112020-1310-6330-l7h University of Texas Bulletin No. 2064: November 15, 1920 The Texas History Teachers' Bulletin Volume IX, Number 1 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY SIX TIMES A MONTH, AND ENTERED AS SECOND·CLASS MATTER AT THE POSTOPFICE AT AUSTIN; TEXAS, UNDER·THE ACT OF AUGUST 24. 1912 The benefits of education and of useful knowledge, generally diffused through a community, are essential to the preservation of a free g.overn­ment. Sam Houston Cultivated mind is the guardian genius of democracy. • . . It is the only dictator that freemen .acknowl­edge and the only security that free­men desire: Mirabeau B. Lamar The Texas History Teachers' Bulletin Volume IX, Number 1 Editors: The History Staff of the University of Texas EUGENE C. BARKER C. W. HACKETT C. S. BOUCHER FRANK BURR MARSH FREDERIC DUNCALF CHAS. W. RAMSDELL ELEANOR BUCKLEY THAD W. RIKER MILTON R. GUTStH W. P. WEBB Managing Editor MILTON R. GUTSCH CONTENTS C.H. WALKER: The Technique of the Sketch Map.. . . . ..... 5 Program of History Section, T. S. T. A......... ... ......... 18 W. A. WHATLEY: The Historical Manuscripts Collection of the University of TeXllls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 C.H. WALKER: The Sketch Map as an Aid i.:. the Teaching· of Historical Geography . .... . .................. .. , . . , . , 26 A. P. WEBB: B'ook Review...... ........................ 47 The Texas History Teachers' Bulletin is issued in Novmber, Feb­ruary, and May. The history teachel"l'\' of Texas are urged to use it as the medium of expression for their experience and ideals and to help make it as practicable and useful as possible by contributing articles, suggestions, criticisms, questions, personal items, and local news concerning educational matters in general. Copies will be sent free on application to any history teacher in Texas. Address UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS PUBLICATIONS The University of Texas, Austin, Texas THE TECHNIQUE OF THE SKETCH MAP In a previous article on this same subject appearing inThe School Review for September, 1916, the writer de­veloped the thesis that any teaching of historical geographyto be fruitful must make the student in his thinking asso­ciate political areas with physical features; that in strivingto attain this aim the teacher requires every aid to vis­ualization that can be requisitioned; that the desk outlinemap, whether carefully or carelessly used, is a step in ad­vance; but that the most effective means yet devised forcompelling a student really to master the subject is thesketch-·map. The article went on to show that the wideruse of the sketch-map method is retarded chiefly by thelack of a developed technique for its use; that, if teacherscould be shown how they could with relative ease teachstudents to draw quickly the whole or a part of the coun­try with whose history they are dealing, a large number ofthem would rapidly avail themselves of it. The article con­cluded with a statement of the principles, a knowledge ofwhich helps one to analyse and draw a country, and withan application of these principles specifically to the draw­ing of the coast-line of Europe. The purpose of the pres­ent article is to continue this exposition of the techniqueby showing how the method has been developed in thewriter's own classes at the University of Chicago, and morerecently at the Rice Institute.In the previous article it was shown that one of the resultsof applying the principles of analogy, relationship, propor­tion, analysis into line, and unit of measu1·e, in the case ofEurope is to develop a triangular framework which servesas a guide in drawing the coast-line, helps to keep the gen­eral proportions correct, and provides a unit of measure.What I wish to show next is how to secure an internal start­ing point for the drawing in of the rivers and other physical .features. Since the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Danube by rising asthey do close together, and flowing in different directions,obviously constitute themselves the best backbone for con­ 1. Rhine R. .26. Charente R. 2. RhoneR. ·26. Dordogne R. 3. DanubeR. 27. Garonne R. 4. Lake Constance 28. Tarn R. 5. SaoneR. 29. Lot R. 6. Main R. .80. Thuringian Forest 7. Loiro R. 81. Weser R. 8. Vosges Mts. 32. Elbe R. 9. Cevennes Mts. 33. Moldau R. 10. Boherniar. SYstern 34. Eger R. lL Mosello R. 35. Carpathian Mts. 36. Oder R. 12. Meuse R. 13. Seine R. 37. Vistula R. 14. Marne R. 38. Alps Mts. 15. Aisno R. 39. Po R. 40. Adige R. 16. Ouse R. 17. Sarnbre R. 41. Drave R. 18. Scheidt R. 42. Save R. 19. Sornrne R. 48. Morava R. 20. Allier 44. Maritza R. 21. Vienne R. 45. Ergene R. 22. Cher R. 46. Isker R. 23. Creuse R. 47. Vardar R. 24. Indre R. 48. Inn R. :I. Fig. I Cl) ~ ~­ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .,... ~­ \ Texas History Teachers' Bulletin structing the skeleton of Europe, the desired starting point should be some physical feature near the rising points of lhese three rivers. Such a convenient starting point is found in Lake Constance (4, Fig. 1) , through which flows the Rhine early in its course, and northwest of which rises the Danube. Lake Constance can be located with sufficient accuracy by first drawing a lightly dotted line south from the western base of the Peninsula of Denmark to the Gulf of Genoa, and then drawing at right angles to this another from the mouth of the Loire (7, Fig. 1), as indicated in Fig. 1. The intersection of these lines comes at the western end of Lake Constance, which enables one to draw in this lake, observing, in doing so, its general shape, the angle formed by its base with the horiZontal dotted line and the length of this base (one-eighth) in terms of the unit into which the sides of the triangle are divided, that is, the unit of measure. We are now in a position to draw in the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Danube after the fashion described in the previous article, noting the simplest straight line sec­tions into which the rivers can be broken up, their relative lengths, the angles they form with each other, and (a) the relative position of 'the sources of the Rhine and the Rhone {b) that of the tip of the Saone and the elbow of the Rhine, (c) that of the source of' the Danube and the angle of the Rhine. It is now relatively