A STUDY OF THE BIBLICAL NOVEL IN AMERICA, 1940-1949 WITH A SURVEY OF THE BIBLICAL NOVEL IN GENERAL IN THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES APPROVED: APPROVED: A STUDY OF THE BIBLICAL NOVEL IN AMERICA, 1940-1949 WITH A SURVEY OF THE BIBLICAL NOVEL IN GENERAL IN THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by (G.ec',. ) ROSA LYON~BLUDWORTH, B. A., M.A. May 1955 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In a general way this study is the outgrowth of my interest in fiction and in the influence of the Bible upon our literature. More directly, it is the result of Dr. E. M. Clark's course in The University of Texas, called "The Bible in English and American Literature." Dr. Clark suggested to me the exploration of the subject of biblical fiction as a much-needed research project, and under his guidance the work was begun. I remain permanently indebted to him for his scholarly counsel, his patience, his encour­agement. After Dr. Clark's retirement, Dr. D. T. Starnes graciously consented to be chairman of my graduate committee. His ability to see at a glance the whole study has enabled me to put the various parts together into a sensible pattern. I am further grateful to Dr. Rudolph Willard for his sure sense of word and phrase, and especially for his help in the interpretation of the novels of Sholem Asch. I acknowledge with gratitude the helpful criticism of the other members of my committee: Dr. Philip Graham, Dr. A. H. Lewis, and Dr. J. H. Bennett. I should be most ungrateful not to mention the help extended me from the librarians of this university, especially that of Miss Lorena Baker at the main loan desk and Miss Kathleen Blow, reference librarian. iii Perhaps I am indebted most of all, in a personal way, for the patience and forbearance of my family during the long, and often grueling, years of work. My husband has never allowed his interest in the book to flag or his encouragement of its author to fail. Rosa Lyon Bludworth March 1955 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE Page THE PLACE OF THE BIBLICAL NOVEL IN PROSE FICTION 1 I. The popularity of religious books . 1 II. Definition of a "biblical novel" 1 III. The biblical novel in relation to historical fiction • 3 IV. Historical fiction with relation to general fiction . . 4 v. Recent stimulation of interest in biblical fiction . . • . • . • 5 A. By archeological discoveries B. By cinema productions VI. The plan of this study 6 A. A comprehensive bibliography B. A historical survey of the development of biblical fiction C. A detailed analysis of biblical novels of the forties D. Explanations and relationships CHAPTER TWO A HISTORICAL SURVEY OF THE BIBLICAL NOVEL . 8 PART I. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY •. 8 I. The uncertainty about older books 8 II. The novels of the first half of the century 9 III. The novels of the second half of the century . . . . . . . . . . . 10 A. The novels of Joseph Holt Ingraham B. The novels of the sixties and seventies c. The novels of the eighties v Page 1. Ben-Hur 2. Other novels of the eighties a. By authors receiving literary recognition b. By foreign authors D. The novels of the nineties 1. Quo Vadis 2. Novels by British authors 3. Novels by American authors a. Those by prominent authors b. Those by two obscure juvenile writers PART II. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY • 19 I. Biblical novels of the first decade 19 A. A large, miscellaneous group B. Novels by American Authors C. Three contributions from Europe II. Novels of the second decade 22 III. The large output in the twenties • 23 A. Novels by foreign authors 1. Hebrew, Russian, Arabic 2. French, German, Norwegian B. British novelists 1. Two women 2. Three popular authors C. American writers 1. Serious interpretations 2. Rationalistic approaches a. The Eden narrators b. Davis, Untermeyer, and Washburn IV. Novels of the thirties 29 A. The more serious tone B. British authors C. Novels by translation 1. Hebrew, French, Russian 2. German 3. Danish D. American novelists 1. The first half of the decade 2. Two unusual authors v. Novels of the forties 35 vi A. The general tone B. British writers C. Foreign writers 1. Thomas Mann 2. Two Germans and a Frenchman VI. Novels of the fifties 37 A. The large yieid B. The Esther Stories 1. By Norah Lofts and Paul Frischauer 2. By Effie Marshall and Gladys Malvern C. Novels of 1950 D. Some of the 1951 narratives E. Three novels with New Testament heroines F. Three new biblical novelists G. Novels of 1954 H. Books by foreign authors 1. Italian, Hebrew, Polish, Swedish 2. German, Austrian, Dutch CHAPTER THREE THE BIBLICAL NOVELS OF THE FORTIES . 