Publications of the University of Texaa Publications Committee: FREDERIC DUNCALF J. L. HENDERSON KILLIS CAMPBELL E. J. MATHEWS F. W. GRAFF H.J. MULLER C. G. HAINES HAL C. WEAVER The University publishes bulletins four times a month, so numbered that the first two digits of the number show the year of issue, the last two the position in the yearly series. (For example, No. 2201 is the first bulletin of the year 1922.) These comprise the official publications of the University, publications on humanistic and scientific sub­jects, bulletins prepared by the Bureau of Extension, by the Bureau of Economic Geology, and other bulletins of general educational interest. With the exception of special num­bers, any bulletin will be sent to a citizen of Texas free on request. All communications about University publications should be addressed to University Publications, University of Texas, Austin. DfllYEHITY or TEIAI , ..... AVITI• University of Texas Bulletin No. 2514: April 15, 1925 THE ENGLISH BULLETIN NUMBER 12 PUBUSHBD BY THB UNIVERSITY FOUR TIMBS A MONTH, AND BNTBRBD AS SBCOND·CLASS MATTER AT THB POSTOFFICB AT AUSTIN. TEXAS, UNDER THB ACT OF AUGUST 24, 1912 The benefits of education and of uaeful knowledge, generally tlifl'ueed through a community, are eaaential to the preaervation of a free goTena• ment. Sam Houston CultiTated mind is the guardian geniua of democracy. . . . It ia the only dictator that freemen acknowl­edge and the only security that free­men deaire. Mirabeau B. Lamar The English Bulletin Number 12 Editors: ERMA M. GILL L. W. PAYNE, JR. J.B. WHAREY The English Bulletin is intended as an organ for the expression of opinion by teachers of English in Texas concerning pedagogical and other problems that arise in their work. It will appear from one to three times a year. Copies of this bulletin will be sent free, on application, to any teacher of English in Texas. Address University Publications, Uni­versity of Texas. CONTENTS THE TEACHING OF HIGH-SCHOOL ENGLISH IN TEXAS, by Carrie Bell Sterrett.................................................................... 5 JUNIOR HIGH-SCHOOL LITERATURE, by L. W. Payne, Jr..... 30 EXTRA DIVIDENDS FROM TEACHING AMERICAN LITER­ATURE, by Rebecca W. Smith................................................ 41 LITERATURE AND THE EDUCATED MAN, by J.B. Wharey.. 50 THE TEACHING OF HIGH-SCHOOL ENGLISH IN TEXAS BY MISS CARRIE BELLE STERRETT English Supervisor of the High-School Division, State Department of Education I. General Information The following study of English in the classified and ac­credited high schools of Texas was made possible through the generous cooperation of over two hundred teachers of high-school English. In December, 1923, a questionnaire1 pertaining to the teacher of English and her work was mailed to each of the 600 accredited high schools in Texas. By the end of March, 1924, 214 replies to the questionnaire had been received, and the work of compiling the facts sub­mitted was begun. The statements and tabulations which follow are based entirely upon the information given, with­out any attempt to comment upon it. The figures alone should present a graphic picture of high-school English as it is in Texas today. II. The Teacher Number of teachers.-Two hundred and ten schools re­port a total of 1, 709 high-school teachers employed, or an average of eight to the school. Of these teachers, 290 are doing full-time English work; 49, three-fourths time; 81, half-time; and 16, one-fourth time. Salary of teachers.-Two hundred and eight English teachers receive a total salary of $251,021 annually, which means an average salary of $1,207. The highest annual salary is $2,400, the lowest is $765. Preparation of teachers.-The preparation of the teacher of English is to be considered under two headings : {1) academic and professional training; (2) teaching experi­ence. 1For a copy of this questionnaire see pp. 27-29. (1) Academic and Professional Training High-school preparation.-The women teachers of Eng­lish outnumber the men teachers of this subject a little more than four to one. To be exact, of the 214 teachers answering the questionnaire, 175 are women and 39 are men. Thirty-three of the men and 143 of the women had attended high school as much as four years. The remain­der, out of the numbers previously quoted, had attended a less number of years. The average high school attendance of the men was 3.84 years; of the women, 3.77 years. Teachers' college.-Eighty-two of the 175 women and twenty of the 39 men attended a teacher-training college. Of these, 82 women, a fraction over one-half, attended as many as four years; none of the men had attended more than three years. The following table indicates the tended by both men and women : numb er of years at­ TABLE I Years in Teachers' College Years Women ... .. .. . ... .. . . . ....... . . . .. : . .. Men . ....... . .. . . ... ...... ..... . . ... . .. 1 14 5 2 38 12 3 13 3 4 8 0 The average attendance for the women was 2.61 years; for the men, 1.90 years. University preparation.-Twenty-four of the 175 women and 6 of the 39 men had not attended any university. Fourteen of the women and 8 of the men had had more than fours years' university training. TABLE II University Training More Than Years 1 2 3 4 Four Years Women ........ ..... 17 22 20 74 14 Men .......... ...... 2 9 5 10 8 The average attendance for the women was 2.84 years ; .. for the men, 3 years. Certification.-One hundred and forty-nine of the 214 . teachers have permanent certificates and 52 have first-grade. One hundred and thirty of the 214' have a degree. Further preparation.-Out of 214 teachers, 184 have taken general education courses. One hundred and forty­one have taken special courses in the teaching of English. Thirty-one of the 39 men and 101 of the 175 women ma­jored in English. · Teachers' college training versus university training-One hundred and eight teachers who had attended both a teach­ers' college and .a university replied to the question whether a teachers' college or a university training is better for prospective teachers of English. Forty of this number said that the training received in a teachers' college had enabled them to become more efficient teachers of composition; twenty-nine stated that the university had given them bet­ter professional training in this subject. Twenty-seven teachers replied that the teachers' college gives superior in­struction in how to teach literature. On the other hand, 43 reported in favor of the university. For composition and literature, the teachers' college received 67 votes in its favor, whereas the university received 72 votes. The teachers' college has "a more professional atmos­phere," says one who has had traini~g in both institutions of learning. "Teachers are taught details with the express purpose of teaching;" "the teachers' college is more definite on problems, the university too broad in scope"; "funda­mentals are stressed more" ; "advanced classes are smaller and the prospective teachers are given more individual in­struction." These are some of the other reasons advanced in favor of the teachers' college. Those who believe that university training is superior for students who expect to become teachers of English, say so on the grounds that" "university professors are, on the whole, better trained than those in teachers' colleges"; "the subjects are studied more intensively"; "the standards are higher, the courses are better planned" ; "the libraries are larger and offer greater opportunity to do research work";. "appreciation of literature is stressed more than in a teachers' college." (2) Teaching Experience The second most valuable factor in the training of a teacher is his or her experience in the school­room. Since many high-school teachers have had pre­vious experience in the grades, it seems advisable to give the figures for this training also. The 22.8 teachers reporting on this phase of the questionnaire have had an average total teaching experience of 6.8 years each. One hundred and eighty-seven women had taught 1205 years, or an average of 6.4 years each. Forty-one men had taught 348 years, or an average of 8.5 years each. One hundred and eighty-seven women taught high-school English 780 years, or an average of 4 years each; 41 men had taught high-school English 225 years, or an average of 5.5 years each. The average grade experience for the women is 2.4 years; for the men, 3 years. For the women the average number of years in the present position is 2. 7 ; for the men, 2.9. TABLE III Years' Teaching Experience of English Teachers Years' Teaching Experience Women Men 1-3 ........................... .. ................ 65 16 4-6 ......... . ... .. ....... . ..... . ................ 57 7 7-10 ............................................ 38 7 11-15 ........................................... 11 4 16-25 ...... . ......................... .. ......... 12 5 26-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 Total number of teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Average years' experience.............................. 4 TABLE IV Experience as Teachers of High-School English Years' Teaching Experience Women Men 1-3 ... . .. .. .. ..... ... .. . .. ... .. .. ..... .. ........ 108 20 4-6 ............................... ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 10 7-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 7 11-15 4 0 16-25 5 3 26-31 0 1 Total number of teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Average years experience...... ......... ............. 4 Work of the teacher of English.-Out of 187 women teachers and 44 men teachers, 94 women and 21 men teach English only. The minimum number of English classes taught by the women is found to be 2 a day; by the men, 1 a day. Fourteen women and four men have 6 to 8 classes a day, including English. The women teach English an average of 4.10 periods a day; the men teach it exactly 4 periods. TABLE V Periods of High-School Work Taught Daily by the Teacher of English More English Classes 1 2 3 4 5 6 than 6 Women .... .. ... ....... . 2 11 33 58 59 10 14 Men ......... .... ....... 1 1 9 15 13 1 4 Total .............. ... 3 12 42 73 72 11 18 Of the 710 English classes reported by the women teach­ers, 56 had an enrollment of 10 or less ; by the men, 22, and 5 (4 women and 1 man) had an enrollment of more than 45. The average enrollment of the English classes taught by the women is 22.06; that of the men, 20.35. TABLE VI Enrollment Per Class in High-School English Enrollment 1-10 11-15 16-25 26-35 36-45 Above 45 Women ...... .... ... 56 91 335 168 19 4 Men ........... ... .. 22 5 75 37 6 1 Total ... ..... ..... 78 96 410 205 25 5 Ten men and 43 women report they do not have time for conference with the pupils . . The average number of conference periods is 51;2 a week. TABLE VII Conference Periods Per Week Periods 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Above6 Women ....... .. .. 43 15 13 7 4 57 5 29 Men ... . ..... . .. . . 10 3 2 5 1 9 0 5 Total .... .. ..... 53 18 15 12 5 66 5 34 Study hall and other duties.-The average number of study hall periods each week for the women is 6.16; the average number for the men is 5.68. TABLE VIII Study Hall Duty Periods 0 1 2 3 4 5 Over6 Women ..... ...... ..... 38 3 3 6 2 57 63 Men ......... ... ..... .. 14 1 2 0 1 9 14 Total ... ............. 52 4 5 6 3 66 77 Other school duties.