easy to draw in the other rivers and also the mountains of the continent. I shall not attempt to take up each feature in detail but content myself with pointing out some of the most helpful relationships, and for the rest will refer the reader to the maps given in the text. The general method to be followed, after having estab­lished the positions of the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Dan­ube, is to use 'them as guides in drawing m the other fea­tures. That is, for example, in drawing the Vosges Moun­tains (Fig. 1, 8), one notes their relatior.ship in position and length to the middle section of the Rhine; or in draw­ing the Cevennes and the related ridges (Fig. 1, 9) one notes that the system roughly parallels the western bank of the Saone and Rhone; or in drawing the l'iver Main (Fig. University of Texas, Bulletin 1, 6) that it is the same length (a half unit) as the middle section ·of the Rhine and that it flows into the Rhine just at the jog that separates the middle section and the section flowing northwest; or in drawing the Bohemian system, that the southwestern side of the "diamond" starts from the Danube near the jog that forms the division between the second and third sections of the river and runs to the source of the Main where it turns and so continues around until the southeastern side terminates at practically ~he same point. These new features in their turn serve as helps in draw­ing still other features. Thus relative position, the rela­tionship between one feature and another, proves to be of the greatest aid in obtaining the clear visual impression that is of such primary importance in gaining the mastery necessary to the ready free-hand drawing of an area. In regard to the drawing of rivers in general, it should be observed that before any attempt is made to draw a given river two positions should be carefully noted, namely the location of the source and of the mouth. Thus, for ex­ample, in the case of the Moselle its mouth is on the secti1Jn of the Rhine that trends northwest about one-thir ~ ~­ .,.... c ~ "-3 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ti;:! ~ ~ .,.... ~· ...... C.:I 14 University of Texas, Bulletin allelism of its first section with that of the Duena, as also the proximity of its main western tributary, the Pripet, to the first section of the Bug. In the case of the Volga, there should be noted the relationship of its sources to the source of the Duena and the Dnieper, as also the symmet­rical diamond effect produced by the Volga and its tributary the Oka. The drawing of the Don presents no special diffi­culties.In this way by the use of directed attention does the student learn to sketch in the chief physical features of Europe. He has perceived a set of analogies, relation­tionships, and proportions that can by repetition and self­drill be made into a permanent possession of his mind. When once this stage of knowledge has been reached and the sketching of the coast line and chief features has be­come mo~ or less automatic, the attention of the student becomes free to notice other relationships so that he stead­ily continues without much special effort to add to his mastery of detail. In this connection it is worth noticing that as soon as there has been obtained any degree of mastery over this material there <:1>mes an insight into the whole process and a sense of power that stimulate the student in his further study of the subject. It should be noted, also, that much of the drill required to fix these relations in mind comes naturally from the repetition that is necessitated by the course of historical development. For example, a study of the European boundaries of the Roman Empire requires the drawing of the Rhine and the Danube; a study of the areas inside of the Roman Empire ruled over by the Teutonic invaders such as the Alle­manni, the Bavarians, the Burgundians and the Franks requires the sketching once more of the Rhine and Danube, in addition to that of the Inn, the Rhone, the Vosges, the Seine and a number of other features. The re-draw­ing of many other features is in turn required by the study of the territorial modifications that have taken place by the time of the breaking up of Charlemagne's Empire and so on. Indeed, the beauty of once really learning the mutual relationships of the physical features of any coun­ Texas History Teachers' Bulletin try lies in the fact that thereafter the mind does not have to struggle with the physical features while studying the relationships of the political areas and boundaries to the physical features. Thus half of the task is cleared up at the beginning and the student is left free to give all his attention to the historical part of his .task. The triangular framework is a useful means to master the geographical relationships of Europe and to sketch them readily from memory. But it is only a part of the technique of the use of the sketch-map in the study of historical geography. If one should try to make use only of the triangular framework in following the historical geography of Europe from the Roman Empire to modern times, several difficulties in its use would reveal them­selves. It lends itself well enough to any study that con­cerns merely the whole of Europe or the eastern half of Europe. But for a study of the western part, particularly France or even Germany, the scale is too small to show clearly and easily the required detail. This difficulty can be met by a modification of the original or "nine unit" tri­angle, known as the "six unit" triangle. In this case the triangle is constructed in exactly the same way as before but its sides are divided into six instead of nine units. That is to say, the unit is an inch and a half in place of an inch: in other words the scale of the map drawn on this triangle is half again as large as that drawn on the nine unit triangle. This map, as Figure 1 shows, suffices for most of the historical geography of the Middle Ages and indeed serves very well for all situations that do not involve Russia. Thus it is for this reason that the writer has used the six unit for Figure 1 and the nine unit for Figure 2. Moreover, when Russia is to be dealt with and there is no need for drawing Spain and France, it is often con­venient to cut off the apex of the triangle and convert