias ...................................... 93 "Bathymetric" Bias.•• •..•• •. •.•••••.•..••••. .. .•.•• 95 Oceanography of the Eastern Caribbean Related to OTEC ••• 97 Slant Distances of Pipelines from Shore to 500 m••••.•••109 COMPlITER PROGRAM SYSTEM•••.•.••.......••.•.....•.•••.•••112 TENTATIVE RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...•• •••• ........•.115 REFERENCES . . .... .. . ...........•• ..... .•.•.. .•.....• .... . 116 PJ>PENDIX. ......•.............•.........•............... . 119 CHAPTER V SITE CHARACTERISTICS INTRODUCTION The approach to the site characteristics problem has been to examine the coastal bathymetry and hydrography for the entire tropical oceans (between 20°N and 20°S latitude). Due to the limited time available, the goals were confined to: (1) obtaining the data base, (2) a preliminary survey of suitable bathymetric locations, (3) a preliminary examination of suitable temperature difference (~T) locations, (4) a more detailed hydro­graphic study of one 10° latitude x 10° longitude region in the Caribbean, (5) the development of a computer system for storage, retrieval and display of OTEC hydrographic data, and (6) forming some tentative conclu­sions on site selection criteria and suitable coastal regions where actual sites may be selected for more detailed investigation. The guidelines have been strictly limited to suitable ~Ts and the proximity of deep, cold water to a shoreline. No demographic, political or geological (other than submarine) parameters have been studied except on a very broad scale. These crucial points must be taken into consideration for any final site selection. THE DATA BASE Bathymetric Data For the initial data base, all the coastal charts for the entire OTEC-feasible region were obtained using the Catalog of Nautical Charts (U.S. Defense Mapping Agency, 1977). More detailed charts of selected regions were also obtained, in particular the Pacific Ocean islands. Much of the unequal geographical distribution of data mentioned in the next section also applies to bathymetry. The nautical charts show soundings made along ships' tracks (frequently connnercial ships) in fathoms, and are usually crudely contoured at the 100 fm and 1000 fm depth offshore. Concentrations of data are found adjacent to populous countries, large harbors and economically strategic straits, isthmuses and offshore islands. The more data available, the more reliable it will be. Much specialized offshore bathymetric data exists, none of ·it synthesized in a comprehen­sive data bank: ~Large-scale bathymetric charts have been produced, notably those of Heezen and Tharp (1961, 1964, 1968, 1971). These are useful for broadly defining coastlines that are potential OTEC regions. ~Many detailed surveys have been done by oceanographic research institutions for selected regions and a literature search would have to be done to locate these. ~Regional bathymetric maps, most of which are unpublished, have been produced by such institutions. ~Seismic surveys carried out by universities, government, and particularly commercial oil exploration companies, exist for a variety of offshore regions. Generally, OTEC and offshore oil environmental requirements are diametrically opposed: OTEC requires deep water as close as possible to shore, offshore oil exploration is limited to comparatively shallow water and may be many tens of kilometers from shore. However, offshore oil exploration is continually extending into deeper waters and these seismic surveys may be the most valuable source of detailed nearshore topography for OTEC site selection. ~Some detailed bathymetric charts are available for regions in the Gulf of Mexico and U.S . east coast (NOAA, 1977). ~Bottom contour charts (BC charts) are available for the Pacific V-2 to 7° latitude, each chart, and have been produced from 1952. They are frequently contoured on insufficient data and have limited appli­cation for OTEC technology. Other bathymetric charts are available from foreign agencies such as the British Admiralty. All of these sources will have to be studied for any detailed OTEC site selection survey. Hydrographic Data The major archive for hydrographic data is the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) in Washington, D.C., part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NODC has on file some 600,000 hydrographic stations and over 1,000,000 bathythermograph (mechanical and expendable) observations. In this preliminary effort, no bathy­thermographic (BT) data were obtained. The format of these BT data is different from standard NODC station data and there was not enough time } to obtain and process the huge volume of information as well as the station data. BTs will be an important data base for future OTEC 6T studies and site selection. The station data are important because they include information on salinity, oxygen and micronutrients as well as temperature~all parameters of interest to any mariculture aspect of OTEC technology. To avoid getting unneeded data, computer generated maps showing hydrographic station distribution by 2° squares (2° of latitude x 2° of longitude) were first obtained. Figure V-1 shows the data density in regions adjacent to the continents or in open ocean areas where V-3 islands are located. In many coastal regions there is a surprising paucity of data. In many regions there are statistically insufficient data to examine monthly variations in water-column structure (for example, the northeastern coast of Brazil and the Pacific coast of Mexico and Central America). Both of these regions are potential OTEC sites. Our initial data collection was limited to 1° squares, adjacent to coastlines and only where a preliminary examination of world­wide offshore bathymetry indicated that suitable water was close to shore. To refine the data base further, a ~T of 20°c was adopted as a selection criterion (Office of Technology Assessment, 1978). Using the U.S. Department of Energy (1978) ~T maps, those areas where the yearly average ~T <20°c at 1000-m depth were eliminated from the search. A standard NODC printout was ordered: temperature vertical array sunnnaries by month for each of the selected 1° squares. This was the maximum amount of processing NODC could do in the allotted time frame imposed by this proposal. Magnetic tapes of all station data (from 1900 to the present) in these squares were ordered from the archives of NODC. These tapes have not yet arrived at this writing. Consequently, nothing could be deduced about coastal distribution of nutrients for inclusion in this report. The preliminary analysis of these data showed that the initial criteria had been too selective. OTEC technology requirements arbitrarily divide the physical world of hydrography and bathymetry into isolated regions that are really connected in nature. In order V-4 to understand the system that produces the temperature gradients and the sub-sea topography, one must go out~ide the bounds of OTEC restrictions. Consequently, the rest of the existing data in 1° squares bordering coastlines was ordered and the region was extended into such areas as the Middle East (northwestern Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, etc.) and the northern Gulf of Mexico, Florida and the Caribbean. These data have not yet arrived and this report will be confined to the 20°s to 20°N zone. • One thing that readily emerges from examining the distribution of station data on archive (Figure V-1), is its extreme spatial heterogeneity. Several reasons can be cited for this, many of them not directly related to oceanography. The overwhelming majority of stations have been collected by the major industrial nations (56% by Japan, U.S.A. and U.S.S.R.)*, con­ • sequently, station distribution is intensified around those nations' coastal regions or in areas that are of strategic or economic importance to those nations • Only 56* of the more than 120 nations that have coastlines bordering oceans report data to the World Data Center A. • Waters adjacent to politically sensitive coastlines are under- sampled. Coastlines remote from major ports are undersampled. Regions of unique oceanographic interest have been intensely surveyed (e.g. major current systems, upwelling regions, river outflows). Where major international coo~erative investigations have taken place (CUEA, GATE, BOMEX, etc.) there are concentrations of data. *NODC, 1977. V-5 • .., •/ t.. l 90 20 I0 Cl -10 -20 -JO ID 0 ~ I er. -10 -20 30 20 10 " -10 ·20 -Jc! Figure V-1: Distribution of archived station data near coastal regions in the tropics. (A) West coast ot Africa 110 10 10 so so "o 20 '" <: I ....., -20 JO ISO 1110 130 l:!O 110 100 20 1 · · · · · · · · 10 0 <: I ()) • I -101 I I ':::w/ I • Jlffiffij • ·20 lliO 1110 Figure V-1: I I I 130 l>!O 110 100 90 Distribution of archived station data near coastal regions in the tropics. (C) Pacific coast of Central America, Pacific Ocean (Oceania) from Galapagos to Tahiti 160 1SO 201 I 0 <: I \.0 - _ -150 -160 -170 -180 170 160 150 Figure V-1: Distribution of archived stati on data near coastal regions in the tropics. (D) Pacific Ocean (Oceania) from Hawaii to the Bismar ck Archipelago including pa rts of Papua-New Guinea, Fiji, Marshall Islands, Samoa and Tonga , -110 -100 -110 -120 -130 -1~0 -150 2D ?::""·' nr .11·::.