-'-ln addition to teaching, 158 teach­ers state that they voluntarily or involuntarily shoulder other school activities. Forty-two are athletic coaches, 37 are sponsors for the high-school literary society, 24 are su­pervisors, 17 have charge of the debating and dramatic club work, 13 direct the student publications, 7 direct the choral work or orchestra, 5 are high-school principals, 4 are work­ers in the P.T.A., 3 are librarians, 3 have charge of the lnterschola~tic League work, 2 are superintendents, and 1 is a matron of a dormitory. If each teacher had only one of these activities to look after, the work would be heavy enough, but a number of teachers state that they are re­sponsible for as many as two or three of these extra-cur­ricula activities. With so much of the time taken up in the classroom and in supervising athletics, societies, etc., the teacher spends an average of three hours a day outside of school in the preparation of the work for the next day, including theme reading and correcting. It is small wonder, then, that "the conscientious teacher," to quote the Fredericksburg teacher of English, "has no time for private reading of magazines or current fiction, nor for study along literary lines." In reply to the question, Do teachers of other subjects cooperate to the extent that they correct errors in the me­chanics of English? 160 answered "yes"; 30 said "some do," and 18 stated "not much." III. Course of Study English required for graduation.-Of the 200 schools re­plying to the question relative to the number of years of English required for graduation, 166 state that they offer four years; 34, three years; 4, two years; and 3, one year. While there are a few four-year schools which make the fourth year elective (the exact number is not known at present), on the whole practically every school of this class in the State prescribes four years. Literature... (1) Periods devoted to classics.-The num­ber of periods a week devoted to the study of classics ranges from 1 to 4. As will be seen from the following table, how­ever, 98 to 139 out of 214 schools give two-fifths of the time to the classics. TABLE IX Periods Devoted to Classics Eighth Ninth Tenth Eleventh Grade Grade Grade Grade No. Schools .. ... 18-139-29-1 16-138-32-1 6-98-75-8 6-99-76-6 No. Periods . . . . . 1 2 3 4 1 2 34 1 2 34 1 2 34 (2) Classics studied.-A tabulation of the classics studied in 200 high schools indicates the fact that they are endeav­oring to adhere to the suggestions made in the State course of study. The six most commonly used classics (the figures in parenthesis indicate the number of times each book was reported) are: Julius Caesar (126), Macbeth (111), Silas Marner (109) , Mer chant of Venice (104) , Ancient Mariner (92), Sketch Book (85). The following list will give the classics most frequently used in a specific grade, also the total number of times they appear in the three other high­ school years : TABLE XI Frequency of Classics Studied Other Classic Eighth Grades Treasure Island .. . .. .... . . . .... . .. . ........ . . . 85 87 Merchant of Venice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 104 Lady of the Lake. ... .................... ..... . 69 82 Enoch Arden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 68 Sketch Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 85 Midsummer Night's Dream . ... ........ . ... .. .... 33 59 Other Classic Ninth Grades Julius Caesar .. ..... . . . ................. . ..... 87 126 Silas Marner . . ....... ... ........ . ..... .. .. ... . 74 109 Ancient Mariner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 92 As You Like It.... . . ...... . .................... 47 80 Vision of Sir Launfel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 61 Tale of Two Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 69 13 Other Classic Tenth Grades Macbeth ......... .. ... .. .. . . .. .. ... . ... ..... .. 59 111 American Literary Readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 66 House of the Seven Gables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 56 Romeo and Juliet .......... .... ............... 38 43 Emerson's Essays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 39 Franklin's Autobiography .. . .... . ... . ...... . .. 28 43 Other Classic Eleventh Grades Hamlet ........... . ................... .. .... . . 65 84. Macbeth ................... ...... ............. 45 111 Essay on Burns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 45 Sesame and Lilies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 36 Tempest ..... . ....... . ............ . ......... . . 32 37 Twelve Centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 35 (3) History of English and American literature.-While the majority of high schools think that the history of Ameri­can literature and the American classics ·should precede the history of English literature and the English classics, chiefly because the former is the less difficult of the two for a pupil of 15 or 16 years, a few schools offerint history still emphasize the English literature in the tenth because of its correlation with the history. English history, however, is slowly being dropped from the smaller schools, and re­placed by American history in the tenth, and ci vies and economics in the eleventh. This is causing even the smaller high schools that do place the American literature in the eleventh to reverse the order. Out of the 214 schools reply­ing to the question concerning the grades in which the two histories of literature are stressed, 191 place the history of American literature in the tenth grade, 6 in the eleventh grade, 6 in the ninth, and 2 in the eighth. The average number of periods devoted each week to the history of lit­erature is 2, whether it be American in the tenth or English in the eleventh. (4) Home Reading.-The number of classics the pupils .are able to read outside of class each year varies from four to ten. The average is three each semester. University of Texas Bulletin Fifty-two out of 203 teachers prescribe the classics to be read, 41 teachers prescribe a few and allow the pupils to elect the others, while 110 teachers allow the pupil to elect, with some supervision, everything he reads for home credit. One hundred and eighty-nine books are prescribed . for home reading by 93 teachers. The following table gives the six books most often prescribed in a particular grade and their frequency in the other grades : TABLE XII Frequency of Books Read Other Other Book Eighth Grades Book Ninth Grades Call of the Wild. . . 23 1 Silas Marner 12 2 Treasure Island. . . 16 0 Lorna Doone . . . . . 14 10 Tom Sawyer. . . . . . 15 0 Ben Hur .... . .. .. 13 8 Last of the Mohic- Last Days of Pom­ ans . . . . .. . . . ... '9 10 pei .. . .. . .. ... . 13 3 Rebecca of Sunny- Dr. Jekyll and Mr. brook Farm .... 11 0 Hyde .. . ....... 15 2 Man Witho~ a Little Minister . . . . . 10 2 Country ..... .. 8 1 Other Other Book Tenth Grades Book Eleventh Grades Scarlet Letter..... 15 2 Price and Prejudice 19 3 House of Seven Adam Bede . . . . . . 10 1 Gables . ........ 8 6 The Crisis . . . . . . . 12 2 Little Shepherd of School for Scandal. 16 0 Kingdom Come.. 8 2 Cranford ... ...... 9 0 Henry Esmond ... 15 0 Life of Johnson. . . 10 4 Mill on th~ Floss .. 8 0 Romona .... . . ... . 8 0 (5) Restrictions on elected home reading.-ln many of the schools in which the libraries are sufficiently large to permit the pupils to elect a part or all of their home reading, about the only requirement made is that the book must be approved by the teacher. Some teachers insist that the pupils read a certain number of classics from each type of literature suggested by the State Department of Education. The English Bulletin "Sometimes," writes the teacher of English at Carr-Bur­dette Academy, "I select the reading best adapted to the individual." In the Dallas schools the requirement is "one non-fiction and two or three works of fiction each term." A teacher in an East Texas school urges the pupils to choose books helpful in other courses. "At least one non-fiction" is required in one school, while another permits "only one book of fiction." "I limit to certain authors," writes an­other teacher. Apparently only one teacher gives her pupils free rein in the field of literature, for, in reply to the ques­tion, "What restrictions do you place upon the pupil's reading?" her laconic reply is "Not any." (6) Methods of checking up on home reading.-In check­ing up on the home reading, almost ninety per cent of the teachers require written or oral reports. These take the form of themes, summaries, outlines, texts, conferences, and round-table discussions. Some go more into detail in their requirements by having the pupils dramatize certain scenes, write a series of advertisements, or make a ·number of posters for the book read. Book reports following outlines furnished by the teacher or those published by book compa­nies seem to be the favorite method of checking up. Roy­ster's, Collins', and Heydrick's book-forms are the printed ones most used. Some teachers check against duplication by putting on the permanent record-sheet the books read in class and at home. (7) The point system.-Not more than 5 out of 200 teach­ers mentioned giving points for the books elected. The teacher at Lorena writes: "Eam is noticeably lacking in more than half of the schools. Only about 98 out of 200 teachers reporting have a room used exclusively for English. Twenty-eight have reading tables. Ninety-eight do not have bookcases, and must go to the inconvenience of seeking the general library every time a book is wanted for the least reference. Seventy-six are provided with a filing-case for themes. One hundred have a special bulletin-board for English. Ninety-one have a few records pertaining to the English work, but the Vic­trola is the common property of all the teachers. One­fourth of the teachers have the privilege of using a stere­opticon and a mimeograph owned by the school. Library.-The largest number of library books used ex­clusively for English is 1,561. The smallest number is 20. Fifty-five out of the 200 schools failed to give the size of the English division of the library. Half of the 200 schools reporting do not use any system of cataloguing the library books. Sixty-seven use the subject-author card system, and thirty-three use the Dewey decimal system. From a survey of 120 high-school libraries, it was found that twenty-six of this number do not have any periodicals or professional books and magazines. Nine have profes­sional reading but no periodicals, and twenty have period­icals but no professional reading. Of the 82 periodicals listed, we find that the Literary Digest (64), Review of Reviews (31), American (19), Pathfinder (12), Current Events (10), National Geographic (23), Outlook (9), Scien­tific American (12), head the list in popularity. These, however, are used in connection with the regular class­work in history and English. Next in popularity.are Har­per's Magazine (8), Scribner's (8), Current Opinion. (7), Popular Science Monthly (9), and Current History (8). The figures in parenthesis denote the frequency. Magazines and books of a professional nature are to be found in the libraries of 76 out of 120 schools. The English Journal leads the list in popularity, it being mentioned 21 times. The Texas Outlook (15), Correct English (7), The Texas School Journal (6), Popular Education (4), and Educational Review (4) are next in frequency. Of the professional books, Thomas' Teaching of English is found in 12 libraries; Carpenter, Baker and Scott's Teaching of English in 7, Chubb's Teaching of English in 6, Bolenius' Teaching of Literature in 6. VI. Recommendations Following this study of The Teaching of High School Eng­lish in Texas, the writer would make several recommenda­tions relative to this subject: ( 1) That the salary of the English teachers be equal to that of any other teacher in · high school with similar qualifications; (2) that all degree teachers spend one out of every three summers in travel or study, all non-degree teachers every other summer; (2) that professional interest and continuous service be re­warded by an annual increase in salary, and, if possible, by a promotion; (4) that every teacher of English be pro­vided with equipment and a room to be used exclusively for English; ( 5) that