it into a trapezoid. This figure can be constructed by draw­a base any desired length, dividing it into six units, and erecting at its middle point a perpendicular five and five­ 16 University of Texas Bulletin eighths units in length, at the other end of which should be drawn at right angles a line two units in length, one unit on each side; the ends of this line should be connected with the ends of the first line drawn. The sides should then be di­vided and numbered as shown in Figure 3. The map drawn on this framework is susceptible of development to a considerable degree of detail without sacrificing the Texas History Teachers' Bulletin 17 necessary distinctness. The new relationships especially in connection with the perpendicular bisecting the ends should be noted. But the end and aim of this technique is not the draw­ing of maps in frameworks: rather, the aim is to obtain such a knowledge of relationships of physical features that one can reproduce at will any given area. In other words a frame-work is to be used as long as it is a help, and is S' Fig. 4 1. Meuse R. 2. Chiers R. 3. Moselle R. 4. Saar R. 5. Rh_ino R. • 6. V osges M ts. 7. Saone R. 8. Doubs R. 7 18 University of Texas Bulletin to be thrown aside the moment it becomes a bother. It will be found that students very soon come to control the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Danube and their chief trib­utaries, and that from that point on, their tendency is, at least for areas not involving coast-lines such as Alsace, Bavaria, the Duchy of Milan, to draw a rough sketch-map without framework (Fig. 4). Such tendencies should be nourished and encouraged as much as possible. Never­theless, as a matter of experience, the framework has proved itself a necessary preliminary to the detailed study of any area. It enables one more quickly to get that knowl­edge of proportion and relationship, the acquisition of which is necessary, if one is to be able, easily and quickly, to illus­trate the particular bit of historical geography about which one wishes to become clear. Therefore special frameworks of France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Greece and the Balkans, and Great Britain are necessary for the most effective develop­ment of this method. The development of this subject, how­ever, will be reserved for a succeeding article. CURTIS HOWE WALKER. The Rice Institute, Houston, Texas. 1920 PROGRAM FOR THE HISTORY SECTION OF THE TEXAS STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION General Theme: Ten years of Progress in History Teach­ing and its Relation to the Problems of the Future. 1. The Training of History Teachers since 1910.-R. P. Felgar, Professor of History in John Tarleton Junior College, Stephenville. 2. Graded Text-Books in History, Past, Present, and Future.-D. F. Mccollum, Professor of History in the East Texas Normal College, Commerce. 3. Ten Years of History Teaching in High Schools.­ W. T. Doggett, Superintendent of Public Schools, Denton. 4. Discussion will follow each address. THE HISTORICAL MANUSCRIPT COLLECTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS The extent of the facilities for historical study and re­search which are afforded by the collections of historical manuscript material in the possession of the University of Texas is not generally appreciated by students and teachers of history throughout the state. This is in large part due, no doubt, to lack of available general information on the subject; the collections have never really been adequately "advertised." The space devoted to them in the pages of the University catalogue is of necessity limited, and the exceedingly brief treatment which it is practicable to give to them therein is far from sufficient to even sugge.st either their magnitude, or the scope and significance of their con­tents. Although the present article makes no pretense of being more than a mere sketch, or of presentiJlg an exhaustive consideration of the subject, it is hoped that it may at least afford those who are contemplating the prosecution of graduate work in the fields of Southwestern or Texas history some means of guaging the value of the materials which the University, through these collections, is able to place at their disposal. The two principal collections of manuscript ma.terial in the possesion of the University, both in regard to mag­nitude and to general significance, are the Bexar Archives and the Austin Papers. The latter collection was donated by the will of the late Col. Guy M. Bryan, and has been the property of the University since the year 1902; it con~ sists of over four thousand pieces, covering the period from 1785 to 1836, the cycle closing with the death of Stephen F. Austin in the latter year. The Austin Papers have been completely and efficiently catalogued under the supervision of the curator of the University Archives, Mrs. M. A. Hat­cher, and are readily accessible to the student. The manuscripts of which the Austin collection is com­ University of Texas, Bulletin posed constitute a particularly rich mine of material for the study of the Western movement of population during the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries; the Austins travelled upon the crest of the wave of Western ex­pansion, and were a particularly fine type of the pioneer family. The movement may be followed through them, from the Atlantic seaboard to Western Virginia, and from thence to Missouri, where they are represented during the second decade of the nineteenth century by Moses Austin, and by his son, Stephen F. Austin, himself. The two were closely identified with the life and problems of the frontier as it then existed, and were prominent and influential citizens of the new-born commonwealth of Missouri. Stephen was a member of the Missouri state legislature from 1816 to 1820; and the documents of this period furnish excellent material for the study of the economic and policital prob­lems which troubled the life of the new frontier. The further expansion of population from the trans-Mississippi to the Rio Grande may be studied through the papers of this collection which fall between the years 1819 and 1836, during which period Stephen F. Austin established and expanded his colony of San Felipe de Austin on the banks of the Brazos, in what was then