·~m}1•:, 10 F=I ::·· -1:·::·:·:·:1·::'..::·:.H L.I • '.f :·:::v a :::: :::: t~n ;:'.~•• :1:.1~!i:I ~ ·.·.<·.·.·.· -.::11::: ·•:•:·~~w·-,:,::,1•::::~,,····ll.:ar:r•:~~::::i •:::r::::1i:i~!::i II 0 <: I ...... 0 -101 ''.'.'.l''""'''l'::0:>.tci::::::1:::::::::n..." f""""'""t::::::::::::l""""""I I I l. ......l I I -l'IO -150 Figure V-1: Distribution of archived station data near coastal regions in the tropics. (E) Southeast Asia including Indonesia and the Philippines and part of Oceania, including Papua-New Guinea, Northern Australia, the Carolines and Marianas -30 -110 -50 -b-0. -70 -80 -90 ~o 0 <: I ...... ...... -10 -2°' -30 -110 -so -60 -70 -10 -90 Figure V-1: Distribution of archived station data near coastal regions in the tropics . (F) The Indian Ocean, India, Sri-Lanka, Malagasay Republic, the east coast of Africa, Gulf of Aden and Red Sea -Research cruises in coastal regions are often biased seasonally because small research vessels are unable to work during winter months. In the tropics, however, more stations may be found in the winter months as it becomes more attractive to work in warm waters at that time of year. As an example of how this affects site selection, both coasts of equatorial Africa have zones that are potential OTEC sites (from an oceanographic point of view). Due to some of the reasons cited above, the west coast has been intensely sampled while the east coast has been sparsely sampled (see Table V-1). TABLE V-1 STATION DISTRIBUTION OFF COASTS OF EQUATORIAL AFRICA Latitude Number of Stations Within 2° Squares Adjacent To and Including a Coastline West Coast East Coast lO°N -20°N 1990 548 Equator -lO°N 3730 92 Equator -lO°N 1152 51 l0°s -20°s 1288 115 Total: 6160 806 Furthermore, and not readily apparent in Table V-1, there is a hemi­spherical bias and an oceanic bias in the data distribution (see Table V-2). This considerable imbalance in data distribution requires little further elaboration** except that it primarily reflects the demographic and economic importance of Northern Hemisphere, Atlantic Ocean countries. ** The data distribution may, however, bias the interpretation of archived data-see section "DETAILED STUDY OF A CARIBBEAN REGION". V-12 TABLE V-2 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF STATION DATA (NODC, 1977) Region Percentage of Region Percentage of Percentage of Total Data Total Data World's Ocean Area N. Atlantic s. Atlantic N. Pacific s. Pacific Indian Arctic Antarctic 41 4 31 3 3 17 1 Atlantic Pacific Indian N. Hemisphere s. Hemisphere 45 34 3 89 11 24* 46* 20* 43t 57t *Menard and Smith, 1966 t Kossinna, 1921 An even greater imbalance is found in the distribution of informa­tion on micronutrients, specifically nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, phos­phase and si~icate. Dissolved oxygen measurements are also sparse compared to the total number of hydrographic stations in the archives, although there are many more of these than nutrient data on file. There will be virtually no systematic information on nutrients in the NODC archives for any coastal regions except where special studies have been done (e.g., MESA, BLM-OCS, CUEA). Information on seasonal fluctuations in nutrient levels is just about nonexistent. A literature search and a search for special publications on these surveys will have to be done to gain knowledge on what nutrient distribution information exists. V-13 • PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF SUITABLE BATHYMETRIC LOCATIONS Using the coastal charts, we e.~amined all coastlines and measured the approximate distances of the 1000-m contour. Actually, the 500 fm (914 m) was chosen to facilitate this job as all charts are marked in fathoms. Maps were prepared (Fig. V-2) with shading showing offshore waters where 1000-m depth is found closer than 5 lan, between 5 km and 10 lan, between 10 km and 50 km, and greater than 50 lan from shore. Where the temperature structure was not suitable, e.g., off the coast of Peru, no data are shown, even though the coastal topography is suitable for OTEC. For completeness, this and other coastlines will be examined later. Table V-3 lists the information contained in Figure V-2, in detail, showing country, geographic names of points, capes, bays and harbors and the bathymetric category outlined above. The approximate ~T for 1000-m deep water is included (taken from U.S. Department of Energy maps (1978)). This information, except in the broadest sense, has not been combined with the ~T data. Future versions of Table V-3 would necessarily need accurate ~T information. What does emerge from this preliminary examination of the world's tropical coastlines is that potential OTEC sites are only to be found along very small stretches of the coasts of major continents. Several islands, particularly in the Caribbean, the Philippines, and the Pacific Ocean, however, do appear to be potential sites, with both favorable deep-water proximity and 6T characteristics. To see how a more detailed examination of a coastline might be carried out, quasi-hypsometric curves for the 100-fm and 500-fm contours V-14 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 SO km. (A) West coast of Africa 80 70 60 50 40 30 20190 v35 • I ti >t'\"": -:'f.£,, .~ --­ I t~ 49 10 I ~ ~,:"',?~». n 1 {\ I ----"-t I 0 y <: 3-1 I I-' 0\ -10 -20 90 80 70 60 I I I 20 DISTANCE TO 500f ISOBATH I mg o-5km tfJ 5 -10 km ~10-50km I po 0 49 50 -10 -20 50 40 30 Figure V-2: Characteristics of coastal bathymetry in the tropics showing the distance in km from the coastline to the 500 fm isobath. No shading indicates a distance of > 50 km. (B) Central America, the eastern Caribbean and South America 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 20 20 =;:r.} 26 28 1 0 10 50 km. (D) Pacific Ocean (Oceania) from Hawaii to the Bismarck Archipelago including parts of Papua-New Guinea, Fiji, Marshall Islands, Samoa and Tonga -go -100 -110 · 120 -130 -140 -150 20 --.20 1102 '~ /f,03 SEE DETAIL MAP PHILIPPINES 10 I 0 Jl I ) t'Ic #1 -,i4!!::}·~ I I Z· -... 1•0 ~·74 i ~ / ,£:c ~ .104 139·· ·::\':1 < 40 ·.:... e 0 I m,.,,,. ~~ \-l ~ \ I ,vr:·,~· : 5pf't ...~~-·u~5 ,, .....,. -I I0 ..H <: I I-' ~ \.0 ~/ a ~~142 %3 -101 I I ·-~ '""' ~ '.1~ I I ~1­DISTANCE TO 500f ISOBATH 11 o -5 km I till 5 -10 km ~10-50 km -20--~~~~~~~~~..._~~~~~~~~~......~~~~~~~~~-&~~~~~---.._~~--i~~~~~~~~~~---~~~~~~_..;~...-... 0 -go -100 -11 0 -12 0 -130 -140 -150 Figure V-2: Characteristics of coastal bathymetry in the tropics showing the distance in km from the coastline to the 500 fm isobath. No shading indicates a distance of > 50 km. (E) Southeast Asia including Indonesia and the Philippines and part of Oceania, including Papua-New Guinea, Northern Australia, the Carolines and Marianas 30 40 50 60 70 BO 90 20 20 101- '-" 10 ~ 0 I r~ I ~, I I I I 10 1 76 N 0 77 -10 VV> -10 DISTANCE TO 500f ISOBATH ml 0-5 km [21 5 -10 km ~10-50 km 78 -20 -20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Figure V-2: Characteristics of coastal bathymetry in the tropics showing the distance in km from the coastline to the 500 fm isobath. No shading indicates distance of >50 km. (F) The Indian Ocean, India, Sri Lanka, Malagaysay Republic, the eas t coast of Africa, the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea. PHILIPPINES DISTANCE TO soot ISOBATH ~0 -Skm [BJ 5-10km ~10-SOkm 150 12° 10° 118° t~:: ~.·, ~ 163 120° 12-r 162 124° 126° Figure V-2: Characteristics of coastal bathymetry in the tropics showing the distance in km from the coastline to the 500 £m isobath. No shading indicates a distance of > 50 km. (G) The Philippines V-21 TABLE V-3 DISTANCE OF 1000-m ISOBATH FROM SHORELINES OF TROPICAL COUNTRIES EXPLAl.