the English room be made a literary studio by being provided with bookcases well filled with books for immediate use, a reading table on which are placed choice magazines, filing cabinets for themes, maps of England, America, and Europe, a bulletin-board, stereopti­con, Victrola, a few attractive pictures for wall decoration, and one or two appropriate casts; (6) that the school board set aside a certain sum each year for the purchase of pro­fessional books and magazines, collateral reading, reference works, etc.; (7) that extensive collateral reading lists wiHJ an appeal in them for every pupil be prepared; (8) that more emphasis be placed upon the fundamentals of English, such as ·spelling, penmanship, form, grammar, and sen­tence structure; (9) that a list of minimal essentials be prepared for each subject, and that no pupil be passed to a higher grade who does not make a final grade of 80 on these essentials; (10) that certain minimal essentials of formal grammar be taught functionally throughout the four years; (12) that all errors within the pupil's knowledge be indicated and the pupil required to make a written correc­tion of each error ; (13) that each class be required .ta write at least once each week a sentence or a paragraph theme which shall be corrected in class; (14) that not more than 20 per cent of the themes be based on the classics read; (15) that,. as much as possible, theme material be secured from experience and observation; (16) that all forms of letter-writing be emphasized; (17) that one period of lit­erature, one phase of composition or grammar, and all of one classic be studied until it is completed; (18) that in aU oral work special emphasis be placed upon enunciation, self-expression, and extemporaneous speaking . • [Below we print a copy of the questionnaire which Miss Sterrett sent to the teachers of English in the high schools of Texas.-EDITORS.] -:AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE TEACHING OF HIGH­SCHOOL ENGLISH IN TEXAS* General information.-School. ..... .•.. . .... ..... ; enrollment... . . Population of town........ Number of high-school teachers ....... ; number of teachers devoting full time to English .. .... . . ; three-fourths of time ........ ; half time... .... . Salary of teachers.-Salary of English teachers. . ...... ; salary of science teachers..... .. . Preparation of teachers.-(1) Academic and professional: Number of years in high school ........ ; in normal school ... ..... ; in college of university.... .... ; certificate ........ ; degree. . . . . . . . . Number general education courses ...... .. ; number of special courses on methods of etaching English................ ; major subject in college . .. ..... ; minor subjects.. .... .. ... .... .. If a student in both a teachers' college and a uni"versity, which training enabled you to become a better teacher of composition? . . ...... ; of literature? . .. ... . . ; why? . ............ .. . (2) Teaching experience: Total teaching experience . . .. .... ; num­ber years in elementary grades........ ; number years as teacher of high-school English ... . ... ; number years in present position .. .. . .. . •Form not original. The writer wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to the following articles for much assistance in the preparation of her questionnaire on The Teaching of High-School English in Te.,as: Lucian G. Hickman"s "The Teach­ing of Composition and Literature in the High Schools of Indiana," English Journal, Vol. ·x. pp. 142-152; Robert Adger Law's "A Questionnaire for English Teachers in Texas," University of T e.,aB Bulletin, 1917, pp. 39-41; Robert Adger Law's English Teaching in Te.,aB, 1917, pp. 5-10; Cecile B. McCrosky's "The Administration of English in the High School Curriculum," English Journal, Vol VII, pp. 108-117; W. M. Smith's "The Equipment of Teaching English in the High School," Illinois Association of Teacher• of English Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No 3, pp. 3-9. Work of the teacher.-Periods devoted to teaching of English .. .. . . .. ; number enrolled in each class taught... . . . .. ; other sub­jects taught and number enrolled ................ ; number confer­ence periods each week...... .. ; number supervised study hall periods each week ........ ; other school duties (athletic coach, spon­sor for literary society, etc.) ....... . ........ ; average time spent on preparation of daily lessons (including themes) . . . . . . . . Do teachers of other subjects cooperate to the extent that they correct errors in the mechanics of English? ... . . . . . Course of study. (1) Literature: Number of years in English required for graduation .. .... .. ; number periods each week devoted to the study of classics in the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh grades. . . . . . . . List classics studied in class, in each of•the four years ................... ................... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · State grade in which you stress American literature..... ... ; grade in which you stress English literature........ ; number of periods devoted each week to the history of literature........ ; average num­ber of classics pupils are ab~e to read outside of class each year . . . . . . . . Do you prescribe the books to be read outside of class, or do you allow the pupil to elect from a somewhat lengthy list? . . . . . . . . If the former course is followed, mention the books pre­scribed for each year............................. .............. . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .... . . . . .. .. . ·.. If the elective course is followed, what restrictions do you place upon his reading?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . State method of checking up on coIlateral or home reading......... .......... . (2) Composition : In what grade or grades do you teach formal grammar?. . ........ .... . . How frequently do you require written compositions? . ..... . . Oral compositions? .. . ... . . Average length of each. . . . . . . . Are you able to correct all written exercises? ...... . . Do you have time for personal conferences with your pupils?....... . What percentage of compositions are based on the classics? ..... .. . In what phase of English do you find your pupils weakest? . ..... . . How do you account for the weakness? .. ............. ... ..... .... . Other phases of the course of study.-Do you have a course in pub­lic speaking?. . . . . . . . Does your school publish a school paper? . . . . . . . . How many debating clubs?. . . . . . . . Do your pupils take an active part in Interscholastic League work?........ Do you observe Better English Week each year?. . ...... What foreign languages are taught in your school?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On the whole which are the better pupils in English, those taking the foreign lan­guage course or those taking the science course? .. ..... . General equipment.-Do you have : (1) A room used exclusively for English?. . . . . . . . Reading tables in English room? . . . . . . . . Book cases?........ Filing case for themes?........ Wall maps and charts?. . ...... Bulletin board?........ Mimeograph? . . .... . . Stereopticon, curtain, and slides?. . . . . . . . Pictures used with work taught at various times? ........ Victrola and education records? Library equipment.-Is there a special room for the library? ... ... . Is the library open during the day for reading and for reference? . . . . . . . . State size of the library. . . . . . . . State number volumes in the English division . ..... ; amount of money spent annually on books.. . ... . . Underscore each of the following that you have in your library: unabridged dictionary, encyclopedia, handbook of myth­ology and fiction, dictionary of synonyms, etymological dictionary, one anthology for every three pupils in American and English litera­ture. Gives names of periodicals in library. .... . ..... .. ........ . . What system of cataloguing do you use?.... . ... Underscore any of the following magazines used in the teaching of English: Review of Reviews, Independent, Current Opinion, Literary Digest. What professional books and magazines do you have in your library... . . . Methods.-What system of grading do you use? . .... ........ .. . Underscore any of the following scales used, and tell whether or not .you consider them reliable: Ayres Spelling Scale, Harvard-Newton English Composition Scale, Hillegas Composition Scale........... . State the method you use jn correcting themes . ....... . ........ . . . Name briefly some of the methods you use to vitalize your work: N eeded changes.-Suggest needed changes in the present high­school course in English. Be as frank as you please, for we want your ideas........... . .. . ...... . ................ . .... . .. . ...... . JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LITERATURE* BY L. W. PAYNE, JR. Professor of English, University of Texas The junior and senior high schools are usually organized on the two-four or the three-three basis. In most of the states the public school course is organized on the twelve­grade system, and in this system the junior high school is. usually composed of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, while the senior high has the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades. In Texas, however, the public school course is on the eleven-grade system, and under this system we have usually organized the junior and senior high school grades on the two-three system, but in some cases, as here in San Antonio, the sixth grade has been included in the junior high school, thus making the three-three system as in the schools where twelve grades form the basis of the public schools. Since the seventh grade is usually the first year of the junior high school in most of the states, I shall predi­cate what I have to say on "Literature in the Junior High School" on the seventh grade as the norm, assuming that the other grades of the junior high school, whatever its organization, must largely follow the norm set by the sev­enth grade. The child in the seventh grade is usually in his eleventh or twelfth year. This means that he is in the pre-adoles­cent stage or else just merging into the adolescent stage. I am assuming that the training in formal English, such as grammar, spelling, compositfon, spoken English, shall be taken care of in periods set apart for particular work jn these technical elements of English. I am assuming, also, that from three to five periods of forty minutes each shall be devoted to the study of literature throughout the junior *Paper read before the English Section at the State Teachers' Asso~ ciation, San Antonio, Nov. 28, 1924. high school. As much as I am interested in the formal elements of English and as important as I think those ele­ments are, I shall naturally in this paper have to omit all reference to them. It is in the junior high school grades that the pupil first reaches the stage where he can begin to feel and to judge consciously the literary values in any given piece of writ­ing. Before the age of 11 or 12 the child reacts to certain types of literature, to be sure, but his re'actions are more or less unconscious or spontaneous. He rarely or never for­mulates any reasons for his likes or dislikes. At the ages of 11 or 12, however, he begins to ask himself just why a poem or story appeals to him or is a good one. In other words, he is now approaching the stage where conscious criticism of art forms begins to dawn upon him. Before this time, for example, he may have committed to memory a number of poetic selections, but he has done it more or less as he committed to memory the multiplication table, namely, because he was told that it was necessary for him to do so. Now he begins to find selections which he likes so well that he will frequently