Mexican territory. The correspondence of Stephen F. Austin during the period last referred to forms by far the greater part of the collection, and covers practically all of the multiple phases of the history of the Anglo-American "invasion" of Texas, and the resulting series of events which led up to the Texas revolution and the establishment of an independent govern­ ment for Texas in 1836. Austin was a man of extreme versatility and great strength of character, combined with diplomatic talents and executive ability of no mean order; and in his multiple r6le of empresario, military chief, civil authority, and deputy to the legislature of the State of Coahuila and Texas for his colony, and general represent­ ative and functionnaire of his :colonists and the other Anglo-American elements of Texas in all matters which came up between them and the state or central governments, he met and was compelled to solve the numerous pro.blems Texas History Teachers' Bulletin which arose in the path of the nascent commonwealth; and these problems may be studied at first-hand today through the medium of the exhaustive discussions and an­alyses to which he subjected them in the course of solution, contained in private. and official letters, memorials ad­dressed to the government, and public addresses delivered by him on numberless occasions, which form a part of the contents of this collection. A . considerable proportion of the papers belonging to this period consists of official communications which passed between Austin and the Mexican officials at Bexar, the members of the state legislature in Coahuila, or officials of the central government at Mexico City, on matters of executive and administrative colonial routine; these doc­uments furnish an admirable medium for the study of the principles of Mexican colonial administration, and of the workings of the empresario system. Another considerable division of Austin's correspondence consists of letters to and from prospective colonists, which furnish additional material for the study of the empresario system, besides giving a clear insight into the nature of the social and eco­nomic conditions of the new colony, and the conditions in the United States which contributed to the rapid influx of Anglo-American settlers into Texas. There are, besides the above, a number of memorials ad­dressed by Austin to the state legislature of Coahuila and Texas, and to the national congress at Mexico City, peti­tioning for the revocation or modification of existing laws which affected the prosperity of the colony, or proposing legislation which would prove to its benefit, and discussing and setting forth at length the conditions in the colony which made .the proposed measure necessary. These memorials are excellent historical material. In addition to the above correspondence, Austin carried on an extensive intercourse with personal friends, both in Mexico and the United States; and these letters are particularly valuable to the historian, because of the inti­mate and confidential nature of the many discussions of public questions which they contain. Through the medium University of Texas Bulletin of these letters, the researcher is able to obtain the writer's personal reaction to the matter under discussion, unem­barrassed by the fear of public criticism. His correspond­ence with General Mier y Teran with whom he maintained a close friendship, and with his brothers and cousins in the United States, is particularly valuable in this respect. The Austin collection is now being edited by Dr. E. C. Barker, Chairman of the School of History at the Univer­sity of Texas, and will soon be available to scholars in book form. The finished work will be published by the Histor­ical Manuscript Commission of the American Historical Association, which, through the Government Printing Of­fice at Washingtcn, issues a volume of edited source ma­terial every one or two years. The Austin collection, when published, will consist of two volumes. The first of these will cover the period 1785 to 1827, inclusive, and will con­sist of biographical material on the Austin family, espe­cially on Moses Austin, and on the public career of Stephen F. Austin in Missouri, as well as other general material relative to the preliminaries which led up to the estab­lishment of the colony of San Felipe de Austin. The sec­ond volume will embrace the period from 1828 to 1836, and will contain material upon the foundation, administra­tion, and expansion of the colony, upon the Texas revolu­tion, and the establishment of the new government. Vol­ume I is now in the hands of the printer, and will soon be ready for circulation; Volume II will be ready for print­ing by next May, and will probably be available to the public by December, 1922. Dr. Barker has for the past fifteen years, been engaged in the collection of Austin letters and other Austin ma­terial, and the Austin Papers, when published, will con sist not only of the original· collection donated by Col. Bryan, but will also contain the results of Dr. Barker's researches throughout this period. The Bexar Archives have also been exhaustively examined for matter relative to Austin, and all pertinent letters and documents ob­tained from this source are being included in the pages of the work, as well as other Austin material which has been Texas History Teachers' Bulletin 23 gleaned from the State Capitol collections, the Yale Univer­sity Library, and varjous private collections.1 The appearance of the first volume of this work in 1921will constitute a most fitting centennial memorial for Aus­tin, as it .was in 1821 that his first colonial land-grant wasconfirmed by the Mexican government.The Bexar Archives cover the period from 1730 to 1836,and afford .an invaluable fund of information in the fieldsof early Spanish colonial administration, the policies ofthe Spanish crown and the succeeding Mexican govern­ment in regard to Texas, and the Mexican and Texas revo­lutions. The Bexar Archives from 1819 to 1836 supple­ment and off-set the Austin Papers, the two collections to­gether constituting a most comprehensive and well-nighinexhaustible mass of source material on the problems andmovements of the period. The Bexar Archives became theproperty of the University in 1899, at which time they wereturned over to