49 I. The biblical novels of Sholem Asch . 49 A. The primary consideration of The Nazarene B. The-pQsition of Asch in American literature C. His preparation for writing biblical fiction D. His plan for the New Testament trilogy vii Page E. The Nazarene 1. The framework: the theme of the Wandering Jew a. Cornelius and the Crucifixion b. The Gospel of Judas c. Jochanan and his Rabbi 2 . Critical judgment of the novel F. The Apostler:-The author's increasing urgency 2. His selection of hero 3. His concept of Paul 4. His efforts at reconciliation 5. Critical judgment of the novel G. Mary ~The importance of the Jewish heritage of Jesus 2. Asch's concentration on Joseph and Mary a. His concept of Joseph (1) As a worthy Jew (2) As a worthy father b. His concept of Mary (1) As a maiden (2) The use of the supernatural (a) The singing of the Magnificat (b) The transmutation of flowers and odors (3) Her inner struggle 3. Jesus and Mary 4. Critical judgment of the novel H. Evaluation of the trilogy I. With Moses--a tetralogy II. Caravan for China by Frank s. Stuart A. A novel of Simon of Cyrene B. The author's concept of Simon c. The melodramatic plot D. The biblical relationship E. Critical comment F. Simon in other novels G. Comparison with other melodramatic biblical fiction viii III. The biblical novels of Irving Fineman . • . 79 A. Jacob 1. The author's background 2. The few Jacob narratives 3. Jacob: an autobiography a. Jacob's viewpoint b. His relation to Esau and Laban c. A new light on Leah 4. The pattern of repetition 5. Critical evaluation B. Ruth ~Recent novels about Ruth 2. The author's purpose 3. The three leading characters a. Naomi b. Ruth c. Boaz 4. The basic problem of assimilation 5. The authentic background material 6. Comparison with other Ruth stories IV. f, Nathanael, Knew Jesus by Van Tassel Sutphen 93 A. An "additional gospel" B. The plan of the book C. The author's concept of Nathanael D. The fictional romance E. An unusual interpretation of Judas F. Critical comment V. The biblical novels of Lloyd C. Douglas ••• 98 A. The Robe r:-~popularity of this novel 2. The question that prompted its writing 3. The universal veneration for relics 4. The Robe as a symbol 5. The plot 6 . Interest centered in the Robe 7 • Critical evaluation 8. Comparison with Quo Vadis and Ben Hur B. The ~Fisherman 1. A sequel to The Robe 2. The two-fold]?Io-t~­ a. The Arabian romance b. The Big Fisherman 3. Critical comment a. The fictional decoration b. The pedestrian style 4. Various fictional portrayals of Peter ix Page VI. In the Years £!_ Our Lord by Manuel Komroff • 110 A. Komroff's background B. The plan of the novel 1. "The oracle Xado" 2. Ben Shaba and his family 3. Sarah: potential heroine 4. The separate episodes C. Critical comment D. Other unusual approaches to gospel narratives VII. The Way by J. M. Hartley . . 117 A. The author's plan for the book B. His concept of the Magi c. His fictional characters 1. The Roman Severus 2. The Jevish Leah D. The quest for Jesus E. Critical evaluation F. Comparison with other Magi stories VIII. The novels of Edward Francis Murphy . 123 A. Three biblical novels of 1944 B. The Scarlet Lily r.-The author's plan 2. The prelude: Herod's night 3. The author's concept of Mary Magdalene a. Her inner struggle b. Her victory 4. His use of symbolism c. Road from Olivet r:--The author's imaginary plot 2 • The novel as a saint's legend 3 . The basic conflict 4. Mary, the saint a. Her piety b. Her consecration 5. Critical comment 6. Comparison with other portrayals of Mary x IX. The Emperor's Physician by Jacob Randolph Perkins . 134 A. The plan of the novel B. Conditions of public health in Palestine C. Sergius versus Jesus D. Jesus' healing of individuals E. Critical comment F. Comparison of Perkins and $laughter X. The biblical novels of Dorothy Clarke Wilson • • • 140 A. The Brother 1. The author's background 2. The plot 3 . The conflict within James a. As a child b. As a young man c. In his maturity 4. Jesus, the Brother 5. Critical evaluation 6 • James in other biblical fiction B. The Herdsman r:-The author's purpose 2. The three divisions of the plot a. In Bethel b. In Samaria c. In Tekoa 3. Critical comment C. Prince of Egypt l. The many novels about Moses 2. The author's plan 3. The struggle for freedom a. By Miriam b. By Moses 4, Typical features of the adventure story 5. Various interpretations of the Kushite wife 6, Various interpretations of Moses 7, The author's presentation of the supernatural 8. Critical comment xi XI. The biblical novels of Florence Marvyne Bauer • .161 A. Behold Your King 1. The author's background 2. The epistolary technique 3. The ingenious portrayal of biblical characters 4. Elizabeth: first-century business woman 5. Various versions of Joseph of Arimathea 6. Barabbas versus Jesus B. Abram Son of Terah 1. The-B:"uthor's plan 2. Abram's search for God 3. A comparison with The Covenant by Zof~Kossak­Szczucka a. The use of setting b. Terah and his sons c. Seriousness of purpose 4. A comparison with Wilder Pen-field 1 s No Other Gods a. Penfield'"i"S background b. His research c. Abram's mission 5. A comparison of the three Abram books XII. The Innovator by John Brett Robey . 