~ATION Table 3 lists the major results of the bathymetric survey undertaken under this proposal. It is entirely the result of examining the Defense Mapping Agency's nautical charts that are numbered in Column 1 of the table. The table is indexed to provide some demographic input into this survey. Countries are named according to current usage (Information Please Almanac, 1978). Their more familiar names are cross-referenced in the index and given in square brackets in Column 2 of the main table. Other sources consulted for names and loations were National Geographic (1963) and the Times Atlas of the World (1967). The main table is arranged in broad oceanic regions, following the arrangement of the nautical charts. These are: Caribbean, Central and South America East Coasts (including part of the Caribbean), Central and South America West Coasts, West Africa, East Africa, Oceania, and two expanded regions of potential OTEC interest: Indonesia and the Philippines. The coastlines have been followed in sequence, going from one country to the next, consequently, in Central America, where countries have both east and west coastlines, multiple entries will be found. Political affiliation is shown in parentheses after the country name in the index and main table. These are also grouped together in the index if one country has possessions or other territories outside their national boundaries (e.g., France, United Kingdom, United States). Names given under Location are usually those names given on the nautical charts and of importance to navigation rather than being population centers or well-known places. ~T is only approximate and is taken from the Department of Energy (1978) maps. Under the Distance columns, in some cases, one of the divisions are applicable, i.e., the water is shallower than 1000 m extending to the next landmass. This will be noted as "water too shallow." Italicized numbers in Columns 1 and 2 are location identifiers: refer to Figure V-2 maps to locate country by number. Asterisks mean that the country or island is outside the bounds of the maps in Figure V-2. V-22 TABLE V-3 DISTANCE OF 1000-m ISOBATH FROM SHORELINES OF TROPICAL COUNTRIES INDEX NAME (POLITICAL AFFILIATION) REGION PAGE ALOR (Indonesia) AMERICAN SAMOA (United States) AMIRANTE (United Kingdom) ANDAMAN IS. (India) ANEGADA I. (United Kingdom) ANGOLA ANGUILLA (United Kingdom) ANTIGUA (West Indies Associated States) ARCHIPEL DES COMORES ARUBA (Netherlands) AUSTRALIA AUSTRALIAN POSSESSIONS: CHRISTMAS I., COCOS KEELING I. , NAURU BAKER I. (United States) BALI (Indonesia) BARBADOS BARBUDA (United Kingdom) BATJAN (Indonesia) BELIZE BENIN (under GHANA-NIGERIA) BOHOL (Philippines) BONNAIRE (Netherlands) BORNEO (Indonesia) BOUGAINVILLE I. (Papua-New Guinea) BRAZIL BURU (Indonesia) BURMA BUSUANGA I. (Philippines) CAMEROON CANTON I. (Unitetl States & United Kingdom) CAROLINE IS. (United States) CAYMAN IS. (United Kingdom) CEBU (Philippines) CELEBES (see SULAWESI) CERAM (see SERAM) CEYLON (see SRI LANKA) CHRISTMAS I. (Australia) CHRISTMAS I. (United Kingdom) COCOS KEELING I. (Australia) COLOMBIA (E) COLOMBIA (W) COOK IS. (New Zealand) CONGO REPUBLIC Indonesia Oceania Indian Ocean Indian Ocean Caribbean W. Africa Caribbean Caribbean E. Africa C./S. America-E Oceania Oceania Indonesia Caribbean Caribbean Indonesia C./S. America-E w. Africa Philippines C./S. America-E Indonesia Oceania C./S. America-E Indonesia Indian Ocean Philippines w. Africa Oceania Oceania Caribbean Philippines Indian Ocean Oceania Indian Ocean C./S. America-E C. /S. America-W Oceania W. Africa 69 51,52 44 44 31 41,42 31 32 39 36 46 62 66 34 32 71 36 41 78 37 70 46 38 71 43 77 41 63 58-60 33 78 44 63 44 36 35 53 41 V-23 NAME (POLITICAL AFFILIATION) REGION PAGE COSTA RICA (E)(under NICARAGUA-COLOMBIA) COSTA RICA (W) CUBA CURACAO (Netherlands) DINAGUT I. (Philippines) DJAWA (Indonesia) DOMINICA (West Indies Associated States) DOMINICAN REPUBLIC ECUADOR ECUADORIAN POSSESSIONS: GALAPAGOS IS. ELLICE I. (see TUVALU) EL SALVADOR (under GUATEMALA-COSTA RICA) ENDERBURY I. (United States & United Kingdom) EQUATORIAL GUINEA FLORES (Indonesia) FIJI ' FRENCH GUYANA (under VENEZUELA-BRAZIL) FRENCH POSSESSIONS: GUADELOUPE, ILES DE HORNE, A ~ ~ A ~ A ILES DE LA ~OCIETE, ILES ~OYAUTE, ILES MARQUISES, ILES TOAMOTU, ILES WAL~IS,• MARTINIQUE, NOUVELLE CALEDONIE, REUNION, ST• BARTHELEMY, ST . MARTIN FRENCH & UNITED KINGDOM CONDOMINIUM: NEW HEBRIDES GABON GAMBIA (see SENEGAL-SIERRA LEONE) GALAPAGOS IS. (Ecuador) GILBERT IS. (United Kingdom) GHANA GORONG IS. (Indonesia) GRENADA GRENADINES (United Kingdom) GUADELOUPE (France) GUAM (United States) GUATEMALA (E)(under BELIZE-HONDURAS) GUATEMALA (W) GUINEA (under SENEGAL-SIERRA LEONE) GUINEA-BISSAU (see SENEGAL-SIERRA LEONE) GUYANA (see VENEZUELA-BRAZIL) HAITI HALMAHERA (Indonesia) HAWAII (United States) HISPANIOLA: DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, HAITI V-24 C./S. America-E 36 C. /S. America-W 34,35 Caribbean 30 C. /S. America-E 37 Philippines 78 Indonesia 66 Caribbean 32 Caribbean 30 C./S. America-W 34 C./S. America-W 34 Oceania 63 w. Africa 41 Indonesia 69 Oceania 49-51 C. /S. America-E 38 w. Africa 41 w. Africa 41 C./S. America-W 34 Oceania 55,56 w. Africa Indonesia 71 Caribbean 32 Caribbean 32 Caribbean 32 Oceania 58 C. /S . America-E 36 C. /S. America-W 34 w. Africa 41 w. Africa 41 C. /S. America-E 38 Caribbean 30 Indonesia 72 Oceania 64,65 NAME (POLITICAL AFFILIATION) REGION PAGE HONDURAS (E) HONDURAS (W)(under GUATEMALA-COSTA RICA) HOWLAND I. (United States) ILES DE HORNE (France) ILES DE LA SOCIETl-: (France) ILES LOYAUTE (France) ILES MARQUISES (France) ILES TUAMOTU (France) ILES WALLIS (France) INDIA INDIAN UNION TERRITORIES: ANDAMAN IS., NICOBAR IS. INDONESIA (ALOR, BALI , BATJAN, BORNEO, BURU, CELEBES, CERAM, DJAWA, FLORES, GORONG IS., HALMAHERA, IRIAN JAYA, JAVA, KAI IS., KASIRUTA, K.EPULAUAN ARU, K.EPULAUAN SERMATA, K.EPULAUAN SULA, K.EPULAUAN TAL.AIID, KEPULAUAN TANIMBAR, LOMBOK, MANDIOLI, MISOOL, MOROTAI, NEW GUINEA, PULAU PANAITAN, PULAU SIMUELE, PULAU TANAHBALA, ROTI, OBI MAJOR, SANGIHE, SERAM, SIBERUT, SOELA IS., SULAWESI, SUMATRA, SUMATERA, SUMBA, SUMBAWA, TIMOR, WAIGEO, WATOEBELA I., WETAR) IO JIMA (Japan) IRAN IRIAN JAYA (Indonesia) ISLA DE MARGARITA (Venezuela) ISLA LA BLANQUILLA (Venezuela) ISLA LA TORTUGA (Venezuela) ISLAS LAS AVES (Venezuela) ISLAS LOS ROQUES (Venezuela) ISLAS REVILLAGIGEDO (Mexico) IVORY COAST (no maps available) IWO JIMA (see IO JIMA) JAMAICA JAPAJ.'iESE POSSESSIONS: KAZDU RETTO, IO JIMA JAVA (see DJAWA) KAI IS. (Indonesia) KAHOOLAWE (Hawaii) KASIRUTA (Indonesia) KAUAI (Hawaii) KAZDU RETTO (Japan) KENYA KEPULAUAN ARU (Indonesia) KEPULAUAN SERMATA (Indonesia) KEPULAUAN SULA (Indonesia) KEPULAUAN TALAUD (Indonesia) KEPULAUAN TANIMBAR (Indonesia) C. / s. America-E C,/S. America-W Oceania Oceania Oceania Oceania Oceania Oceania Oceania Indian Ocean Indonesia Oceania Indian Ocean Indonesia C./S. America-E C. /S. America-E C. /S. America-E C./S. America-E C./S . America-E C./S . America-W W. Africa Caribbean Indonesia Oceania Indonesia Oceania Oceania E. Africa Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia 36 34 62 51 53 49 55 54,55 51 43 67-74 57 43 73,74 37 37 37 37 37 34 41 30 71 64 72 65 56,57 39 73 73 70 73 73 NAME (POLITICAL AFFILIATION) REGION PAGE LANAII (Hawaii) LAS TRES MARIAS (Mexico) LEYTE (Philippines) LIBERIA LINE IS. (United Kingdom) LINE IS. (United States) LOMBOK (Indonesia) LUZON (Philippines) MADAGASCAR (see MALAGAYSAY MALAGAYSAY REPUBLIC MALDIVES MANDIOLI (Indonesia) REPUBLIC) MARIANA IS. (United States) MARSHALL IS. (United States) MARTINIQUE (France) MASBATE (Philippines) MAUI (Hawaii) MAURITIUS MEXICO (E) MEXICO (W) MEXICO: OFFSHORE IS. LAS TRES MARIAS) MINDANAO (Philippines) MINDORO (Philippines) MISOOL (Indonesia) MOLOKAI (Hawaii) (ISLAS REVILLAGIGEDO, MONTSERRAT (United Kingdom) MOROTAI (Indonesia) MOZAMBIQUE NAURU (Australia) NEGROS (Philippines) NETHERLANDS POSSESSIONS: ARUBA, CURACAO, SABA, ST. CUSTACIUS NEW BRITAIN (Papua-New Guinea) NEW IRELAND (Papua-New Guinea) BONNAIRE, NEW GUINEA (see !RIAN JAYA and PAPUA-NEW GUINEA) NEW HEBRIDES IS. (United Kingdom & France) NEW ZEALAND POSSESSIONS: COOK IS., TOKELAU IS. (with United States) NEVIS (West Indies Associated States) NICARAGUA (E) NICARAGUA (W)(under GUATEMALA-COSTA RICA) NICOBAR IS. (India) NIGERIA NIIHAU (Hawaii) NINIGO GROUP (Papua-New Guinea) NOUVELLE CALEDONIE (France) Oceania C. /S. America-W Philippines W. Africa Oceania Oceania Indonesia Philippines E. Africa Indian Ocean Indonesia Oceania Oceania Caribbean Philippines Oceania Indian Ocean C./S. America-E C./S. America-W Philippines Philippines Indonesia Oceania Caribbean Indonesia E. Africa Oceania Philippines Oceania Oceania Oceania Caribbean C./S. America-E C./S. America-W Indian Ocean W. Africa Oceania Oceania Oceania 64 34 78 41 63 63 66 75-77 40 44 72 57,58 60-62 32 78 64 44 36 34 79-81 77 73 64 32 72 39 56 79 46 46 48,49 31 36 34 44 41 65 46 49 V-26 NAME (POLITICAL AFFILIATION) REGION PAGE OAHU (Hawaii) OBI MAJOR (Indonesia) PAKISTAN PALAWAN (Philippines) PANAMA (E)(under NICARAGUA-COLOMBIA) PANAMA (W) PANAY (Philippines) PAPUA-NEW GUINEA (BOUGAINVILLE I., NEW BRITAIN, NEW IRELAND, NINIGO GROUP) PHILIPPINES (BOHOL, BUSUANGA I., DINAGUT I., CEBU, LEYTE, LUZON, MASBATE, MINDANAO, MINDORO, NEGROS, PALAWAN, PANAY, SAMAR, SIARAGAO IS., SIBUYAN, SULU ARCHIPELAGO, TABLAS) PHOENIX IS. (United Kingdom &United States) PUERTO RICO (United States) PULAU PANAITAN (Indonesia) PULAU SIMUELE (Indonesia) PULAU TANAHBALA (Indonesia) . REUNION (France) RODRIGUEZ (United Kingdom) ROT! (Indonesia) SABA (Netherlands) ST. BARTHELEMY (France) ST. CROIX (United States) ST. EUSTACIUS (Netherlands) ST. JOHN (United States) ST. KITTS (West Indies Associated States) ST. LUCIA (West Indies Associated States) ST. MARTIN (France) ST. THOMAS (United States) ST. VINCENT (West Indies Associated States) • SAMAR (Philippines) SANGIHE (Indonesia) SANTA CRUZ I. (United Kingdom) SENEGAL SERAM (Indonesia) SEYCHELLES SIARAGAO IS. (Philippines) SIBERUT (Indonesia) SIBUYAN (Philippines) SIERRA LEONE SRI LANKA SOELA IS. (see KEPULAUAN SULA) SOLOMON IS. (United Kingdom) SOMALIA V-27 Oceania Indonesia Indian Ocean Philippines C./S. America-E C./S. America-W Philippines Oceania Philippines Oceania Caribbean Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indian Ocean Indian Ocean Indonesia Caribbean Caribbean Caribbean Caribbean Caribbean Caribbean Caribbean Caribbean Caribbean Caribbean Philippines Indonesia Oceania W. Africa Indonesia Indian Ocean Philippines Indonesia Philippines W. Africa Indian Ocean Oceania E. Africa 64 71 43 79 36 35 78 45,46 15-81 62,63 31 66 66 66 44 44 70 31 31 31 31 31 31 32 31 31 32 77 72 48 41 71 44 78 66 78 41 43 47 39 NAME (POLITICAL AFFILIATION) REGION PAGE SULAWESI (Indonesia) SULU ARCHIPELAGO (Philippines) SUMATRA (see SUMATERA) SUMATERA (Indonesia) SUMBA (Indonesia) SUMBAWA (Indonesia) SURINAM (under VENEZUELA-BRAZIL) TABLAS (Philippines) TANZANIA (under KENYA-MOZAMBIQUE) TIMOR (Indonesia) TOBAGO (Trinidad & Tobago) TOGO (under GHANA-NIGERIA) TOKELAU IS. (New Zealand & United States) TONGA TUVALU IS. (United Kingdom) UNITED KINGDOM POSSESSIONS: AMIRANTE, ANEGADA IS., ANGUILLA, BARBUDA, BRITISH VIRGIN IS. , CAYMAN IS., CHRISTMAS I., ELLICE IS. (TUVALU), GILBERT IS., GRENADINES, LINE IS., MONTSERRAT, RODRIGUEZ, SANTA CRUZ IS., SOLOMON IS. (inde­pendence 1978?), TORTOLA, TUVALU, VIRGIN GORDA, WEST INDIES ASSOCIATED STATES (see under that listing) UNITED KINGDOM & FRANCE CONDOMINIUM : NEW HEBRIDES IS. UNITED KINGDOM & UNITED STATES JOINT TERRITORIES: CANTON I., ENDERBURY I., PHOENIX IS. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: HAWAII (HAWAII, KAHOOLAWE, KAUAI, LANAI, MAUI, MOLOKAI, NIIHAU, OAHU) Indonesia Philippines Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia C./S. America-E Philippines E. Africa Indonesia C./S. America-E W. Africa Oceania Oceania Oceania UNITED STATES POSSESSIONS: AMERICAN SAMOA, BAKER I., GUAM, HOWLAND I., LINE IS., PUERTO RICO, ST. CROIX, ST. JOHN, ST. THOMAS , U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS, WAKE I. UNITED STATES TRUST TERRITORIES: CAROLINE IS., MARIANA IS., MARSHALL IS. UNITED STATES & NEW ZEALAND JOINT TERRITORY: TOKELAU IS. UNITED STATES & UNITED KINGDOM JOINT TERRITORIES: CANTON IS., ENDERBURY I., PHOENIX IS. VENEZUELA C./S. America-E VENEZUELA: OFFSHORE IS. (ISLA DE MARGARITA, ISLA LA BLANQUILLA, ISLA LA TORTUGA, ISLAS LAS AVES, ISLAS LOS ROQUES) VIRGIN GORDA (United Kingdom) Caribbean 67-69 81 66 67 66 38 78 39 70 37 41 63 52 56 37,38 V-28 NAME (POLITICAL AFFILIATION) REGION PAGE • VIRGIN IS. (United Kingdom): ANEGADA I., TORTOLA, VIRGIN GORDA VIRGIN IS. (United States): ST. CROIX, ST. JOHN, ST. THOMAS VOLCANO IS. (see KAZDU RETTO) WAIGEO (Indonesia) WAKE I. (United States) WATOEBELA IS. (Indonesia) WESTERN SAMOA WEST INDIES ASSOCIATED STATES (ANTIGUA, DOMINICA, NEVIS, ST. KITTS, ST. LUCIA, ST. VINCENT) WETAR (Indonesia) Indonesia Oceania Indonesia Oceania Indonesia 73 62 71 51 70 • V-29 C A R I B B E A N • CARIBBEAN (Page 2) • • CARIBBEAN (Page 3) MAP # COUNTRY LOCATION 61 ( e>C) Dl~IANCE lkm) OF 1000 m !SOBAIH 0-5 5-10 10-50 >50 25600 15 16 17 Barbuda (U.K.) NE shore; remaining 22-24 x x Antigua (W.I.) NE shore; remaining 22-24 x x Montserrat (U.K.) S &SW shores; remaining 22-24 x x 25563 18 Guadeloupe (Fr.) Basse-Terre, NW curve at 16°19 1 N; W shore, Pte. du Corps-de-Garde;remaining W shore; N shore; S &E shores 22-24 x x x x x Grande-Terre, NE shore remaining 22-24 x x Marie-Galante 22-24 x La Desirade, N shore; remaining 22-24 x x 25561 19 Dominica (W.I.) S &W shores; E shore 22-24 x x 25524 20 Martinique(Fr.) S &W shores; NE shore; SE shore 22-24 x x x 25521 21 St. Lucia (W.I.) Far W shore; remaining 22-24 x x 25484 22 St. Vincent cw. I. ) W shore; remaining 22-24 x x 24032 23 Grenadine Islands (U.K.) E shore of group; Most of W shore/group Wtip Carriacon 22-24 x x x 24481 24 Grenada NE shore; N &W shores; remaining 22-24 x x x CARIBBEAN (Page 4) MAP COUNTRY # Barbados 25485 25 27241 Cayman Is. (U.K.) 25a LOCATION N tip;remaining maps not obtained; good OTEC possi­bilities Al ( C>C) 22-24 22-24 DI~IANCE {km) OF lUUO m ISOBAlH 0-5 >50 5-10 10-50 x x I C E N T R A L I S 0 U T H A M E R I C A ( W E S T C 0 A S T ) V-34 CENTRAL/SOUTH AMERICA (WEST COAST)(.Page 2) C E N T R A L / S 0 U T H A M E R I C A ( E A S T C 0 A S T ) • CENTRAL/SOUTH AMERICA (EAST COAST}(Page 2} CENTRAL/SOUTH AMERICA (EAST COAST)lPage 3} E A S T A F R I C A V-39 EAST AFRICA (Page 2) MAP JI 1T 61024 COUNTRY no LOCATION information D.T ( oc) DI~IANCE lkm) OF 0-5 5-10 lOUU m ISOBATH 10-50 >SD 61027 56 MalagaysayRepublic[Madagascar) NW portion~ Cap St. Andre -Pte. Komany 20-21 x Nof Pte. KomanyCap d1 Ambre - 20-21 x Cap d1 Ambre 20-21 x 61030 SE of Cap d1 Ambre Antanambao - 19-21 x W E S T A F R I C A N to S V-41 WEST AFRICA (Page 2) Dl~IANCE lkrn) OF 1000 m ISOBATH A1 MAP LOCATION COUNTRY .a ( oc) >SO 57014 Angola 5-10 10-!>0 0-5 TT Ponta das Palmei­ rinhas -Ponta da Bal el a 69 18-19 x I N D I A N 0 C E A N MAP Jj rr COUNTRY LOCATION AT (oc) DI~IANC E lkm) OF lUUO m lSU8AlH 0-5 5-10 10-50 >SO 62028 * Iran -Pakistan Ra's e Rasshial -Ra's Kachari 18-19 x 63000 63005 63010 * 70 Pakistan E of Ra's Kachari, w -India, S India -Sr.; lanka 18-21 x Sri Lanka [Ceylon] Kalpitra Pen 21-22 x S of Kalpitra Pen -Dondra Hd 21-22 x Dondra Hd 21-22 x Dondra Hd -E coast at 7°17'N 21-22 x 7°17'N 21-22 x 7°17'N -Elizabeth Pt 21-22 x Elizabeth Pt 21-22 x Elizabeth Pt -Pt Pedro on N shore 21-22 x 63015 71 63020 * 72 63025 India E coast at Koliar, N-to Ramayapatam 20 x Ramayapatam -False Divi Pt 20 x False Divi Pt -False Bay 20-21 x India -Burma False Bay -Cheduba Is 21-22 x Burma Cheduba Isl 21-22 x Cheduba Isl -Cocoanut Pt 21-22 x Cocoanut Pt -Migyaunggaung 21-22 x V-43 INDIAN OCEAN (Page 2) 0 C E A N I A V-45 OCEANIA (page 2) OCEANIA (page 3) OCEANIA (page 4) . . • • OCEANIA (page 5) • OCEANIA (page 6) V-50 OCEANIA (page 7) V-51 OCEANIA (page 8) OCEANIA (page 9) V-53 OCEANIA (page 10) OCEANIA (page 11) MAP # COUNTRY OR ISLAND GROUP LOCATION M (oc) Dl::>IANCE {km) OF 1000 m ISOBATH 0-5 5-10 10-50 >50 83023 98 " 11 es Tuamotu (France) Mataiva Atoll -all 22-23 x Ti kehau x Makatea I. -all 22-23 x Rangiroa Atoll -all 22-23 x Arutua Atoll -all 22-23 x Kaukura Atoll -all 22-23 x Apataki Atoll -all 22-23 x Toau Atoll -all 22-23 x Niau Atoll -all 22­23 x Ahe Atoll -all 22-23 x Man-ihi Atoll -all 22-23 x Takaroa Atoll -all 22-23 x Tak'~ poto Atoll -all 22-23 x Aratika Atoll -all 22-23 x Kauehi Atol 1 -all 22-23 x Fakarava Atoll -all 22-23 x Raraka Atoll -all 22-23 x V-55 OCEANIA (page 12) V-56 • OCEANIA {page 13) DI::,rANCE lkm) OF lUUO m ISUBA1H ~r MAP COUIHRY OR LOCATION ( oc) >50 5-10 10-50 0-5 ISLAND GROUP # Kazdu Retta Io Jima (Iwo Jima) 23-24 x 97000 (Volcano Is.) * (Japan) Farallon de Pajaros 81005 Mariana Is. 23-24 x 102 (U.S. Trust Territory) Maug Is. -all x 23-24 Asuncion I. -all 23-24 x Agihan I. -a11 x 23-24 Pagan I. x 23-24 Alamagan I. 23-24 x Guguan I. 23-24 x Sari gan I. x 23-24 Ariataban I. x 23-24 Farallon de Medinilla x 23-24 Sai pan I., E. shore; 23-24 x N&W shore; x Tinian I., E. shore; 23-24 x S&W shore; x Agui jan I. -a11 23-24 x V-57 OCEANIA (page 14) V-58 OCEANIA {page 15) • OCEANIA (page 16) OCEANIA (page 17) OCEANIA (page 18) OCEANIA (page 19) V-63 OCEANIA (page 20) MAP COUIHRY OR # ISLAND GROUP 19320 U.S.A. (Hawaii) 113 19340 * * * * * DI~TANCE {km) OF lOUU m l~UtlAIH D.T LOCATION (oc) >50 10-505-10 0-5 Hawaii, W. shore at Keahole Pt around N. shore to Paauhau; x x Paauhau to Maula Bay; Maulua Bay to Leleiwi Pt; x 20-22 Leleiwi Pt. to Nanawale Bay x Nanawa 1 e Bay to Kapoho Pt. x Kapoho Pt . around S. shore to Keahole Pt. x Maui, S. shore at Kamanamana Pt. to Lapehu Pt; x Lapehu Pt. to Alau I; x x 20-22 Alau I. to Umalei Pt; Umalei Pt. to Kalahu Pt; x Kahalu Pt. around N&W shores to S. shore at Kamanamana Pt; x x Kahoolawe, s. shore; 20-22 x remaining x Lanai -all 20-22 ·x Molokai, N. shore; 20-22 x remaining Oahu, N, E &S shores 20-21 x x (except Mokapu Pt); x W. shore V-64 OCEANIA (page 21) MAP COUIHRY OR ISLAND GROUP # U.S.A. (Hawaii) * * LOCATION Kauai, map on order ­ W. coast and S. coast and S. coast look very promising Niihau -as above ­less promising Dl~IANCE tkm) Of-IUUO m ISOBATH lH ( oc) >50 5-10 10-50 0-5 20-21 20-21 ~ V-65 I N D 0 N E S I A *The major portion of the main Islands of Sumatera, Djawa and Borneo border on the Java Sea and the Straits of Moluccs which are everywhere shallow and unsuitable for OTEC. INDONESIA (page 2) V-67 INDONESIA (page 3) V-68 INDONESIA (page 4) V-69 INDONESIA (page 5) • INDONESIA (page 6) V-71 INDONESIA {page 7) INDONESIA (page 8) V-73 INDONESIA (page 9) MAP ISLAND .u rr Irian Jaya 73020 [New Guinea] 146 73030 LOCATION Tg. Oransbari to 1360E N shore of Kepulauan Schouten 1370E to Tg. Kamdara Tg. Kmdara to Tg. Tanahmerah Tg. Tanahmerah to 141°E t.l (oc) 22-24 22-24 22-24 22-24 22-24 Dl~ t ANCE (km) OF TOOO m ISOBATH 0-5 x 5-10 x x ' . >50 10-50 x x - V-74 P H I L I P P I N E S V-7 5 PHILIPPINES (Page 2} V-76 PHILIPPINES (Page 3} V-77 PHILIPPINES (Page 4) MAP JI. TT 91005 152 153 154 155 156 15? 