the institution by the Bexar County Com­missioners. The documents of which the collection is com­posed have been catalogued from 1730 to 1756, and from1829 to 1836; and those which fall between the years 1756and 1820 have been arranged in such a ·manner as to bereadily accessible, and will soon also be catalogued.2 Space limitations render it impossible to accord to the 1It is earnestly requested that all those who have knowledge ofany Austin material, either printed or in manuscript form, com­municate the information to Dr. Barker, in order that the printedcollection may be as complete as it is possible to make it.2The Nacogdoches Archives, which are depositP.d in the State Li­brary at the Capitol in Austin, and are under the direct custody ofthe State, are of the same period as the Bexar Archives, of whichthey are in reality a part, as Nacogdoches belonged to the juris­diction of Bexar throughout the Mexican regime in Texas. Thecollection consists of several thousand pieces, and is of particularinterest to the student of the frontier conditions of the time; its con­tents have been arranged chronologically, and are readily accessible.Another notable collection which is in the possession of the StateLibrary is that of the letters and col1ected manuscripts of Mirabeau B. Lamar. The Lamar Papers have been recently edited by Mr.Charles. M. Gulick, and are now in the hands of the printer. Theyhave also been efficiently catalogued. 24 University of Texas, Bulletin minor collections of manuscript material in the possession of the University the detailed consideration which their historical importance deserves ; but it is necessary to notice at least a few of the more noteworthy of these. ,Among the most important, from the standpoint both of historical significance and of general interest, is the collection of letters of General Sam Houston, the earliest of which bears the date of 1819. The significance of General Houston's correspondence does not. need to be commented upon. The Maverick Papers constitute .another important group of source material, covering the Anglo-American "invasion," the Revolution, the period of the Republic, and the ante­bellum period. The Ratchford-Rose Papers are also a val­uable source of information regarding the history of Texas as a state of the ante-helium South. The period of the Texas Republic is further covered by· the McKinLJ.ey Pa­pers,3 while the Fisher Papers serve to supplement the larger collections which have to do with the pre-Revolu­tionary period.4 The later phases of Texas history may be studied at first hand thrOl\gh such collections as the Roberts Papers5 and the Neblett Papers. The former consists of the cor­respondence of the late Governor 0. M. Roberts during his public career in Texas, and the latter covers generally the period between 1847 and 1896. A notable addition soon to be made to the University collections of historical source­material consists of the papers of A. J. Rose, which will be particularly valuable to the student for the rise of the Granger movement and for the development of A. and M. College.As has been said above, the present sketch does not hope to do more than list the more salient points of in­ 3Recently donated by Mrs. M. A. Hatcher, University Archivist. •There are also a number of Fisher letters in the Archives Depart­ment of the State Library. They have been arranged in chronolog­ical order, and are readily accessible. 5Donated to the University by the will of Governor 0. M. Roberts in 1898. Texas History Teachers' Bulletin terest in connection with its subject; a thousand minor considerations must be left untouched. In fact, no merely descriptive article could hope to do full justice to the value of the historical materials which the University of Texas holds at the disposal of the student and historian ; to be fully appreciated, they must be examined at leisure and used. W. A. WHATLEY. University of Texas. THE SKETCH-MAP AS AN AID IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY1 :j: The purpose of this paper is to discuss the place of the sketch-map in the teaching of historical geography. The discussion will deal with the following matters: (1) the problem which the teaching of historical geography pre­sents in general; (2) the relative success or lack of suc­cess with which this problem is being solved; (3) the rel­ative value of the sketch-map method as compared with other methods in use; ( 4) difficulties which stand in the way of the wider use of the sketch-map method; ( 5) means of overcoming these difficulties; (6) a sketch-map of Eu­rope by way of illustration. In trying to make historical geography mean something to students, doubtless the heart of the problem is to get them to think in terms of physical features. There is no one, I think, who would seriously question this statement. Historical geography is concerned with changing areas of states, and is most in evidence during an early period of political consolidation and a later period of territorial ex­pansion. The particular task of historical geography is to know the names of the areas involved in both these pro­ cesses and to know what geographical area is designated by a given historical name. In the case of our own coun­ try, for example, the names of Virginia and Massachusetts are connected intimately with the period of political con­ solidation of our country; those of the Louisiana Purchase and California, with the period of our westward expan­ sion. It is the task of historical geography to make clear the geographical scope of such names. But how is one to make clear either to one's self or to others the geographical scope of names of this sort with- A paper read October 30, 1915, before the High School History Teachers' Association of Chicago; slightly revised, and printed in The School Review, September, 1916. :j: Copyright, 1916, by Curtis Howe Walker. All rights reserved. Texas History Teachers' Bulletin 27 ·out knowing some of the physical characteristics involved, without having something definite with which to associate the names? Obviously, must one not have something to which to tie? A very simple means of testing this matter is at hand, and is offered by the character of our own men­tal pictures of location. What, for example, is the mental picture called up by the