176 A. Jesus, the Innovator B. The members of the Sanhedrin 0 . The trial of Jesus D. General criticism E. The universal elements of the novel XIII. Two publications of 1946 . 180 A. Charioteer by Gertrude Eberle 1. Charioteer: Raanah's story 2. Ishtar versus Jehovah 3. A juvenile adventure novel 4. A comparison with Mann's Joseph books 5, General criticism B. David the King by Gladys Schmitt 1. The David books 2. The author and her plan 3. Her concept of David xii a. His youth b. His relation to God c. His relation to the House of Kish (1) To Michal and Jonathan ( 2) To Saul d. His wives 4. Critical comment 5. Comparison with Ibn-Zahav and Fisher XIV. The Exodus by Konrad Bercovici 194 A. The author's background B. His purpose c. The limits of the plot D. His concept of the leading characters 1. Moses 2. Miriam 3. Zipporah E. His interpretation of great biblical scenes F. The personality of the storyteller G. Critical comment XV. Three biblical novels of 1947 203 A. Table in the Wilderness by Norto'ilS. Parker 1. The author's double purpose a. The elements of adventure b. The serious purpose (1) Joseph and the Brotherhood (2) Modern parallels 2. Critical evaluation 3. Comparison of Parker and Mann B. Mary and the Spinners by Elizabeth Hollister Frost 1. Mary and the Spinners: a fantasy 2. The Day of Departure 3. The five spinners a. Rebecca b. Susanna c. Abigea d. Cael and Sephora 4. The reunion 5. Different versions of Mary xiii XVI. XVII. C. According~ Thomas by Gladys Malvern 1. The author 1 s concept of a young Thomas 2. The plan of the book 3. Thomas' search for a rabbi 4. His relation to Jesus 5. Critical evaluation 6. A comparison with Sutphen 1 s Nathanael Bold Galilean by LeGette Blythe . . . 222 A. The last two biblical novels of the forties B. The author and the book c. The three Romans D. Their three meetings 1. In Tyre 2 . In Machaerus 3 . At Golgotha E. Marcus' leprosy F. The objective portrayal of Jesus G. Other biblical novels about Roman soldiers 1. The Lance of Longinus 2. The Unknowil"Disciple A Woman of Samaria by James Wesley Ingles • . • . . . • 22s A. A woman with six men B. The divisions of the book 1. The idyllic marriage 2. The wicked brother 3. The kindly priest 4. The rich merchant 5. The dashing soldier 6. The childhood friend 7. Jesus the Messiah a. His influence on Photina b. His influence on her family C. Critical comment D. A comparison with The Daughter of Jairus xiv CHAPTER FOUR THE PHENOMENON OF THE BIBLICAL NOVEL . . 236 I. A comprehensive view of the field 236 II. The register of authors 236 III. Favorite subjects . 237 A. Jesus and Moses B. Old Testament heroes C. New Testament heroes D. Hero ines IV. Fictional devices . 240 v. The relationship to the contemporary social and political scene 241 A. The number of novels published B. The content of novels of the last three decades VI. The future of the biblical novel 243 A. This precarious generation B. Fictional guidance for living. BIBLIOGRAPHY 246 APPENDIX I. THE JOSEPH SAGA OF THOMAS MANN 270 II. BIBLICAL NOVELS ACCORDING TO DATES OF PUBLICATION WITH ANNOTATION . . . 293 III. BIBLICAL NOVELS ACCORDING TO SUBJECT MATTER . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 324 xv CHAPTER ONE THE PLACE OF THE BIBLICAL NOVEL IN PROSE FICTION Men who chronicle the publication of books in the United States have long been aware of the popularity of those of religious significance. When the keeping of best seller records started in 1895, Sienkiewicz's Quo Vadis headed the list; Charles Sheldon's In His Steps, first published in 1897, has had the biggest sale in the field of fiction with its estimated 20,000,000 copies. An ordinary novel may be fortunate to realize a hundred thousand copies; a religious novel may hope to sell into the millions. One field of religious fiction, the bibli­cal novel, has never been explored beyond casual articles and the compilation of partial bibliographies. Its wide popularity and increasingly