voluntarily say that he wants to memorize this or that. This means that his literary con­sciousness is being definitely aroused and is taking shape as a part of his mental equipment. The first general aim of the teacher of the seventh grade literature, then, should be to arouse and direct the child's conscious sense of literary values. This involves, of course, a great deal more than mere personal preferences for this or that type of writing. It means in a broad general sense that the child's emotional and imaginative faculties must be aroused, his esthetic nature quickened, and his ethical sense developed, and that his ideals of life and conduct must be evolved largely from the literature which is placed before him. It also means that the child must begin to understand, at least in an elementary way, the technical or literary de­vices by which these larger effects in his emotional, imagi­native, esthetic, and ethical experiences are wrought out. In other words, he must have the simpler elements of liter­ary criticism presented to him, even thus early in the course. He must not only be taught to admire that particular type of literature which the world has chosen to call classic or excellent, but he must be taught why this type of literary work is excellent. I am not a stickler for the teaching of formal matters of technique in verse or prose, particularly in the earlier grades of the junior high school, but I do be­lieve that the time to call attention to certain simple tech­nical matters is just at that moment when the pupil's in­terest is at white heat because of his own pleasure in the effects of a given selection or a definite passage. For ex­ample, I think it is wise to call attentiJn, at least incident­ally, to the rhythm, the melody, the atmosphere, the salient details or concrete instances, the local color, the subtle ef­fects of figurative language, the connotative associations of certain words and phrases and allusions, the economy of diction, the balance and proportion of parts, the use of irony and suspense and climax, and similar matters as they arise in the study of the masterpieces from day to day. Even simple elements of verse technique would not be out of place in studying a poem, particularly if there is to be a memory passage chosen from the poem. Frequently a simple exposition of the verse technique will arouse addi­tional interest and aid the pupils in their oral reading, and especially in their work in committing passages to memory. Of course I should not advise the introduction of the names of the rhythms and the meters and rhyme schemes at this early stage, but inasmuch as the child reads poetry more or less naturally in a rhythmic or sing-song fashion, and inas­uch as he iS now far enough advanced to react sponta­neously and favorably to a simple exposition of the facts of rhythm and melody as illustrated in the different move­ments and cadences and in the subtler effects of rime, allit­eration, onomatopeia, syzygy, ana the like, I should cer­tainly not neglect the opportunity of presenting these tech­nical facts in an informal way. I recall that on one occa­sion I was teaching a selection from "Hiawatha" to a seventh-grade class, and the children were having consider­able difficulty in pronouncing the Indian proper names in­troduced so frequently in the poem. I said nothing about trochaic tetrameter or the octosyllabic trochaic rhythm of the Kalevala, but I did illustrate the rhythm of "Hiawatha" by reading passages in exaggerated rhythmic form and by showing the children that there were eight syllables in every line, the odd syllables being normally accented and the even syllables unaccented. By this simple device they soon learned not only to pronounce the unfamiliar Indian names, but also to read the poem in a better rhythmic style and to find increased delight in the regular trochaic move­ment of the verse. "And the squirrel, Adjidaumo, Ceased his chatter in the oak-tree, And the rabbit, the Wabasso, Sat upright to look and listen. Yes, the brook, the Sebowisha, Pausing, said, 'O Chibiabos, Teach my waves to flow in music, Softly as your words in singing!' Yes, the bluebird, the Owaissa, Envious, said, 'O Chibiabos, Teach me tones as wild and wayward, Teach me songs as full of frenzy!' Yes, the robin, the Opechee, Joyous, said, 'O Chibiabos, Teach me tones as sweet and tender, Teach me songs as full of gladness.' And the whippoorwill, Wawonaissa, Sobbing, said, 'O Chibiabos, Teach me tones as melancholy, Teach me songs as full of sadness!' " But all these matters should be incidental and subordi­nate to the larger aim, which is to train and stimulate the child's imaginative, emotional, esthetic, and ethical nature~ Along with this primary aim the teacher should always have before him this secondary aim, namely, to develop what we may call the literary reading habit. What I mean by the literary reading habit is not merely the daily dip into the newspapers, or the weekly dip into the Youth's Companion or the Saturday Evening Post. or the Literary Digest (I sometimes call it the "Literary Indigestion"), but the habit of concentrated reading in the solider type of books in pure literature, such as the better short stories, the novels, the longer stories and romances, histories, biol­raphies, essays, poetry, and drama. If we can only teach our children really to enjoy, not merely to tolerate, good literature, •if we can inspire our pupils to read more and better literature and to read this literature with a fairer degree of appreciation and intelligence, we shall have ful­filled our function. The teach~r of junior high-school Eng­lish who does not inspire his pupils to read more than the classroom assignments and who does not teach them to read more accurately and more intelligently, is, in my judgment, a failure, no matter what other accomplishments he may have as a teacher. The choice of material for the junior high-school course in literature should be based largely on the child's chief in­terests at the age represented by his grade. Primarily, of course, the child at the age of the seventh grade is inter­ested in adventure, strange and supernatural (not amatory) romance, heroic action, and new and strange settings. · Nar­rative prose and verse necessarily bulks large in this sort of literature. The great staple, then, is stories of one kind or another. But the teacher must inject material of other types from time to time, such as the pure lyric, the thought­ful essay, the short oration, and general expository matter. Simple history and biography may also be profitably in­jected along with the longer fictitious narratives. If I should be asked to make a general table of contents for a junior high-school reader for the seventh grade, I should recommend some six or seven general divisions with ample material under each rubric. First, under the head of "Adventure," I should expect material dealing with the discovery of new worlds, stories of pioneers, heroes of exploration and settlement, and general stories of ad­venture in various parts of the world. There is a vast amount of first-rate material in this field, all the way from Columbus to Henry M. Stanley, and from Marco Polo to Daniel Boone and the "Covered Wagon" heroes. Second, I should select at least two special poets and one or two special short-story writers for more extended study, and for the seventh grade I think I should select Longfellow and Holmes and Hawthorne. The two poets have a large amount •of simple narrative verse, and each of them has a special appeal to young people either through work directly addressed to the young or because of the simple moral and the genially humorous tone of their work. Hawthorne is particularly adapted to the seventh grade in his simpler books, such as Grandfather's Chair, Tanglewood Tales, The Wonderbook, and in such stories as "The Great Stone Face," "David Swan," "The Snow Image," and the like. Along with Hawthorne I should place a number of additional stories by other writers, a large number of which are also suitable for this grade. Scott, for example, in his Stories of a Grandfather, and perhaps Irving, though his work might well be saved for the eighth grade. I should cer­tainly try to work in in some way a few of Kipling's ani­mal stories, a bear story or two by Charles Major, and perhaps a longer narrative like Treasure Island or Capta;ns Courageous. In connection with the three or four authors chosen for special emphasis, a small amount of literary biog­raphy and literary history should be introduced incident­ally. Children are always delighted to learn the minuter details, particularly the youth or earlier periods of the lives of the authors whose works they have become more intimately interested in. My third and fourth general rubrics are closely related, and yet each covers a field wide enough and distinct enough to give a separate division. They are "Folk Tales and Fairy Stories" and "Heroes and Hero Myths and Legends." I should like to see a well-selected group of the older folk tales, and some modern versions, perhaps, from our own and other languages. Fairy tales are a perfect delight to younger children, and I really think that even the most modern and sophisticated of our seventh and eighth grade children still enjoy a good fairy tale. So I would certainly include a few of the more highly allegorical or syrnbolic fairy tales, such as some of those written by Joel Chandler Harris and Frank R. Stockton; and Ruskin's well known allegorical fairy tale, "The King of the Golden River," should by no means be omitted. Under the hero myths and legends would fall the modernized versions of the old classic myths, such as those of Hawthorne and Kingsley. Some specific legendary hero might be taken up and followed rather more at length in both story and song, such, for example, as Robin Hood, Theseus, King Arthur. This is the kind of material that the seventh-grade boy or girl always delights in, and it is well to make ample provision • for storing their young minds with such legendary and mythical lore at this time. I regret that in my own school training I got very little of this sort of material, and I think that I was robbed of a great deal of the delight which I see my own children getting as they pursue these heroes through the various books and stories they are reading in the present-day schools. These two sections lead naturally into my fifth generai division, namely, "Stories from Great Books or World Mas­terpieces." Very properly, I think, fairly long passages, or even complete or in some cases condensed versions of such world-famous books as Arabian Nights, Gulliver's Travels, Robinson Crusoe, Don Quixote, and the like, might be profit­ably given in the classroom, and certainly large sections­expurgated as need may determine-of such books should be required for home or outside reading. Another and a quite different type of material, I think, should be included under some such rubric as "Character and Conduct." Here I should like to see included a group of poems and prose selections which are frankly didactic or moral and ethical in their import. I should not object to the inclusion of the word religious in this last phrase except for the fact that the exact import of the word as I would use it might be misinterpreted. Children of the junior high-school age are forming their life ideals. At ~his period the religious and moral instincts are highly sensitive, and the teachers must not neglect to take advantage of the plastic material before them in order to mold it into sane and beautiful forms. We teachers of English have a great responsibility at this point, and under no excuse or circumstance should we allow ourselves to neglect or avoid our plain duty. We might as well face the truth, namely, that it is in the English class that the pupils are to get the training which will mean most to