name "New York City," or by that of "Chicago"? In the case of New York, some conscious­ness that it is on the coast at the mouth o~ the Hudson immediately comes to us, and, in the case of Chicago, we see Lake Michigan with the city planted at its edge near the southwest corner. Or, suppose the states in which the cities are placed be taken, does not the mental picture in­volve the Hudson again and the. Great Lakes in the one case, and, in .the other, Lake Michigan and the Mississippi? Conversely, is it not the lack of knowledge of the physical characteristics which makes the mental pictures of other places and political divisions vague? What, for example, is the character of the mental picture when we speak of Burgundy, Bedfordshire, or Wurttemberg? Are they tied definitely to anything? Do they not float loosely around "somewhere in France" and the other countries? Can we not say that the vividness and the accuracy of our mental pictures vary according to our knowledge of the physical features of the area? It is perfectly clear, it seems to me, that our minds instinctively reach out for definite and specific features with which to associate the location of areas, boundaries, and places. If, then, this is the stuff out of which mental pictures of location are made, must not our aim in teaching historical geography be (1) to train the pupil to study the physical features of the areas with which the historical narrative deals, and (2) to train him to associate the historical areas about which he is studying with these physical features? In other words, must not our aim be to train him, when dealing with political divisions and places, to think in terms of physical features? But this is not easy matter, and how to get the pupil to do this is a problem-the very problem that the teaching of historical geography presents to us. University of Texas. Bulletin Now, how is this problem being attacked? Upon what methods do teachers commonly rely? With what success are these efforts attended? With these questions of method and efficiency our discussion must next concern itself. There are three methods now commonly in use in the teaching of historical geography which claim our attenion. In one of these the teachers supply themselves with wall­maps and historical charts, good, bad, and indifferent; they rely on these and on the maps in the textbooks to help con­vey to the pupil some notion of the physical areas that cor­respond to such as Nevada, Ontario, Wessex, Lombardy, and other similar names of historical division. In this case the pupil is supposed to acquire the information by turning from the text, after he has read there about some territorial change to the map in the book-in case there is a map of this territory-and get a notion of the area sig­nified by the name or names about which he has been read­ing. The knowledge which may or may not have been gained in this way is then further reinforced, when the matter is being touched on in class, by the act of the teacher in directing the attention of the pupil to the wall-map or chart. This is done either by a glance of the eye or by pointing with the finger or pointer. Some enthusiasts, in­deed, even venture so far as to trace out the boundary line of the area in question. This method does not involve any test of the pupil's knowledge. · It takes for granted that he does examine the map after reading the text; it is thus characterized, we may say, by a large measure of pious hope. Other teachers, making less heavy drafts upon the treasury of pious hope, use all the measures to which ref­ereni;:e has just been made and, in addition, make some effort to see that the pupil really does look at the map for himself. The means they resort to is that·of the outline­map. In thi~ outline-map method, the second of the meth­ods to be described, the pupil is required to fill in on an outline-map the area in question. He is asked to figure out from maps at his disposal, either those in his text-book or those in some historical atlas, just where East Anglia, Texas History Teachers' Bulletin 2) Champagne, or Switzerland is supposed to be, and then to trace or fill in a corresponding area on his map. Further­more, I believe, he is generally supposed to label some of the rivers and mountains that may be found on his outline­map with what seem to be appropriate names. These maps are then handed in, and the teacher is thus assured that at least the pupil has spent some effort on the matter. With many teachers the effort stops here, and the pupil is not required to be able at a written test or examination to re­produce this material from memory. By some teachers, however, this further test is applied. A third method goes yet farther in the effort to make sure that the pupil really does acquire some of the knowl­edge that he is supposed to have gained. In this method, the sketch-map method, the pupil is himself required to -make his own map, drawing in the coast line, rivers, and mountains; on this he must put in the boundary lines or fill in with color the area in question. Here, too, the users of this method may be divided into two classes, according as they do or do not require the pupil to be ready to repro­duce his work from memory. . Under such headings, namely, the method of "pious hope," of the outline-map, and of the sketch-map, may be roughly gathered the common methods now in use for the teaching of historical geography. The question that next presents itself relates to their ef­ficiency. How well do they accomplish their aim? To what extent do they lead the pupils to think in terms of physical features? When we ask ourselves how far the methods sketched above train the pupils to associate the given: areas with physical features, how far these methods lead to the acquisi­ tion of any permanent knowledge, we shall have to admit, I think, that, on the whole, the results are unsatisfactory. The pupil, particularly in the case of European history, has his real knowledge increased very little. When Bur­ gundy and Brandenburg can be transposed at the pupil's pleasure, when it is insisted that the straits of Gibraltar separate Dover and Calais, when Canterbury is placed where University of Texas Bulletin Cairo should be, and Jerusalem is located on the Italian peninsula, it would seem evident that there is still