158 159 PHILIPPINES (Page 5) • PHILIPPINES (Page 6) V-80 PHILIPPINES (Page 7) V-81 were plotted for the southwestern coast of Mexico and Central America (Fig. V-3a). This coastline is quite promising, both from the ~T and bathymetric viewpoints. In Figure V-3b, distance to shore of these two contours has been plotted against linear distance along the coastline. What this shows is that in various embayments and re-entrant coastal features, the distance to an offshore contour may be the same from many points along the bay, for example. Thus, several sites may be suitable for locating pipelines or transmission lines, a minimum distance from the offshore facility. When plotted against latitude (this particular coastline trends WNW-ESE), these become single points along the curve (or form loops where lines of latitude are crossed more than once)(Fig. V-3c). Work is continuing on combining the ~T information (next section) with this type of plot to make "hypsothennal" curves that will act as indices of OTEC feasibility along coastlines. TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SURFACE AND DEEP WATERS (~T) In this preliminary report, only the broadest of outlines will be given on the variation of ~T in tropical oceans and its underlying causes. Basically, the hydrosphere is divided into two broad vertical zones; the thin, warm surface layer and the deep cold-water region. Simplistically, in the tropics, the surface layer is warmed by contact with the atmosphere, has some vertical dimensions due to mixing and stirring by wind and wave action and is transported westwards by the tradewind-driven equatorial current systems in the major oceans. These currents are deflected north or south by the oceanic boundaries and V-82 Punta Maria to Figure V-3: The southern coast of Central America: (A) Coastline and coastal bathymetry V-83 r DISTANCE (km) to 200 m a 1000 m ISOBATH rTJ z l> 100 80 60 40 20 0 ::0 SOLEDAD ' ' \ ' I { ' ' ................. . ...... .... ... ' ' '..,, ' ',, Lo SOOUITA 0 (/) -! l> 200 z () rTJ CASO VE LAS - -~ 400 3 I (/) 0 600 c -! PUNTA QUEPOS I rTJ ::0 800 z CASO MATAPALO (') 0 l> 1000 (/) -! () rTJ 1200 z -! ::0 l> r 1400 PUNT~ MARIATO l> s:: rTJ ::0 16 00 () l> Figure V-3: The southern coast of Central America: (B) Distance to 100 fm and 500 fm isobaths plotted against linear distance along the coastline starting at Soledad V-84 DISTANCE (km) to 200m a IOOOm ISOBATH 80 60 40 20 -~......~~~........~~~~.....~~~......~~~~~12°00' I SOLEDAD I I \ I La BOQUITA \ I en I. II 0 30' 0 I c I I ~ I I :I: I 000 m-\ IT\ :n 11°00' z ("') 0 l> en 10° 30' ~ CABO VELAS ("') ITI z 10° oo' ~ ::0 l> r l> 9° 30' ~ PUNTA QUEPOS ,,, ::0 ("') l> 9° oo' 0 z 8° .30' r Q CASO MATAPATO ­ ---- c: \ c. \ \ 8°00' C1> ' ' ' '".:::""-' -~ 1° 3 o' PUNTA MARIATO Figure V-3: The southern coast of Central America: (C) Distance to 100 fm and 500 fm isobaths plotted against latitude V-85 form the large subtropical current systems or gyres. Narrow equatorial gyres are formed in the doldrums due to the return of some of the water pushed westwards by the tradewinds. In polar regions, which receive less energy from solar radiation, cold sub-polar gyres* occur between the easterly and westerly wind systems. During polar winters, sea ice forms at the surface and in doing so rejects brine, increasing the density of water under the ice, which consequently sinks. In the Antarctic, few topographic barriers exist to impede the spreading of this Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) and it fills the deep basins of the three major oceans, gradually mixing with northern water masses and, in the Atlantic, does not lose its identity until about 40°N. In the Arctic Ocean, a topographically enclosed basin, no such spreading of bottom water takes place. However, important intermediate water masses are formed as a result of outflow from the Arctic, in particular, upper North Atlantic Deep Water in the western Atlantic.** Of singular importance to OTEC is Antarctic Intermediate Water (AIW) formed at the surface at the Antarctic Polar Front and spreading northwards in all oceans as a cold, low-salinity water mass between 800-1000 m deep. The intermediate and bottom water masses comprise the cold water sphere and are separated from the warm surface layer by the thermocline, across which little natural communication takes place due to the dynamic barrier created by the strong density gradient (pycnocline). OTEC systems will penetrate the thermocline and artificially exchange water between the two spheres. *In the Antarctic, unimpeded by continental boundaries, the gyre is circumpolar in nature. **North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) is formed from several sources (Emery & Uchupi, 1972) and has been divided into upper, middle and lower NADW by Wlist (1936). V-86 form the large subtropical current systems or gyres. Narrow equatorial gyres are formed in the doldrums due to the return of some of the water pushed westwards by the tradewinds. In polar regions, which receive less energy from solar radiation, cold sub-polar gyres* occur between the easterly and westerly wind systems. During polar winters, sea ice forms at the surface and in doing so rejects brine, increasing the density of water under the ice, which consequently sinks. In the Antarctic, few topographic barriers exist to impede the spreading of this Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) and it fills the deep basins of the three major oceans, gradually mixing with northern water masses and, in the Atlantic, does not lose its identity until about 40°N. In the Arctic Ocean, a topographically enclosed basin, no such spreading of bottom water takes place. However, important intermediate water masses are formed as a result of outflow from the Arctic, in particular, upper North Atlantic Deep Water in the western Atlantic.** Of singular importance to OTEC is Antarctic Intermediate Water (AIW) formed at the surface at the Antarctic Polar Front and spreading northwards in all oceans as a cold, low-salinity water mass between 800-1000 m deep. The intermediate and bottom water masses comprise the cold water sphere and are separated from the warm surface layer by the thermocline, across which little natural communication takes place due to the dynamic barrier created by the strong density gradient (pycnocline). OTEC systems will penetrate the thermocline and artificially exchange water between the two spheres. *In the Antarctic, unimpeded by continental boundaries, the gyre is circumpolar in nature. **North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) is formed from several sources (Emery & Uchupi, 1972) and has been divided into upper, middle and lower NADW by WUst (1936). V-86 An ideal OTEC site (excluding topographic considerations) would have a thin surface mixed layer underlain by an intense thermocline. Seasonal variations should be minimal. In tradewind regions the mixed layer is often 100 m thick or more, while in some regions of intense winter gales the water may be mixed to several hundred meters by winter's end. Fortunately, while upper mixed layers are among the ocean's thickest in tropical regions, the annual variation in incoming radiation is the least (Sverdrup~ al., 1942), hence the seasonal temperature variation is small (2°-4°c, compared to 10°-14°c in the Gulf of Mexico and >14°C on the northeast coast of the U.S. (see Schott, 1942). ~T variations at 500 m and 1000 m (see U.S. Department of Energy, 1978, maps) are mainly a function of surface temperature in the tropics. More subtle variations are due to differences in the intermediate water masses. In the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans an asymetrical distribution of surface temperature occurs due to the combined effects of insolation and mixing of waters across the major gyres. Highest temperatures are found at the equator on the eastern margin of these oceans as water in the equatorial gyres flowing towards the east is warmed by insolation. Parts of these water masses, deflected either north or south, mix with cooler waters of the subtropical gyres. In flowing westwards again, they are warmed by insolation