them in the formation of their ideals both in their esthetic and in their ethical and moral life. It is largely to the literature course that we must all look for the final material out of which both ideals and character are made. One further type of material should also be included, the dramatic. This should btt repres~nted by easy short plays, particularly modern plays primarily written for 'children. In some cases these plays should be actually presented, but more of them should be read in class. "William Tell," by Sheridan Knowles, is a good heroic drama for the seventh or eighth grade. Some adaptations of Shakespeare's easier comedies should also be presented, though it is perhaps better in the seventh grade to present the stories of Shake­speare's plays through the famous Tales as prepared by Charles and Mary Lamb. And now briefly as to the method of presentation. First of all I would say: Determine the general import or mean­ing of each selection and teach primarily one principal or big idea from that selection. In every work of real ar­tistic merit there is one dominant or central theme or idea. This big idea should be discovered and emphasized. Every­thing else worth discussing should be subordinate to this -big idea. To get this idea over to the pupil, the teacher's skill will be tested in the severest way. Furthermore, if the pupil is to get a full appreciation of the big idea of any given selection, he must be taught to relate the situation or setting or characters and incidents to his own experience and knowledge. This means that the pupil must be induced to make the necessary connotative contribution to the piece of literature, so as to relate it to his present life. In other words, all good literature is universal in its application­that is to say, all great literature is modern in its final analysis and appeal. This final analysis must be made by the pupil, or else he will fail to comprehend with any degree of fullness or satisfaction what he is reading, and hence he will be unable to record in his own consciousness the neces­sary emotional and imaginative response. The teacher and the pupil must enter sympathetically and very vividly into the experiences and emotions of the characters presented. The child must hear and see and feel just what the charac­ters in the story hear and see and feel. Visualization of action and scene and character is ab­solutely essential to full appreciation of any piece of liter­ary art. Sympathetic, expressive reading is fundamentally dependent upon vivid visualizatio:ij of both the physical and the emotional and spiritual values involved in the passage under consideration. The teacher must employ every de­vice within his power. to make the children see and hear and feel what they read. The function of the teacher is largely to make mere suggestions. He can give examples of good reading himself, and he can offer hints as to salient details and concrete expressions which will set off the springs of the child's imagination, but the child himself must be made to understand thathe is to make his own visu­alizations after all the hints and suggestions are before him. The moving picture does all this for the observer. As some one has said, there never was a story really told until within the last quarter century. With the invention of the cinema we may have the whole story actually visualized for us, even to the color of the hero's eyes and of the heroine's hair. In the literature class the children must be trained to get a moving picture show from the mere printed words. A few devices, such as illustrations and the like, may help, but the real visualization must be made by each individual in the class, out of material within the range of his own experience . .Here I would like to express a warning against over­minute analysis and annotation. Give only such notes and helps as well assist the child to get the main ideas. One must be c~reful not to go so rapidly or to strip the main ideas so severely as to leave a bare and inadequate interpre­tation. The child must have a fairly full comprehension of the message of the selection he is studying. On the other hand, a too minute discussion and elaboration of details will lead to a vagueness and haziness and a dissipation of the chief meaning of the selection. In other words, present the main idea with sufficient fullness to make a permanent impression, but do not try to teach everything that can be taught from any given selection. It is better to teach the big ideas in several selections than to spend too much time and drill on a single selectiop. The problem of a single basal book or a series of classics for the junior high school course is a difficult one to settle. Under some circumstances, it seems to me, it will be ad­visable to use separate classics and library assignments. Where the schools are well equipped and manned (or "womanned," shall I say?) and where there is ample and easily accessible library material both for classroom texts and for additional readings, it seems to me that the separate classics would be advisable. In most cases in Texas, how­ever, I think it will be more practical to have a book of selections as the basis of the course, but it will be abso­lutely necessary to supplement the text with additional classics both for a part of the classwork and for library and home reading. To put all that the children should read in a year in a single volume is to me not only an impractical but an undesirable thing to insist upon. What we want is a good handbook to use as the basis of the course, with model studies of the various types of literature suitable for the · grade, and this particularly as a stimulation or a starting point for further reading to be done by the stu­ dent at home or in the library. As I said earlier in the paper, one of the aims of the English teacher is to make habitual readers, lifelong readers of the pupils. This will be best attained if the children are encouraged and even required to handle and read many books that can only be referred to or partially illustrated in the classroom lessons from the textbook. After all, the book of selections is but a poor substitute for the real books which the child must become familiar with by actual contact. EXTRA DIVIDENDS FROM TEACHING AMERICAN LITERATURE BY MISS REBECCA W. SMITH Associate Professor of English, Texas ·Christian University It is not at all strange that teachers as a class should be conservative in their outlook on life. Since, as Closson says, education is "the conservation of the accumulated wisdom of the past," teachers are both literally and figura­tively conservative; and it is natural that they should be slow to part with old ideas or to adopt new ones. But new wisdom and new ways must be introduced from time to time; to do otherwise is to stagnate. A case in point is the stubbornness with which the old schoolmasters of Colonial and Revolutionary days clung to the belief that Latin, Greek, and other dead languages were the only ones worth studying in schools or colleges, to the utter neglect of systematic training in the vernacular. Benjamin Franklin broke lances with these ultra-conserva­tive pedagogues when in founding an Academy at Phila­delphia he insisted that "all should not be compelled to learn Latin, Greek, or the modern foreign languages," but that "the study of English be not neglected since it is absolutely necessary." Thomas Jefferson, also, seemed radical when he wrote into his plans for the University of Virginia the study of Anglo-Saxon in order to "recruit and renovate the vigor of the English language." The Revolutionary poet, Freneau, proved himself a typ­ical newspaper man when he railed against his old school­masters at Princeton as well as all other conservatives in his "Epistle to the Student of Dead Languages." "In his own language Homer writ and read, North spent his life in poring on the dead; Why then your native language not pursue In which all ancient sense (that's worth review) Glows in translation, fresh and new?" The battle of Franklin, Jefferson, and Freneau against the neglect of our native tongue in the schools has long since been won, as may be seen in practically every educa­tional institution in the country; for, while the ancient lan­guages are generously offered and excellently taught, they do not usurp the rightful place of English in the curricu­lum. Yet today pioneers in education are engaged in a very similar struggle against neglect and ultra-conserva­tism in regard to the establishing of the study of American literature on an equal footing with the study of English literature in schools and colleges. This battle, too, must in­evitably be won, but much remains to be done .before we shall have realized the complete possibilities and collected the full dividends from the study and particularly the teach­ing of our national letters. This new problem is closely related to the first one; in fact, it begins where the other leaves off. We have records that as early as 1825 "English literature" was taught in the academies of the day along with such other "new subjects" as "General History" and "United States History"; but as late .as 1884 President Eliot, of Harvard, could truthfully protest that in many high schools of his time no training was being given in reading English literature, and the rest of the high schools gave little attention to it. Eliot's protest and that of other educators led to the formulation of the prescribed list of books known as College Entrance Requirements in English Literature, classics "chosen be­cause of their superior literary qualities or their importance in English literature." Since that time the place of classics in our own tongue has been secure in the schools. It is extremely difficult to trace the exact beginnings of the study of American literature because of a matter of nomenclature. Through the fortunes of history, the citi­zens of the United States speak the language of the people of England, borrowed from thetn in its entirety, and only modified during 300 years; and by virtue of this they have also inherited the magnificent literature of England, all ready-made. However much one may rejoice at the rich­ness and glory of this common heritage, it is perniissible to point out the inaccuracy in nomenclature which the situ­ation brings about. When we have established courses in our schools and colleges in "English Literature" we have not made the proper distinction between books written in the English language and books written in England. Of course, the common language makes possible a continuity and an evolution delightful to the scholar; but there is a difference ; there is an American literature which should be discussed and taught as such. Suppose that the study of the history of the United States were offered to our pupils as Course 20 in the History of the English-Speaking Peoples, and the text were often a chapter in the larger story of the British Empire. However, within the last twenty-five years the definite consideration of the poetry and prose written in this country has forced itself into the curricula of our secondary schools at least, because it so completely fulfils the demands of modern educational reform, and brings the wide-awake teacher an opportunity to get into closer touch with the daily life and interests of all her pupils. At least theoretic­ ally the modern high school has come to include American literature in its course of study. At first it was usually for only half a year, but now it is for a full year in the larger and more representative institutions. In spite of this forward · step, however, it is an unde­ niable truth that in a majority of high schools in the United States today the subject of English literature is bet­ ter taught than that of American literature. It is stressed more, emphasized more, and given out by the teacher to