much to be desired in the efficiency of our methods of teaching historical geography. No doubt there are teachers here and there, both in the high schools and in private schools, who are getting good results, but the evidence leads ine to think that they form an almost invisible minority. Nor would their number be much increased if one included in the survey the great throng of college and university in­ structors who deal with undergraduates. In .this matter the charge of unsatisfactory results can be brought against the history teacher both in the University and in the high school. Why should this be so? Why should the results of efforts in this subject be so uniformly far from satisfac­ tory? It will not be without benefit to consider this matter for a moment. The reason for the unsatisfactory character of the re­sults obtained in the teaching of historical geography seems to me to be attributed chiefly to the deficiencies of the maps ordinarily in use, on the one hand, and, on the other, to defective methods and to inefficient use of methods good enough in themselves. The most striking deficiency in the maps ordinarily sup­plied to students is their small size. Both in text-book and in historical atlas the scale of the average map is so small that it is difficult, even with the best effort, to get clear ideas of the matter being studied. A less obvious but, if anything, more important deficiency is to be noted in the principle upon which historical maps are, for the most part, constructed. If the association between boundary line and physical feature is to be the guiding principle in the teaching of historical geography, it would seem neces­sarily to follow that historical maps and atlases should so constructed as to bring out as clearly as possible the re­lationship existing between boundary and physical feature. But to this notion the majority of historical maps at pres­ent in use do great violence. The constructors of these maps seem to have felt that boundary line rather than 'physical feature is the important matter; in consequence Texas History Teachers' Bulletin they consistently emphasize boundary lines at the cost of physical features. The heavy dotted line, black or colored, usurps the place of the Alps or the Vosges, and the Seine or the Rhine is reduced to utter insignificance or eliminated completely. Above all are they given to an overuse of color. As the combined result of these practices the feat­ures which give meaning to an area are entirely or in large part either obliterated, slighted, or utterly neglected. In such maps, as far as the pupil can see, there is no par­ticular reason why the blue which denotes Normandy should stop and the pink which denotes Maine should begin or why the brown for Bavaria should give place to the red that denotes Austria. As a result, when he has made a picture puzzle of France, or Germany, or England, or it may be Africa as now divided, for most of his boundary lines he has nothing but another boundary line to guide him. Thus, while he may have inereased his knowledge of relations somewhat, his effort in great part has been wasted, for he has gained no lasting knowledge of physical features, without which knowledge he is in no position to grasp the mutual relations of the political divisions and boundary lines he is striving to learn. While these de­ficiences in the maps from which pupils must get the desired information undoubtedly constitute a hindrance to the history teacher in his effort to teach the geographical aspects of his subject, the entire blame for poor results cannot be placed on the character of the maps at his dis­posal. In some cases the character of the method is at fault. In the first method described, for example, not only is there no satisfactory test of the student's knowledge-a grave defect in any method-but it is deficient in another regard. This is due to the assumption, made by the teacher when pointing to a wall-map, that the pupils can see the map as well as himself. That this is an assumption utterly unjustified by the facts can be . easily ascertained by any­one who chooses to place himself in any of the seats back of the first two or three rows where the pupiis sit. In such a position one very soon discovers that the average University of Texas. Bulletin wall-map or even chart is of very slight value as far as the pupil is concerned. The reason is that for the majority of pupils in a room the instructive features on a wall-map become blurred. The teacher, close to the map, knowing exactly the thing upon which he wishes attention to be focused, and seeing clearly enough himself the various de­tails, is prone to forget that the pupil is not in the same situation as himself. Furthermore, wall-maps suffer from the same defect as the maps in text-books and atlases, though not to the same degree, in that they tend to an overuse of color to show the extent of political areas and emphasize lines to the slighting of physical features. Un­doubtedly wall-maps have their uses, but, unaided, they cannot be relied on to give the pupil the knowledge he ought to have. For efficient work the pupil must himself have in his hand a good map which he can study closely and at leisure. With the outline-map method the case is different. This, if rightly employed, should produce soine solid results. It remedies some of the worst defects that inhere in the first method. It takes pains to make sure that the pupil gets some of the knowledge that he is supposed to get, and makes him construct a great many of the details for him­self. It is, however, robbed of its full efficiency in many cases by failure to require the pupil to label or fill in the significant physical features, and by failure to insist that the pupil shall be able to reproduce his work from memory. Naturally, too, the pupil follows the poor model of the atlas and text-book, and splashes on color liberally, feeling, doubtless, that there is some vital connection between pink and Provence. In the case, likewise, of the sketch-map method, the failure to secure good results is due, not to any defect in the method itself, but rather to ineffective applications of the method. That the method has been for the most part ineffectively applied is due, I think, to the lack of any well­defined system for its use. These, then, are