and form a broad warm region in the western tropics as they are deflected north or south. As they move polewards they are cooled by receiving less incoming radiation and by mixing with waters from the subpolar gyres before being deflected back again equatorward. V-87 Thus, large ~Ts are found off the equ~torial Pacific coasts of central and extreme northern South America, and the equatorial Atlantic coast of Africa. Broader regions are found in the western portion of both oceans. The highest ~Ts (>24°C) at 1000 m are found in the western Pacific. Here, the controlling factor may be that Ai\IW penetrates north of the equator in the west but only to 10°-15°S in the east (Reid, 1965). North Pacific Intermediate Water, having about the same characteristics as AAIW, penetrates almost to the equator and over-rides the AAIW. A similar westward intensification of AAIW is found in the Atlantic Ocean (w'ust, 1936). Other factors affecting the distribution of ~T arc upwelling along the equator (Cromwell, 1958) and the signi­ficant equatorward penetration of the cold Peru and California Currents in the Pacific Ocean, the thick band of "18° water" characteristic of the Sargasso Sea in the Atlantic (Worthington, 1958, 1976), and the monsoonal circulation in the Indian Ocean. Another important factor in site selection will be the consideration of the density difference between the deep and the surface water. We have done several studies on this problem in connection with the environ­mental impact of deep ocean mining (Amos~ al., 1972, 1973, 1977). Here, not only was ~T considered, but also salinity and nutrient differences to see how artificially upwelled water behaved at the surface and whether any enrichment took place. The Pacific and Atlantic Oceans differ con­siderably in their surface salinity in equatorial regions. The Atlantic Ocean has much higher surface salinities due to differences in circulation patterns, evaporation/precipitation cycles, and land-sea distribution. Consequently, surface densities at the same temperatures will be higher V-88 in the Atlantic and will generally be higher than the density of inter­mediate waters if, having been brought to the surface, they are in temperature equilibrium with the surface water. However, near-coastal waters frequently have lower salinities than the open ocean due to freshwater run-off. Regions of suitable 6T for OTEC sites are to be found in the equa­torial Pacific (Oceania), the eastern coast of India and Sri Lanka, off the Pacific coast of Central America, the Caribbean, the west coast of Africa, th~ northeast coast of South America, Brazil and the Philippines. The Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast of Florida have suitable 6Ts at some times of the year but show marked seasonal fluctuations. DETAILED STUDY OF A CARIBBEAN REGION For the purpose of archiving oceanographic data, the world has been divided into numbered 10° latitude x 10° longitude squares. NODC now uses the "Modified Canadian Square" (MCS) system rather than the older, mere familiar, Marsden Square. Each 10° square is divided into one hundred 1° squares numbered by taking the last digit of the latitude and longitude, e.g., 1° square #12 would be ll°N x 62oW. MCS #1008 (which encompasses the eastern Caribbean, the coast of Venezuela, part of Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, the outer Antilles and part of the Atlantic Ocean) was chosen for a more detailed 6T study. MCS #1008 is bordered by 10°N-20°N and 60oW -70°w. This region has some of the most promising OTEC sites in the world. Using temperature vertical array sununary printouts obtained from NODC, the average temperatures at the surface, 250 m, 500 m and 1000 m for each month in each 1° square bordering a coastline were entered into the computer (see next section for details) . All data in each 1° square were averaged to give a yearly mean temperature and 6T at these four levels (Fig. V-4). V-89 <: I l.O 0 Figure V-4: I'. cI 'U~ I -·[ ()• ·,\. • I ( ()' ' • '·,1· f.:'· lh Jllr..-r.l.r_ J~j.J. pot· l ( 1cu ~),· 1.J ;-r.. ;'llf'! -I I I 0 I ·1 .---i ~ I r I 19tI i-99-~:)·-· ! · .• ·· -'. .. ---:, ... .. -!-...... ---­ 1----- I -1-!- !--· -1 I i . I ~ I I I I1~ 92 ~6-f-J0! ~:r,,. i 52 I ! lfli.I ....__ 1 'ilJ"" . i11 .. _Q...~---I L... -----183 .. _1. _-..!.. - !. ~ I l I .• . I I i 52 i 5r. I I sn :e;:.-231 ! "8 l 16 !t) 14 l I I I I ! J u I l (. I~ ! : I 1 ''~1 l ' . j Q l __J /1 I I ____ ~ ___ n----!-76-----~75 -__ : 74 ____ ;_13. ---'-72 ...:.c.L -----·--, 1 1611 1~)IJ i 1·Hl .-1mr1 I r--1-1---r~ -r64 131: ~t ---!---+--------;- --1-----1--+---+3l-?i3'--1~ ~ 6 i 11 i 12 I ! i : I i 4V i I l;~11 b---~-~-l-ii-~-.J. __ --+-----+-- ---' --->Jt_ J___-1 i i 23 I~12 •! I B4 l i I I 34 I .. 'I l l 1. J___:::-_t-t1~~1•c--_~~~-__Jjj~J ___ -L__ ___ 1m1 1 ·,:ow fornw. fm1•1 b'.'11.' m! ~1 tJ~\'J b3~·1 61 \v mrn Number of hydrographic station in each 1° s~are of Modified Canadian Square (MCS) #1008 (E. Caribbeap) that include coastlines: (A) total number of s tations on archive at NODC (i.e. surface observations). Smaller numbers in lower right-hand corner of each square is the 1° square number ;~01~ 19N 1Bi'I l '/N 1m1 l)N <: I \0 ...... 1·IN 13N 1~JJ ).... • 20 6 11 N J I ~l_!JL_r~7~ 10N --~.!Z~~~­ 'lm~ 69\V 68\V f)'/v/ Gf!W 6JV/ # of 5~0m OBS. per' 1 do9 ~)QUARE ~· I . I . l . I .I I ··1·--1 ~·-;~-+--1-~J~;r~3-r---·---­- ,9_j~~·-91___ ' ~----·· ____ _J.8L__:fl--····-·­1 47 ! 29 69 Jgo I rn • s "13 1 0--1----n___f~--JL-. ll.--r---~> 1 1~-· ___._~--· -t-·- - ---·---1-·--:-- 1'.62-_ 6~ I __ ----·--~L--1----1 ___l_. __ ___ --·-___ I 3~ t __L _ L___ __L _. _ ·­ t----~-·-­ ---·-------~---·---~-­ ~ 60W Figure V-4: Number of hydrographic station in each 1° square of Modified Canadian Square (MCS) #1008 (E. Caribbean) that include coastlines: (B) total number of stations on archive at NODC having observations to 500 m. Smaller number in lower right-hand corner of each square is the 1° square ~umber ' )(1: i 1.01. l ()~ I ,,I I ;j 11 P'l ·' , ., J l I i • {\t ! 1 (11 I I I'' I l ~Ji i <: I N '° 1 1' ' l ·1i l ''~I' l....1 1 I '"II ! l 1. i ~ ' . 1 1 I I 1 ! I!' I.JI i Figure V-4: c n1 11uL· j ti of 1DDD111 OBS. pot' coq ,) d .Jr.r.c · -~ I ' I I I I I ... - 1 L ' : I~ I I I I -,---.n... r-r -114 ... in .(; ·i!l4 -[-·1 r-r-.r ! i l i r· fo~i··: j -l ---j----~ [----r l :st ..L..~I i I i I I ! i I 23 ~45 '1---+----- 1---··-··-~---·-·---i-------1-----·----+-·-··---+-·----i-n-.-iJ9------1 I I !. i I I i ! 24 i 31 I _ .L_.._L.____J_. ____j___ -····ri__.__ __J_____ _j ____taL_.9-T:~__j C) I ! I I I ' ' I I I I ' i 1'7' 1 I 7 I 6 ' I ! i ! I ' ; ! ' I'¥' ~. -~-~Zl___ J _u-----1-------.l______ _j__ _ _J__ .---izQ___j _____j ! 12 i1 ·1' i 4 ! ! ! : 11 . I I ' ' I ' : I~ j ! '. I ; l I ' lJ __ ,--+lL___µ5_ __j ___ ~-----··· ;---·-:rrj ----:--~J 230.;J422 ..____l__ ____ __.__1_ . _._G____ _ _ .___J__ __ _ .1_ ___ _J rrn1,• ':()!,' [" I 11 1 , U11 uJ11 bm·; () ' t', m.1:1 () 1111 ''e1O.J11.• Number of hydrographic stations in each 10 square of Modified Canadian Square (MCS) #1008 (E. Caribbean) that include coastlines: (C) total number of stations on archive at NODC having observations to 1000 m. Smaller number in lower right- o hand corner of each square is the 1 square number • Data Distribution The data on archive in MCS #1008 readily illustrate the non-systematic nature of oceanographic station distribution: it is biased geographically, seasonally and, not mentioned previously, bathymetrically. Geographical Bias Thirty-three of the 100 1° squares include coastlines that have deep water near to shore (square #84 was inadvertently left out of this survey). Figure V-4 shows the number of stations in each of these squares. The disparity can readily be seen. Squares 04, 05, 74 and 86 account for 43% of the total of 2102 stations, while squares 06 and 99 have only 4 stations each and square 98 has none. A 1° square is -llOxllO km ~ 121, 000 km.2• Squares 04 and 05 are above the Cariaco Trench, an enclosed anoxic basin of great interest oceanographically and therefore intensely studied. Square 74 contains the U.S. Virgin Islands and square 86 the north coast of Puerto Rico~both areas of economic, political and strategic importance and therefore well surveyed. Square 99 on the north coast of Haiti and the Dominican Republic are of lesser economic importance, may be politically sensitive, and are undersurveyed or the data are not in the World Data Center A bank. Seasonal Bias This is more difficult to document because of masking by the geo­graphical heterogeneity. Table V-4 shows the seasonal variation as a percentage of the 10 squares surveyed that contain data tabulated monthly. Winter and early spring seem to be the preferred time to go to the Caribbean and do oceanography. Fall is a low, perhaps due to hurricane season. This trend is not so obvious when the average number of stations per square is tabulated (Table V-4). However, very large standard V-93 TABLE V-4 MONTHLY SUMMARY OF STATION DATA ON ARCHIVE IN MCS #1008 BY 1° SQUARES THAT INCLUDE COASTLINES (TOTAL NUMBER 1° SQUARES= 33). <: I '° .i:-MONTH: JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Percentage of 1° squares with data 76 85 88 70 61 58 61 73 64 36 85 58 Average number of stations per 1° square 7.4 8.1 6.7 13. 