the pupils with more of the enthusiasm that captures the heart of the child and leads him to love it. As to why this should be so, two reasons suggest them­ selves. In the first place, the textbooks for English litera­ ture are better than those for the younger branch. Until the last ten or twelve years it was well-nigh impossible to secure a well-balanced text on the whole field of our native letters, not only for secondary schools, but even for advanced students. Such an outstandingly tolerant and in­ clusive treatment of even one period as Tyler's History of American Literature During the Colonial Time, which surveys all types and sections impartially, has remained conspicuously unique. In the average guide to study, whole fields are ignored while narrow sectional bias has prevailed. To illustrate: In virtually every account of American let­ters written before 1910 the great New England writers, rightly the most imposing group in our history so far, are treated with such exaggerated enthusiasm that practically the whole discussion is given over to them, to the exclusion of such men as Mark Twain, who is dismissed on a page as an interesting humorist, or Whitman, who is identified as the author of a fine poem about Lincoln ! Recall the texts that the large majority of the present teaching per­sonnel of our schools used in their own impressionable years as proof of the statement. This lack of national perspective is being remedied rapidly today; but it is hard to teach old dogs new tricks, and most present-day instructors, having been trained under the old regime, present American mas­terpieces with little force and enthusiasm because they do not themselves feel any. Another reason that explains why many conscientious educators are teaching English literature better than they are American-presenting Carlyle better than Emerson, Wordsworth better than Poe, Pepys better than Sewall­is that they actually know the English field better, they are · better grounded and prepared in it, because they specialized in it more in the colleges wliere they were trained. This takes the matter squarely back to the curricula of the uni­versities and colleges, which have been vastly slower than the secondary schools in recognizing in their courses the claims of our native writers. Examine the catalogues of some of our representative institutions as late as 1910. You will find no course in any phase of American litera­ture announced at Princeton, graduate or undergraduate; nor at Stanford; one at Illinois ; one at Vassar; two at Vanderbilt, and one at Texas. Ample opportunities for full­year and half-year studies of a single work of Milton, or of Chaucer, detailed consideration of a selected group of the Romanticists of the nineteenth century; but of the fifteen to fifty items on the academic menu spread before the student for the year's consumption, not one (or pain­fully few) on the writings of his countrymen for the last 300 years. For that matter, the 1923-1924 catalogue of Princeton still shows none; but the others mentioned, to­gether with nearly all the recognized institutions of higher learning, are gradually increasing their interest in native literature until Princeton is today conspicuous for its in­difference. But, again, most present-day teachers were educated under the conditions of ten to fifty years ago, and still bear the marks of their neglect of American themes in their college days. But, it may be urged, why should the college student give time to native writers when the field of England's masterpieces is so much fuller, so much richer-when it has lofty peaks of achievement beyond anything which this nation can offer as yet? By all mean:s let us grant that the life record of twelve centuries is richer than that of three; we should be more than rash to match the best of · our poets against Shakespeare or Chaucer. Let us grant, further, that for the present it seems advisable for the stu­dent specializing in literature to devote more time to the larger field of our common language. But it is becoming increasingJy apparent that for the eager college student, and for the alive teacher-student, the broader vista and height of the literature of England is fully matched in op­portunity and interest by the richer and more untrodden field for original research and investigation in the literature of the United States. It has not yet been "pawed-over"; there is so much left to be explored; there are so many fascinating bypaths that must be mapped before our story can be told. One must no longer of necessity go to Great Britain for material for a master's in English, as one eastern college has been wont to require; one may find a wide range for study and research in the cowboy lyrics of the Southwest, or the mountain folk-lore of Kentucky, or the myriad other phases of our national expression. An interesting example of the fruits of such out-of-the­way studies is the revival of popular interest in Herman Melville, sailor, novelist, and mystic of the nineteenth cen­tury. One may search in vain for a textbook written earlier than 1910 which does more than mention the name of the author of Moby Dick, while most of them omit him altogether. It is a pretty fair test of the recency of a text to ascertain whether or not it recognizes the merit of Mel­ville. Yet the popular bookshops nowadays carry in stock beautifully bound copies not only of Moby Dick, but of Omoo, Typee, and even of Redburn, an early effort. For three or four years Melville's name has been on as many lips as the best sellers; and all because a small group of lovers of American literature re-discovered this neighbor and friend of Hawthorne, this transcendental whaler, read him eagerly, and persuaded a publisher to re-issue his novels. At last Melville is about to take his rightful place among his great New England contemporaries, as one of the best of all tellers of sea-tales, as a pioneer in the South Seas, as the acknowledged inspiration of Stevenson and Masefield. Within the last few years thousands of us have hung breathlessly on the magic and weirdness of this chase for the great white whale, this Moby Dick. Through the chaotic gloom of mysticism, and the slaughter of lesser leviathans, through the hodge-podge of salt and P,hilosophy, we have followed, as fascinated as Melville's own Ahab, and as helpless as he to leave off this pursuit of the spirit of Evil until the very end. There is nothing remarkable about the revival; the wonder is that we could have overlooked him so long. Beside Melville on the bookshelf of any up-to-date book­shop this year one finds the Complete Poems of Emily Dick­inson, and a volume of her letters. "Emily Dickinson? An American poet?" asks the student who stopped his investi­gations with the narrow texts of twenty years since. Yes; another revival, in a way. The condensed, pungent verses of this lonely woman have won their way into more hearts in our generation than ever knew her in her own time, seventy-five years ago. Truly, the field for study along these lines is white for the harvest. What has been done for Crevecouer's Letters from an American Farmer, what Professor Emerson is doing for the neglected novelist, Imlay, remains to be done for many another author. Full justice has not yet been accorded the Autobiography of David Crockett. Crude as it is, has it not the essential appeal of all tales of action, of Hakluyt's Voyages, of Cap­tain John Smith's True Relation, and all narratives that are written with the sword rather than with the pen? However, the fundamental and pressing problem in the teaching of American literature is not that of original in­vestigation. The true teacher is always the teacher first, the researcher afterwards. Our prime consideration must be: What are the extra dividends which the teaching of our national literature yields, richer than any other can give,-dividends in the classroom and in after life, over and above the routine of information imparted and ac­quired? The answer is plain. With the increasing social em­phasis of modern education, and the conception of all in­struction as organized on broad democratic lines to train pupils for morally directed social efficiency and for the harmless enjoyment of leisure time, American literature has become not equally as necessary as English literature, but actually more important. It is easier to interest the child or the man in the real problems of life through the writings of his own people without those barriers of time and space that confront us with "Beowulf" and Dryden, or even with modern writers of England, who live amid differ­ent social conditions. Because of its less enormous scope our literary history can be presented more clearly, and grasped more as a unit, with less of the encyclopedic im­pression that the usual study of English literature leaves. More than that, the study of American literature, especially contemporary writers, is the best of all possible solutions to the problem of leisure time. ·Nine cases out of ten, Shakespeare or Tennyson is a remote interest grafted onto the life of the brighter students, but unassimilated by the duller ones. The cu;rrent magazines, for better or for worse, are a part of the life of all but the most hopeless pupils, and so they should be helped to realize the value in the better in­stead of t.he worst periodicals. And magazines have been American literature in the making from Bryant's "Thana­topsis" to Edith Wharton's fiction. The biggest dividends of all in the teaching of our native prose and poetry are realized in the opportunities for citi­zenship-training. In no other way ~an the young American, be he a Nordic or of a darker breed, be he a Protestant, a Roman Catholic, or a non-Christian-in no other way can he learn so much of the courage and ideals and wholesome humor and justice of his own country as in the straight­forward tale of Miles Standish, or the adventures of Natty Bumppo, or the experiences of Huck Finn and Tom Saw­yer. As he grows older, let him have Franklin's plain, unvarnished tale to read, and Emerson to puzzle him, and Poe to thrill him, and Whitman to rouse him. Let him know that these are his countrymen, the spokesmen of his native land, and the young citizen's Americanization is already half accomplished. These truths are so obvious they hardly need demon­stration. The immense potential value of American litera­ture in the creating of good citizens of the United States has won a place for his study in our schools ; the colleges, more conservative, are slowly following this lead. But so long as it is taught half-heartedly, and without sufficient prepara­tion, its value can be only partially effective. If the teach­ers want more preparation and study, they have only to demand it when they attend normal schools and colleges; they have only to send students to the universities who are eager for courses in their national literature. The college must inevitably respond to such a demand. If, in the words of Emerson almost one hundred years ago, the teacher who is set apart for the high function of Man Thinking "must be a university of knowledges,'' then it is high time that we make room in our hearts for the best that is said and written in our own nation's life, a place for the earnest study and_enthusiastic teaching of American literature. LITERATURE AND THE EDUCATED MAN1 BY J. B. WHAREY Professor of English, University of Texas One necessarily feels a certain diffidence in speaking of the importance that should be attached to one's particular subject in the making of an educated man-not that there is the least doubt as to its importance, but for fear that there may be lurking in the minds of one's audience the query: "Why, then, hasn't it produced a finer product?" I am reminded of Stephen Leacock's unkindly thrust at some of his friends, believers in the classics, who claimed "with some heat