the methods commonly in use in the teaching of historical geography. We have seen that they Texas History Teachers' Bulletin 33 are producing far from satisfactory results, and we have discussed some of the reasons for this state of things. Now, it seems to be a great pity that, of the various methods at present in use, the one which in its nature is best cal­culated to produce the most satisfactory results should be the least widely in use. I therefore wish to spend the rest of the time allotted me in discussing the value of the sketch-map method, examining the difficulties in the way of its wider use, and suggesting ways of meeting these difficulties, to the end that the sketch-map method may be more widely used in our effort to teach historical geography. In the first place, then, is the sketch-map method really superior to that of the outline-map method? Does the sketch-map method more than the outline-map method lead the pupil to think in terms of physical features-to study, that is, the relations of physical features to each other and of political boundaries to them? The particular value of the sketch-map method lies for one thing, it seems to me, in the closer observation which the student is com­pelled to give to the matter, and, for another, in the aid it gives in visualizing the relations of physical features to each other and of the boundaries' relation to them. For example, suppose the district in question to be Bohemia. University of Texas Bulletin What is the process through which the pupil goes? He takes an historical atlas and turns to the map which shows the location of Bohemia. ·He finds this location indicated by dotted lines forming a diamand-shaped figure (Fig. 1). If his map shows the physical features plainly, or if he pro­vides himself with one that does, he will see that his dia­mond-shaped figure is nothing in the world but the dia­mond-shaped plateau drained by the headwaters of the Elbe River system and bound in by four well-marked mountain ranges. In fact, if his maps are good, he soon sees that the boundary line follows very closely the ridges of these ranges, and that, for most practical purposes, it is to be associated with these mountains (Fig. 2). More­ over, when this association is once fairly grasped, there results a mental picture of the relationship.. Now, nothing will so well help the pupil to fasten these relationships in mind as the attempt to reproduce this mental picture, at first with the maps before him, and then without them. With each attempt there will be an increase in the accuracy and vividness of the mental picture and a corresponding im­provement in the gras·p of the relationships. The most conclu­ Texas History Teachers' Bulletin sive proof that a pupil has a grasp of these facts and knows what he is talking about is to be found, it must be admitted, in his ability to make from memory a sketch-map of the area in question. Such an ability represents a knowledge of a higher order and more permanent character than the ability to fill in from memory the details of name and boundary line on a map already made for him. The difference in grasp is something like that between the ability required to read a language and that required to speak it. From this point of view, as between the relative worth of the outline-map and the sketch-map, there can be no question: the superiority of the sketch-map method is incontestable. It is the one device yet in use which really forces the pupil to stµdy the matter and get a working grasp of it. It is the instinctive recognition of this fact that has always led a certain number of teachers to experiment with this method. If they have not succeeded better or been able to obtain wider recognition for the method, this fact must be set down not to the fault of the method itself, but to the dif­ficulties in the Wl}Y of its successful application. What are these difficulties, and can they be overcome with a not too great expenditure of time and effort? . Of the various hindrances that hitherto have stood in the way of a wider use of this method none is to be compared in importance to the lack of training in drawing on the part both of the teacher and the pupil. The teacher him­self does not know how to draw a map, much less can he tell the pupil how to do so. Teachers and pupils shrink from an attempt at freehand drawing. Not being used to this sort of thing, being utterly untrained, they are com­pletely at sea, and feel that they are attempting an im­possibility. It is not perhaps especially difficult to copy the coast line of Europe; but it is felt to be quite a different matter to throw aside one's sketch, shut the book, and then remake the map from memory; This requires keen anal­ysis of the separate parts of the map, close observation, and a great deal of drill to secure a satisfactory degree of mastery of such a map as that of Europe or similar ones. When one is untrained, the attainment of such mastery University of Texas Bulletin seems almost hopeless and certainly not worth the effort. In this lack of training is to be found beyond doubt, I think, the chief hindrance to the wider use of the sketch­map. By what means is this difficulty to be overcome? Doubtless the obvious means of overcoming the lack of training in drawing sketch-maps is to supply the lack. But what is the nature of the training that will enable one to draw the necessary maps with a fair degree of ease and accuracy? How great is the effort nece~sary to require this training, and is the effort worth while? Our atten­tion, consequently, must next be directed to a considera­tion of the way in which a sketch-map should be con­structed, to a discussion of the principles by which one should be guided-in short, to the art of the sketch-map. If one, without any previous training, should essay to draw from memory an outline of the continent of Europe, the result would probably look something like the accom­panying sketch (Fig. 3). Now, while all such first at­ tempts are laughable because, though suggesting the orig­inal, they are yet so grotesquely different, nevertheless they represent one's actual working knowledge of the subject Texas History Teachers' Bulletin 3'/ and can be made to afford many useful hints and sugges­tions as to how one's work may be bettered. In particular,