7 9.1 10.8 5.6 3.3 4.6 15.7 6.2 2.2 Standard deviation 12.3 8.5 5.5 12.3 15.9 17.1 7.2 20.2 7.0 26.7 9.5 1.3 deviations (see May, June, August and October) show where geographical bias interferes, especially where it is caused by specific oceanographic expeditions that take many stations in one local area during a short period of time. For example, in square 74, 92 stations were taken in October alone and 47 in November, obviously from the same expedition. This is 48% of the October total in only one square. In August, 100 stations, or 45% of the monthly total, were taken in square 86. The general dichotomy between an even seasonal distribution of stations and intense, short-time studies, can be seen in Table V-5 which also shows the preference for wintertime work in the Caribbean. "Bathymetric" Bias Oceanographers frequently measure the near-surface waters and ignore deeper waters. This is often because the underlying reason for the measurement is a study of the photic zone, or a study of coastal waters only, in small ships with limited cable capabilites. It is also easier to measure surface waters than deep waters. Out of a total of 2102 stations in the 33 squares, only 998 (48%) went as deep as 500 m and 539 (26%) as deep as 1000 m*. (See Figures V-4 and V-5 for distribution by square.) This trend is not only to be found in near-coastal studies where the stations may be limited to shallow waters but can be seen in open-ocean surveys as well. One reason for this is that deeper waters show little seasonal fluctuations and may reside in ocean basins for hundreds of years: therefore, deeper waters were assumed to be in steady state. The dis­covery that even bottom waters, for example, have small-scale but intense gradients (Amos, et al., 1971) that fluctuate temporarily (Biscaye & Eittreim,1976) could have important consequences in OTEC technology. *In many 1° squares adjacent to coastlines there may be only a small portion of the square (or none at all) that contains water deeper than 1000 m. V-95 TABLE V-5: 1° SQUARES THAT INCLUDE COASTLINES IN MCS #1008 (EASTERN) CARIBBEAN). THE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF A GIVEN NUMBER OF ARCHIVED STATIONS IN A 1° SQUARE, TABULATED BY MONTH. (Expressed as the total number of stations repre­sented by that occurrence, i.e., if six of the 1° squares have six stations archived, then the Xs will represent 36 stations. In the case of no stations archived, the Xs represent the total number of 1° squares that do not have any stations archived.) The table is designed to show the imbalance of archived data distribution, both seasonally and numerically. Code: blank=no stations, X=l-5; XX=6-10; etc. Figure V-5 shows total number of stations by month at surface, 500 m and 1000 m. The seasonal preference mentioned earlier can be more readily seen in the stations going to 500 m and 1000 m. Two peculiarities of data distribution in this region can also be seen: In May, of 180 stations, only 26 went to 500 m and 13 to 1000 m. Although 19 of the 33 squares had stations, almost all of them went to only 150 m depth, almost as if there were an archiving error. Only in the intensely surveyed squares 85 and 86 (55% of all data in May) did any stations go to 500 m or 100 m. Also, the great majority of stations taken in the intense October and November survey were only to 500 m in square 74, and, of the 100 stations taken in August in square 86, only 2 were as deep as 500 m and none went to 1000 m. The major point to be made with all this is that a systematic survey of the hydrography of a region cannot generally be made by examining data in the archives. Oceanography of the Eastern Caribbean Related to OTEC Notwithstanding the above, several features of the oceanographic regime in this part of the Caribbean are readily apparent by examining Figure V-6. Average annual surface temperature (Fig. V-6a) varies from 25.1°C to 28.2°c, with a tendency for the lower temperatures to fall along the northern coast of Venezuela and the highest to be in the Wind­ward Islands. The overall average annual surface temperature = 26.34°c (S.D. = 0.74°C). Eliminating the northern coast of S. America for reasons given later, average surface temperature= 27.23°C (S.D. = 0.41°C) and can be considered constant over the Caribbean island region. At 250 m, however (Fig. V-6b), a considerable range in temperatures occurs~from 12.9°C around Tobago to 19.1°C on the southern coast of Hispaniola ~a range of 6.2°C. Note the remarkably constant values from 16°N V-97 360 320 280 240 ~200 0 I­ ~ 1­ cn 160 lL.. 0 ~ 120 CD :? ::> z 80 40 0 ml Total No. o f S t a t ion s []] No. of Stations to 500m •No. of Stations to IOOOm ~ I '° '° SQUARE #1008 -SURFACE TEMPERATURE ~?ON ;'27--k 19\j I L~"' I I 28.2--~~~ -~:~1~~J-2l:~-1 -~-;-1 -27.~----"---­ J8N L~-'=--'---J c:-"'=--~-~-~r---,-----+---­ fiN rt -----r----t--1- 1 !SN r i~27.3 14N ~ '. t ...- --- ___ _ l____.l__ ___L_ )..,. .. . 0 ~--~ I 26. 6 27. 0 25. B llN I i ---~<_L_J~ ------4~-~~ ~4 HJN L_l _±2~2.r~--: __,~.5~ '/OW 69\V 68W 6'/W 65\1 65W 64 W 631·' 6'2W 61 W 60~/ Average annual temperature in each 1° square of WC~ #~008 ~E. Caribbeanl that include coastlines: -~ surface E.i-gure-V-6-: SQUARE #10~8 -TEMPERATURE AT 250m 2nN ~HJ-.!.. c ·.. 19N ---+­ I I "' 10. e I-HJ.+­ -~~A Jj L:r~­ ~~---· 18N ""' ·---·~ 1.::::;;­ t) 17.9 ~~7.9 I 17.6 ____,_.._0___ ...,...__ 17N 11.1' I~ 16N <: 15N I I-' 0 0 14N --+--~­ --1----1-·-t­ . I j___J L_J_j_1=:9-~ I t> 13N ·~-~J _ __J__LI b~, 4 I I 12N 0 ~g 14. 3 " 1lN 10N -14.t1 j,!~~-p+-....___~~ v­'l0W 69W 68W 67W 66W 65W 64W 63W 60W Figure V-6: Average annual temperature in each 10 square of MCS #1008 (E. Caribbean) that include coastlines: (B) 250 m 'l I SQUAr~E #1008 -TEMPERATURE AT 50vJrn ;:: ~;; ~--= ---~~:I~ ~--::_~_ ~]~­ , I\ .... ' r--t-hfJ-1-,tte ~13.1., 1~-7~s~ :r., 11. 9 I~N --11. B I 11.2 I ll~Tii.3-111.1l~6 I"11. 1 1/~.·l I J_ _L__L____J__ _ _ _ ____ ~ a I HJ.4 I l!Pl 16N I l_ I I !___J.____ ---Lil:;. 1 1SN I I t__J__ __l___ 9. ~J I I I I <: 5 . I I I I I I I I I 8. 7 <1~9. 2 14 ~ N I I I I 1--I I I I 8.2 B.1 r 13N I I___J ____J ______ll___I I I I Q I ~> 12N C__~e.3~~ __1.9__ ______ ______l___L__l~e· ~±"-, e. 3 ).B. 0 .. , . 1lN L , _ -0­ 8.-t-~7.0 _J ·-·---ct 10N L __ _ ____ ~=== 70W mJ\V 68W G7W G6W 65W 64\V 63W-62W 61 W 60\'/ Figure V-6: Average annual temperature in each 10 square of MCS #1008 (E. Caribbean) that include coastlines: (C) 500 m 20N 19N lBN 17N 16N . i. _ __. ~12.1 J 13.0113.4 I I J_J Ib4~l ~~ _ L'__J__ ___j___,,_____ 0 -l~~3~~J~~~ '/0W 69W 68W 67W 66W 65W 6·1W 63W 62W 61 W 60W Figure v~7: Average annual temperature difference (~T} between surface and deep waters: (A) 250 m • 6T varies from 20.9 to 22.9°c, with the lower 6T being in the mostly Atlantic Ocean region off Barbuda and Antigua and the highest 6T to the Caribbean side of St. Vincent and St. Lucia. While these differences are quite small, they may be significant for OTEC; the closer to the surface that a suitable 6T can be found year-round then the shorter the cold-water pipe will be. In this region, the most promising OTEC sites would seem to be off Tobago (which may not have deep water close enough to shore), the Grenadines, St. Vincent, St. Lucia and Barbados. There are refinements that can be made to identify smaller areas, where 6T is larger than it is in the general region, where it is closer to the surface and nearer to shore and maintains itself year-round. This would require first a general survey of all possible regions in the manner that we have done here. for MCS #1008, being guided by considerations of global water-mass distribution. Next, in selected areas, literature searches should be made, more regional data sources checked and additional surveys made. To look at the 6Ts from a more pragmatic viewpoint, indices of OTEC feasibility might be developed for different regions. One such index, which we have called the "psuedogradient", has been explored for this region to illustrate the north-south variability. Taking the average annual temperature data in squares 99 (Hispaniola) and 10 (Tobago) as a contrast, 6T between the surface and each standard hydro-graphic depth was divided by that depth to give the pseudogradient d(6T) . dz in °c per meter. The pseudogradient for square 10 (Fig.V-8a) increases rapidly to .072°C/m at 200 m, then decreases at a slower rate to 1400 m~ the deepest observation in square 10. For square 99, the pseudogradient also reaches a maximum at 200 m, but only at 0.039°C/m. Both curves V-105 500 :c: ~ c.. w 0 I 0 00 15 0 0 Figure V-8: .02 .04 . 