that Latin and Greek had practically made them what they are." "This damaging charge against the clas­sics," retorts Leacock, "should not be too readily accepted. In my opinion some of these men would have been what they are, no matter what they were." But, despite the possibility of such an argumentum ad hominem, I make bold to assert that in the making of an educated man no subject is more important than the study of literature. What I have to say in this paper concerns chiefly literature written in English, though, of course, many of the reasons for the study of literature in English are equally applicable to the study of literature in any other language. Moreover, I purpose to take the word lit­erature in a somewhat broader· sense than is sometimes given it. Any book which has permanence of interest through its power of appealing to the emotions as well as to the intellect-is literature. In other words, the term literature is not limited to literature considered as one of the fine arts-that is, belles lettres, but may include his­torical and scientific works. Gibbon's Decline and Fall of 1 0ne of the series of lectures delivered by various members of the faculty of the University of Texas during the spring of 1924 on the general subject, The Educated Man. The English Bulletin the Roman Empire is both history and literature; Huxley's Evolution and Ethics is both literature and science. It is both interesting and instructive to trace the growth of the idea that the literature of the mother tongue is worthy of a place in the curricul_a of our schools and colleges co­ordinate with that of other subjects. For the brief his­torical retrospect which I shall first give, I am greatly in­debted to the Report of the Departmental Committee Ap­pointed by the President of the Board of Education to Inquire Into the Position of English in the Educational Sys­tem of England, London, 1921.2 Not until 1385 did the English language receive sufficient recognition to become the medium of instruction in the English schools. In that year in all the grammar schools of England children were allowed to "have French and construe and learn in Eng­lish." Through the genius of Chaucer the East Midland dialect, the language of London, of Oxford and Cambridge, became the literary language of England, but still found a powerful rival in Latin, which many schoolmasters knew far better than their mother tongue. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries came a great change. With the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, scholars fled with their precious Greek manuscripts to Italy, and Italy became the university of the world. Thither flocked the young students of Oxford and Cambridge to imbibe the new knowledge at its fountain-source. For the first time English scholars looked to literature as the means of freeing men's minds from the shackles of the middle ages and providing a liberal education, but it was to clas­ sical literature they turned, for the simple reason that at this time there was no literature in the mother-tongue com­ parable either in quantity or quality to the Latin and Greek literature. The faith which these sixteenth century educators had in the power of literature-classical litera­ ture, remember-to furnish the essence of a liberal educa­ tion may be seen in a few excerpts from their writings. 2This will be referred to throughout the paper as The English Report. Sir Thomas Elyot, 1530, speaks of Homer as "that noble Homer from whom as from a fountain proceeded all elo­quence and learning" ; of Virgil he writes, "This noble Virgil giveth to a child, if he will take it, everything apt for his wit and capacity." And again, "Lord God, what incomparable sweetness of words and matter shall he find in the said works of Plato and Cicero; wherein is joined gravity with delectation, excellent wisdom with divine elo­quence, absolute virtue with pleasure incredible." Roger Ascham, in the Scholemaster, 1568, declares of the classics, "We find always wisdom and eloquence, good matter and good utterance, never, or seldom, asunder."3 "The students of Cambridge," writes an eyewitness, "rush to Greek let­ters, they endure watching, fasting, toil, and hunger in the pursuit of them." You and I, who wrestled with Latin declensions and con­jugations, possibly with Greek also, more years than we like to acknowledge, and never reached the point where we could read either without a dictionary (or a pony), can only smile with incredulity at the fervency of such devotion. But that is because, scholastically speaking, we live in a soft age of the world. These sixteenth century humanists were not dismayed by the fact that the children must first learn the language in which this literature was written. Sir Thomas Elyot advocated the child's beginning Greek at seven and if by the time he was thirteen he had read Aristophanes, Homer, Virgil, Ovid, Silvius, Lucan, and Hesiod, he thought that would suffice."4 "But the carrying out of such a system," says the Report of the English Committee, "demanded a race of supermen both as teachers and pupils. The initial linguistic difficul­ ties interposed too hard a barrier, and offered too tempting opportunities to lovers of routine.... For the ordinary pupil, any study of the content of the classics or of their bearing on life practically disappeared. From the time 3See English Report, p. 30. 4lbid., p. 31. when he entered the grammar school his education was little more than a formal and laborious linguistic drill. 5 Elyot had foreseen this possibility and had warned teachers against over-emphasizing grammar in case of the learner, since "it in a manner mortifieth his courage." As yet few voices had been raised in behalf of the teach­ing of English in the schools. One of the most potent was that of John Locke. In Some Thoughts Concerning Edu­cation, published in 1690, Locke advocated the substitution of themes in English and the reading of "those things that are well writ in English" for themes, declamations, and verses in Latin. "Since 'tis English that an English Gentle­man will have constant use of," he argues, "that is the lan­guage he should chiefly cultivate, and wherein most care should be taken to polish and perfect his style. . . . This I find universally neglected, and no care taken anywhere to improve young men in their own language, that they may thoroughly understand and be master of it."6 Little progress, it seems, was made in the teaching of English literature throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, for we find Matthew Arnold, who held the position of school inspector for five and thirty years, writing in his report of 1871: "What is comprised under the word liter­ature is in itself the greatest power available in education; of this power it is not too much to say that in our elementary schools at present no use is made at all."7 I cannot refrain from quoting what Arnold also wrote in his report of 1880 concerning the study of poetry in the schools. It has a two-fold significance, coming as it does from one who was both an educational expert and a poet. "Good poetry does undoubtedly tend to form the soul and character ; it tends to beget a love of beauty and of truth in alliance together; it suggests, however indirectly, high and noble principles of action, and it inspires the emo­tion so helpful in making principles operative. Hence its 5/bid., p. 32. 8 [bid., pp. 36, 37. 'Ibid., p. 48. extreme importance to all of us; but in our elementary schools its importance seems to me to be at present quite extraordinary.... I. should like, above all, to see this poetry exercise made no longer an extra subject, but a part of the regular work of the school."8 We may say, then, by way of summary, that prior to the eighteenth century very few of the English preparatory schools paid any attention to the study of English other than as a means of drill in grammar and rhetoric. The first step toward the study of English literature is seen in the introduction into the schools of histories of literature during the nineteenth century. Some of these in the latter years of the century contained extracts from the authors themselves, but as yet the principal stress was put upon the lives of the authors and upon critical estimates of their works rather than upon the works themselves. Miss Itasca Sweet, who in 1913 presented to the University of Texas for her master's degree a thesis on The Evolution of the Teaching of English Literature, cites two interesting let­ters received by her from Rugby and Eton, respectively, each dated January, 1912. The first of these states that there are in Rugby no separate classes in English, but that it is taught in connection with all the subjects. The sec­ond, from Eton, goes more into detail. "English litera­ture," declares the writer, "has been taught for so long that there is no record of its beginning. Although we have no separate chair of English Literature, it is often taught by all the masters in connection with history, the classics, and Divinity. Except for A and B specialists, English is not taught as a separate subject, except as an extra study. Our masters use passages from the great English classics to illustrate some subject under discussion, giving the class a rapid outline of the author's life and naming other great works by the same man. Certain books are set by the Education Board. These are studied in detail, with special notes on style, etc. Many of the tutors take some Master­ 8fbid., p. 49. piece as the subject of a special course of study for the senior boys in their pupil rooms, on Sunday mornings, reading or causing it to be read aloud, and explaining and commenting on the difficult passages and comparing the treatment of the subject by the author with that of other great writers of this and other countries." From these ·letters the secondary place accorded the study of English literature in two of England's most celebrated preparatory schools as late as 1912 is apparent. When we turn to the English universities we find the admission of English literature as a study coordinate with other studies in the curricula has been fully as slow as in the English secondary schools. Oxford founded a profes­ sorship of Anglo-Saxon in 1795, but not until ninety years later (1885) was the Merton Professorship of English Language and Literature established. A separate profes­ sorship-of English Literature was created in 1904. In Cam­ bridge not until 1878 was a chair of Anglo-Saxon estab­ lished, held for many years by the celebrated Chaucerian scl!.olar, Walter W. Skeat. In 1896 a University lectureship in English was inaugurated, and in 1911 the King Edward VII Professorship of English Literature. In America the teaching of English literature gained readier recognition in the schools than in the mother coun­ try. Throughout the colonial period, however, no provision was made for the teaching of English literature in the sec­ ondary schools. By the Puritans and Quakers of New England literature was chiefly valued as a means of incul­ cating a sound morality. Secular literature reeked of fire and brimstone, and the less one and one's children had to do with it the better. Who does not remember the imagi­ nary compliments Hawthorne fancies being "bandied be­ tween his great-grandsires and himself, across the gulf of time?" " 'What is he?' murmurs one gray shadow of my fore­ fathers to the other. 'A writer of storybooks! What kind of a business in life-what mode of glorifying God, or being serviceable to mankind in his day and generation­may that be? Why, the degenerate fellow might as well have been a fiddler' !" During the first half of the nineteenth century, graded series of primers were introduced into the elementary schools. These were chiefly used for inculcating good' morals, though they contained at times a bit of romance or an exciting story of adventure.9 Shortly after the middle of the century, histories of English literature, soon to be followed by histories of American literature, found a place in the list of studies. Stress was placed upon historical and biographical material rather than upon the literature as such. The progress which the teaching of English literature made in the colleges and universities of America finds an interesting, and a typical, example in the case of Harvard University. The following facts are taken from Miss Sweet's study. Not until the lapse of two centuries from the founding of Harvard in 1650 was a single course offered at Harvard in English Literature. "The Harvard catalog for 1838-39 shows," writes Miss Sweet,1° "for the sopho­more year a course in grammar, rhetoric, and composition. Themes and forensics comprised the course in the junior and senior years .... no literature was· offered." In 1874-1875 a third course in English literature--cover­ing Chaucer, Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, and Dryden-was offered as an elective. At the same time there were nine elective courses in Latin and Greek literature, four in Ger­man, and five in French. The courses in English literature, once begun, rapidly increased. For the year 1899-1900, twenty-four and a half courses in English were listed, nine of which were composition and rhetoric. Twelve years later twenty-two full courses in literature alone were out­lined. What, it may be asked, is the explanation of this tardy 9See Itasca Sweet, The Evolution of the Teaching of English Literature. 10/bid., p. 49. recognition of the value of English literature as an aca­demic study? It can not be attributed to any disbelief in the worth of literary studies. The attention given to clas­sical literature and to the literature of the modern foreign languages is evidence to the contrary. It was not due, then, to any minimizing of the worth-whileness of literature, but to the belief, so widely prevalent and so tenacious, that one needed no instruction in attaining a knowledge of the literature of one's own tongue-that was something which every educated man would obtain through his own initia­tive; no guide was necessary. Many are sceptical even today as to whether it is possible to teach literature at all. He who is gifted with the literary instinct will, they tell us, work out his own salvation; he that is not so gifted will never through any amount of outside help be imbued with the power of literary appreciation and understanding. Can literature be taught? is a query oft repeated, and with an implication on the part of the querist that it can­ not be. But why limit the question to literature? Why not ask, Can music be taught? Or painting? Or even science? The teacher of literature, it seems to me, stands in precisely the same relation to his student as the teacher of science or painting or music to his. He cannot create a feeling for literature; no more can the teacher of music or painting or science for his particular subject. He can, if he is wise, develop and cultivate and perhaps bring to fruition the latent germ. He can teach his pupils what to look for in any piece of literary art, and through his own love of what is fine and genuine go far towards enkindling a similar love in the student. Since literature is life, the teacher, because of his wider experience and broader knowledge, may open up glimpses of lofty heights undiscovered and unsuspected. These heights have been scaled, it is true, by men without a guide. Few men have displayed a finer appreciation of literature than Charles Lamb, and yet he speaks of himself as one "defrauded in his young years of the sweet food of academic institution." As in other subjects, so in litera­ ture, there are men who have been self-taught; but for the great majority of us a director-a guide-a teacher-is necessary. A knowledge of literature is not something that can be "picked up," save in the most dilettante fashion. Its mastery demands that one shall "scorn delights and live laborious days." Are the results commensurate with the cost? What may we expect in the way of practical good from such a study? Literature should b~ studied because it is the open gate­way to all other subjects. The student of history, of philos­ophy, of sociology especially, must study literature if he is to make himself master of his field, nor can the student of literature ignore these and other kindred subjects. In what better way could an insight into the political and social conditions o{ the fourteenth century be gained than through a study of The Canterbury Tales and The Vision of Piers Plowman? Or of the eighteenth century than through Pope and Dryden? Or of Puritanism than through the pages of Milton, and Bunyan, and Hawthorne? Ruskin declared that Browning had packed into the 125 lines of the Bishop Orders His Tomb all that he had said of the Central Renaissance in thirty pages of The Stones of Venice. Through the drama and the novel we find facilitie~ for studying human nature vastly superior to those furnished in actual life. The psychologist can afford no less than the historian to neglect the study of literature. In other words, there is a universality about literature that is true of no other subject. Being an expression of man's life, it neces­sarily embraces the achievements of man in every field of endeavor. Literature, again, offers the widest possible range to the imagination. In an age and in a land where so much stress is laid upon the practical, the value of literature as a means of awakening and enlarging the imaginative fac­ulty cannot possibly be over-emphasized. "Where there is no vision, the people perish." In the dull routine of daily life, with its humdrum cares and bitter disillusions, how prone is the vision splendid to die away, "And fade into the light of common day," unless quickened and renewed through daily contact with the world's great master-spirits. The study of literature is essential for anyone who would learn the art of self-expression. Much may be learned through courses in composition, but no one. in my judgment, ever acquired the art of writing who relied solely upon the work of the composition class. In fact, many teachers of English have little faith in formal composition courses and would eliminate them entirely. Such a policy would be, I am sure, a serious blunder. Save for the ex­ceptional few, unceasing drill in the structure of sentences and paragraphs, unending warfare upon comma blunders and dangling participles, is needed. But in addition to learning the. rude mechanics of the art, the student must read and read widely. His stock of ideas will be vastly increased, his vocabulary enlarged, his taste cultivated, his whole mental and spiritual life enriched. A single example will suffice. Take the connotation of words. How else can one acquire a proper feeling for the suggestiveness, the at­mosphere of words than by seeing them in combination with other words? He cannot learn it from a dictionary. I once had a freshman who wrote me a paper on Shylock. Throughout his paper, serving almost as a refrain, occurred again and again the statement that Shylock demanded his pound of meat. He was simply a green, untutored lad to whom, naturally enough, flesh was meat and meat was flesh. The subtle thing we call taste cannot be taught; it must be acquired-and acquired only through constant as­sociation with all that is fine and good. Matthew Arnold tells of a young man in one of the English training colleges who, "having to paraphrase the passage in Macbeth beginning, "'Can'st thou not minister to a mind diseased?' turned this line into, 'Can you not wait upon the lunatic?' And I remarked," adds Arnold, "what a curious state of things it would be if every pupil of our national schools knew, let us say, that the moon is 2,160 miles in diameter, and thought at the same time that a good paraphrase for 'Can'st thou not minister to a mind diseased?' was, 'Can you not wait upon the lunatic?' If one is driven to choose, I think I would rather have a young person ignorant about the moon's diameter, but aware that 'Can you not wait upon the lunatic?' is bad, than a young person whose edu­cation had been such as to manage things the other way." The study of literature annihilates the limitations of time and space. The petty world we live in expands until it becomes commensurate with the universe itself. We live over the past; we anticipate the future. We are bound to no local habitation; we are men without a country, for all countries are ours. We belong to no particular social station, but may, at will, hobnob with kings or slaves, with the aristocrat or the proletariat, with the man of millions or the beggar and the outcast. By aid of the writer's im­agination we may be transported beyond the confines of space and time into the world of the infinite. The lover of literature should be the happiest of men, for the sources of his happiness are from within. Provided he has access to books-and who has not in this day and time?-he is not dependent for his happiness upon the place he lives in, or upon good clothes, or the movies, or even a fine car. Lowell once defined a University as a place where nothing useful is taught. One quakes with fear today in even re­peating such heresy. But, in all seriousness, is it not about time that something were said of the value of education for its own sake? Something of the joy which an intelli­gent being feels in becoming more intelligent? Something of the spiritual enrichment of one's life that a liberal edu­cation effects? The evaluation of an education on the basis of its bread-and-butter-producing power may under certain conditions and before a certain type of audience be right and proper. But to those who have once experienced the pleasures of an enlightened mind, the joys of the pursuit of things intellectual and spiritual-the bread-and-butter motive is a low motive indeed. If our goal be a good life rather than a good living, we can ill afford to limit our The English Bulletin studies to the purely practical. Or-if I may be pardoned the paradox-the most practical studies in one's education are those studies that serve to lead one farthest away into the realm of the ideal and the imaginative. There is a sense in which a liberal education-and by liberal I mean one in which the study of literature plays no mean part­enables a person to "break his birth's invidious bar." to rise above his environment without necessarily effecting any change whatever in his financial or external '3ituation. A breadth of view, a generous sympathy, an open-minded­ness and tolerant spirit are the normal and expected con­sequences of constant association with the world's choicest spirits. In a recent novel of Jay William Hudson's. Abbe Pierre, the old Abbe, an inhabitant of a small village in Gascony, is made to say: "Some of the narrowest and most opinionated people I have met are those who have dwelt in large cities, and have wandered to and fro over the earth's surface until it makes one giddy to think of their comings and goings. On the other hand, I have read about very great men whom no one would call provincial, and yet who never lived in great cities at all, and certainly never traveled far from the tittle village that gave them birth. . . . "One's soul may be indeed narrow and provincial, al­though one has a cosmopolitan body that has traveled far and wide; and one may have a body whose eyes have never seen beyond the dawns and sunset of his native valley, and yet have a soul whose home is no less than the infinite universe! The cosmopolitanism of the body, and the cos­IllQpolitanism of the spirit-take your choice. Happy is he who can have both."11 "Cosmopolitanism of the Spirit" -that is the natural goal toward which the study of litera­ture leads. 11Jay Wm. Hudson, Abbe Pierre, MCMXXIV, pp. 53. 54.