06 .08 -- ~--x=6 9: I.Jrt 6 . 2' " D •H e : " l TC 4 ] ' "/ .. ' H 5 J,../l.,r8 ; Tit'to:· : "' T( :3 ] ,r[ 2 ] , H 1 ] 10: files* 11: ent "ENTER 6-CHARACTER FILE NAME",AS 12: •ls·::in A$, 1 13: ent " ~3 TO E~HER, l TO EDIT, 2 TO LI :3T", I 14: if I=l;~to "EDIT" 15: ent " E~HEF; RECOF;D #" dl 16: "LOOP": l 7: r read 1'N; if I =2; s read 1, 8$ 18: fAt 2• "RECORD #",f4.0 19: 1,irt 6.2dlhJrt, 6,C$ 20: -79+.J; ~HK 21: for L=l to 3 22: J+80+JiK+80+K 23: it\ I=2; ,jf1P :3 24: ent "ENTER 80 COLUMNS OF DATA",8S[J, KJ 25: if B:fCJ,.JJ="x"i "0"+8$[J,240Jisr.-rt 1.ss, "er1d"i::it•:. "EDIT" 26: •.irt 5, 8SC .J, K J 27: next L 28: if' I#2;$F:·rt; !,8$ 2·?: 11Jrt 6," ·· 30: ~l+ l+N 31: ·::itc• "LOOP" 32: "EDIT": 33: ent "FILE II TO BE ED!TED" ,~l 34: rre11d lit·l 35: s read 1, 8$ 36: ent "LrnE #?" • . Jr-"COLUMt·l jp",K,"11 OF CHARACTEl'::;•)" •L 37: if J=0j Jt"tP 2 38: ent 8$((J-1)*80+k,(J-1)•80+K+L-1J;j AP -2 39: rrE"ad 1,~n::.r.-rt 1,8$ 40: fAt J," EDITED RECORD ll",f4.0 41: wrt. 6. 3 dli wrt 6' cs 42: -?9-.Ji0+K 43: for L=l t•:i 3 44: J+80+JiK+80+K 45: wrt 6.B$[J,KJ 46: next L 47: wrt 6," "i ·'3to "EDIT" 48: end *12003 PROGRAM "OTECA" ENTERS NODC TEMPERATURE, AVERAGED STATION DATA FROM KEYBOARD ONTO DISK FILE. ALSO EDITS DATA TO CORRECT ERRORS. RECORD # 7 1 l•) 2(1 30 413 50 ~0 7€1 )<.,. 21 'J .., 261 12'3 07:3 04921 4 274 135 078 05221 6 270 000 0€1•) 130021 7 281 12'? 1)76 ~J5 ~ 1r~ ~ 2'311 2:H 157 087 ~J512'?12 275 000 00•) 01)(J30 1 264 1'34 07e ~35130 2 265 .. .,;.;:, )7:3 0'::3 .,~., •J 30 .., 270 l '':!'' i.-):35 135130 4 275 141 0:35 05230 5 -·.., 000 000 •)0030 6 275 00ia 1300 0~·0 RECORD i* :j 1 10 2~1 30 40 50 60 70 30 " 2:31 t:3'3 08:3 05230 8 285 145 076 051313 ·: 28:3 155 080 •)~13010 2:::3 1..,')·, ~ •JS:3 ~353 ' -: .. ::>":.' 3011 -·-·t 14:3 1)82 001?!3012 273 0013 ':><:.... '.>7') 31 :3 270 128 084 047:31 4 -~ '-13:3 080 00031 5 271 0013 01)0 00031 6 2:35 142 088 060 ., RECORD # 10 20 30 40 5~1 6•) 70 EDITED REC:JRD i* 3 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 7€1 .., ··c 6 8 243 0•)0 000 0013 7 1 217 000 0130 0013 7 3 255 000 000 800 7 8 .-e..... 142 084 ~1013 711 26'3 142 •3•)0 00010 l 264 135 077 04'310 2 264 134 071 05210 3 268 120 078 000 ·:>?":> ·')~· 10 4 2:30 130 0:30 05110 5 271 000 1300 130010 6 ....... 122 078 051) l0 7 ._I .;J 112 068 0'.52 EDITE:D RECORD It 4 1 l 13 213 30 40 !50 60 70 ..,.,~ .., 11311 148 0~4 0531012 270 133 1377 05214 1 243 12•) 076 04:314 .. 258 145 079 046 .... ' J ·:> 14 242 t:31 075 00014 4 243 147 090 00014 5 261 132 078 •)•)0 l-1 6 245 147 000 0(10 14 •8 .J 252 151 0:34 04814 ., 281 161 084 0001410 275 142 082 0•)01411 281 152 083 04:3 EDITED RECORD :. 7 l 10 20 :30 40 50 60 70 21 3 261 1'.'Q 073 •)4'321 4 274 135 078 05221 6 270 000 0013 00021 7 2:31 l':>q •)76 051 -· ' -· 2911 2:34 l57 087 0512912 275 000 000 •)0030 l 264 134 076 051 :30 2 265 152 078 •35.3 0 EDITED RECORD It 6 l 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 21 3 261 129 078 04921 4 274 !35 078 05221 6 270 000 000 00021 7 281 129 076 051 21 8 281 141 076 00021 9 295 137 000 0002 ll l 285 142 079 00027 l 258 130 071 04:3 ...,.., .:.< "'.;. 262 140 0:33 05027 3 257 131 000 00027 :3 '.;. 129 081 , 281 131 001~1 01327"' 0502'? . TYPICAL OUTPUT OF "OTECA": KEY TO DATA COLUMNS (REPEATED FOUR TIMES IN EACH LINE): (a) = 1° SQUARE NUMBER; (b) =MONTH; (c) = SURFACE TEMPERATURE; (d) = TEMPERATURE AT 250 m; (e) = TEMPERATURE AT 500 m; (f) = TEMPERATURE AT 1000 m. 0: "IJTEC8 " : 1: ";Jif"I 8$(,240),t=;$( 6},T[l~j(h 4 ] 2: fil e:: * 3: ent "EtHEF.: 6-CHARACTEP FILE t·JAME "' A:t 4: ,ls ·:;in A:.t , 1 5: ent "ENTER PECORD # ",N 6: ent, "(1 TO LI :3T• 1 FOF: rlO LIST" •L 7: en end l•"OUTPUT" 8: "LOOP": 9: r r.: 11d 11 ~l 10: ::.reo.d 1, 8:.t 11: if F=0;v11l<8:.t(i12J) +::;+~<•1 H if <)ill 8$(f( 12l"r2+TC ::< 12J 26: if r3 #0; TC::<:, 3 ]/ r 3+H :><, 3 J 27: if r4#0jT[ ~<.4J/r4+H :><,4J 2:3: if L=l; ·:;ite "~lOLIST" 2'?: fl'1t 31"DELTP. T's for· 1Ite·3, s·:i.uure"1f':3.0;1,n·t 6.3,:3 30: f'IH 4," SURF."1f'6.l1" _____ .. 31: f1~t, 5, " 250",2f6.1 32: f'1'1t. 6•" 500", 2 f' 6.1 33: h~t, 1· 1 1000 " ,2f6.11 / 34: 1,;rt 6. 4, n ;:(,1) 35: 1,;rt 6.5.nx,2J,TO'.• t J-n:;,2J 36: 1,irt 6.61TC : {i3J1H :,:, 1 J-TD(i3J 37: 1_.irt, 6.71H :<,4J,H >'.il J-TC )<14J 38: "~lOLIST": 39: IJ11l (8$( .J, .J+l Li+s+x; 0+rl-'>r2+r3-'>r 4; :t I 42: N+l-'>t·l 43: ·:;1t, 1) " LOOP" 44: " OUTPUT": 45: files* 46: ent "ENTER 6-CHRR. OUTPUT FILE NAME",A:.t 47: a.:: ·3n A$, 1 4:3: si:>rt 11H+J 49: t?nd +31394 PROGRAM "OTECB" READS DATA FILES FROM "OTECA", COMPUTES ANNUAL AVERAGE TEMPERATIJRE IN EACH 1° SQUARE, RECORDS T(surf)• T(250)• T(SOO) AND T(lOOO) ON NEW DISK FILE. COMPUTES AND PRINTS OUT ~Ts FOR EACH lO SQUARE. D E L T fl ~=; uFF . 2'.:iO 5~Jo 10(10 DELTA ::;UF.:F . 250 500 1000 DELTA :::UF.:F. 250 500 1000 DELTA :::UF.:F. 25~J 50(1 1000 D El_ Tti ::;UF.:F. 250 5 0 ~J u:100 DEL TA ::; l_I F.~ F . 250 500 1c1o~J DELTA SUF.~F. 250 500 10(1 ~) T1 :::. f o r 2 5 II 1 17. 4 1 7 . 1 17. 0 r ·= f 0 t" .-, .­ i.::.ta 4 A 17. 4 1 ( • ·~ 0 16. 9 r ·= f o r 25 .. ~~ 0. 0 0. 0 o. 0 T ' :=. for .-,C" .-, a:: ._ 1 • .::. ..-, 14' .::. ::: .4 ~3. ~J T ' ~~-f c1 t· 27. 1 12.'3 7 • 3 5. 1 T ~ ::: f o r 2 5 • ::: 14 . . . -,.:1 ,-, 1:1. 1 4. ::: T , :::. f 0 t" 27. [1 14 • . .::.-, 1:1 ,_,. 0 C' ._f I ~=1 1D~~· ·=.:i • ... · .1:1 -,_, 1:1 1_1 . i 1:1 .-, l~,I II .::. 1De ·=:i . --·--­'3 . (1 9 .4 ·~. 4 1De ·::i • 25u ..::.-, - 2'.5. i::'. . 2~5. --' ~ 1Di::-·::i. 1 1 .~=1 1 6 • ::: 25. 2 1 D e ·::i , 14 . : 1•j • 9 22. o 1 D i::..=.:i • ---~ -­ 1 1 .C' ·-' 1?. 7 21 .i 1 D E"::I • 1 .-, .::. II '? 1'3. ~=1 ·::··::1 ,_ ,_ .~=1 :.: ·1 uo. 1"· i::· "' ~, :::.·::i. u1J re ~i :::. ·::t u tJ. ( E' 6 :::.•::tU1J t"E' :::. •:t ui:i. r e -:: 1C1 OUTPUT FROM "OTECB" LISTS IN SITU TEMPERATURE AND ~T. :;:..u rn. t· e 1 4 :::. '::ti.~ tJ. ;· E· 1 6 o: dir•1 r~i[ :::1 J 1: f iie:.::. MEF.: CAT 2 : e n t " 0 T 0 L 0 iiD F I L E :1 1 TCi E: D I T " , t·J :::: : i f t·J =1 ; ·::i t o " E D T " 4 : f o r I = 1 t o ::: i 5: E·n t ACIJ 6 : m I J..... 1 D C1 0 0 -:. A [ I 7: fr1·1t 1, 11 AC 1',f2:a 1, 11 J='',f?.4 ::: : 1,..1 r t 6 II 1, I , A[ I J ·;:i: :.::.Pn 1,A[IJ 1C1 : n i:· >=: t I 11: "EDI T": 12: f i 1i::·:.::. ME F'.CAT 1·:·. for· 1=1 to :::1 ·-·. 14: :.::. ri:· 1~.d 1, AC I J 15: ni::· ::.:: t I 16: 1"'::'. I • i::·t-it "F.'.ECOF:D #' ", t·i i f t·J =0 ; ·::i t o " F'. ! CCi F'. D " 19: e n t AC t·J J ; ·:::i t. 1-1 ·:· T A F' T " 2~J: " F.'. EC 0F.:D " ; . . -·-· " 21: f i 1 o:·:::. MEF.'.CAi 2:::: : :::. f:' n 1 , A [ I J 24: ni:·::::t I 25 : ,:.:·nd *2?~:121 PROGRAM "MERCAT" LOADS MERCATOR/LINEAR MAP SCALE CONVERSION FACTORS ONTO DISK FILE. AC l 1= AC 2J= AC 31= A( 4]= AC 5 ]= AC 61= ~,­ AC ·­ ' AC 8 J= AC ., 1= ti( Hi J= AC 11 J= AC 12 J= AC l :3 J= AC 14]= AC 15 J= AC 16 )= AC 17 J= AC 18 ]• AC 1 '3 J= AC 20 J= RC 21 J= AC 22 J= AC 2:31= A( 24 J= AC 25 J= AC 26 J= AC 27 j: AC 28 J= AC29 J= AC 30 J= AC 31 J= AC 32 J= AC 33 J= AC 34 j= AC 35 J= AC :36 J= AC 371= A[ 38 J= A[ :3'? J= AC 40 J= AC 41 J= AC 42 J= AC •Vi; J= AC 44 J= AC 45 J= AC 46 J= AC 47 J= AC 48 J= AC 4'31= l:l . 9n:;: 0. '?'?37 0. 9''4:3 ~·. 9·~52 ~). ·;~64 0. 9·~:~~3 •). '?9'?:3 1. >J02 •) 1 .01H5 1. 0073 l.0105 1. 813'? l. •Zl l 7•:• l.021'~ l. ~·<:64 1.0:313 l. •)3t:5 l. 0421 1. ;)4:3 ~ 1. 8545 1.0613 1. 06:36 1.0762 1.0:H ·3 l.0n :3 1. 010·? 1. ll14 1. 121 5 0. 132~1 ) /, 8431 1. 154:3 l. 167 l 1.1:3>31 1.1937 l. 2~179 1. 222'? 1• "') ·~·•:i1~.,• ·:> ~w 1.2552 1.2726 1. 2909 1.3101 1.3303 t . :351 5 l. 37'3'? 1. :3:375 1.4121 1. 44:32 1. 475:3 1.5049 AC 50 J= 1. 5:35.:, AC 51 J= 1. 5.:.81 AC 52 J= 1. 61j24 AC 53 J= l. 63:3:3 AC54J= 1.6774 AC 55 J::. 1. 71 :35 AC56 J= 1. 7621 AC 57 J= l. :30:35 AC 58 J= l . 85:30 AC~9J= 1.9108 AC 60 J= 1. '3674 AC'61J= 2. 0280 AC '52 J= 2. 09:32 AC 031= 2. 11533 'AC 64 1= 2. 23:39 AC 65 1= 2.. 320:3 AC 66 J;; 2. ~·?6_ PRINTOUT FROM "MERCAT". THE INDEX OF VARIABLE A IS EQUIVALENT TO DEGREES LATITUDE. AC67J= 2.5062 ACo8l= 2. 611 :3 AC69J= 2.7275 AC 70 J= 2.. :354 7 AC71J= 2.9954 AC72J= 3 .151 6 AC73J= 3 . 3261 AC74J= 3 .5222 AC7~J= 3. 7440 AC 76 J= 3, '?"24 AC 77 J= 4. 2:322 AC 7:3 J: 4. 61 s·;.i AC79J= 5.0145 AC :30 J= 5. 486:3 AC :31 J= 6. 0580 0: "Mr•:•1t r": 1: di1~ A$C6J, ~< C 1€1 , )'Cl0JiPC 10JiBC 160JiAC81 li8$(50l 2: di1~ DC 100 J, TC 4 3: fil.;s MERCRT 4: f•Jr L=t to :31 5: s reo.d l i AC L l 6: no<:A 10: for J=2 to N-: +1 11: A+l-+B 12: if abs(A)-abs 8)•:=0i8(J-l l+AC inr.(abs(8 )) HBCJH rnP 2 13: 8( .J-1 l+AC int(, bs(Ai) l•BC J l 14: B->Ft 15: next, J 16: t'i l i8$ 32: Plt -li5-.5il 33: for I=l to 1! 34: Pit 1-1,s-.s, ;cPlt -1,0Hxd 0; lbl W-I+l • "W" 35: n,..:25 o.nd r _=t;D[Jl-TC Kl+H Kl 61: Plt 9-Xi S+BC Y-l ]1 1 62: CPlt 111ilbl -( Kl 63: "END": 64: next K 65: if J=100;0+J; _tP 66: next P 67: ~to "LOOP" 68: end *2255