large yield invite a more ex­tensive investigation. In such a study it will be necessary first to define the term "biblical novel." In this discussion it will not refer to that large body of fiction whose con­tents are religious and biblical in a general way. For instance, Charles Sheldon's In His Steps is permeated 1 with the spirit of Christian teaching, but, because the characters are distinctly of our day, it will not be classed as biblical. Ian Maclaren's delightful little volume about the staunch Presbyterian Scotchmen, called Beside the Bonnie Briar Bush, became a Christian classic, but for our purposes the modern setting ex­cludes it from the task at hand. Certainly Nathaniel Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter is an American version of Nathan's "Thou art the man"; yet it is a novel of New England and Puritanism. Hall Cain's The Christian, Ralph Connor's~ Pilot, and Harold Bell Wright's The Shepherd of the Hills were counted among the best sellers of their day and were deeply religious in content, but not biblical in the sense in which we shall use the term. Within recent years many other books of this nature have become popular favorites, such as Lloyd Cassel Douglas' Magnificent Obsession, Forgive Us Our Trespasses, Green Light, and White Banners; A. J. Cronin's The Keys of the Kingdom; and Franz Werfel's The Song of Bernadette. Count­less others could be mentioned among novels that have made spiritual impact upon their readers--often a frankly Christian one. There have been writers like George Eliot who claimed no particular creed but whose novels, neverthe­less, carry a deep, though unlabeled, ethical and religious message. Often readers prefer in their fiction a coming to grips with life without benefit of labels or creeds. It is not the purpose of the present study to consider the superiority of one kind over the other. Although the term "biblical novel" will occasionally be used loosely to cover all biblical fiction, we are concerned chiefly with the examination of a particular type within the field: that fictitious, plotted prose narrative of considerable length which deals with actual biblical char­acters and setting and retells in some fashion the scrip­tural narrative. Biblical novels so defined are therefore a branch of the more general division of historical fiction, which, in turn, portrays human experiences in much the same way as any other type of fiction so long as the facts remain compatible with the historical setting. The historical novelist goes a step beyond the historian as he offers the reader the hospitality of an open door into the homes of the past and the hearts and minds of the people. The novel­ist is under no compulsion to literal and factual truth in interpreting his chosen epoch. He may alter characters, events, or chronology to achieve his desired effect. In such variation, however, Hervey Allen reminds us that it is an artistic and not a moral peril that is braved, since the literary label of "novel" has already given notice of the fictional nature of the writing. 1 It is well to remem­ber this legitimate freedom of the novelist who deals with biblical materials, with which many readers are already familiar and about which they may have definite convictions. It should not be surprising that half of the best selling novels of today are of the historical variety. Cavemen of old probably told stories of their past as they sat about the evening fire; minstrels sang of heroes in the mead halls. We, like our forebears, continue to re-create bygone days. Sometimes such fiction becomes an escape from unpleasant reality as it follows the course of romance and adventure. It may be primarily a sightseeing excursion into the past. It can be the means of facing the problems of today in a historical setting. In the most successful historical fiction, as in the biblical novel, the reader discovers a past wherein real people lived, with an empha­sis on the uachanging nature of humanity through the cen­turies. 1 "History and the Novel," Atlantic, CLXXIII (February, 1944), 120. Two modern developments have prompted interest in the biblical fiction of our day: archeological dis­coveries and cinema versions of scriptural stories. Many Moses narratives have been based upon archeological find­ings in Egypt, and in the last decade Abraham stories are becoming increasingly numerous as a result of the scien­tific research in Ur and Sodom. "From the Land of the Bible," an exhibit held in the summer of 1953 at the Metro­politan Museum, featured scrolls, pottery, slingstones, coins, and various other artifacts from biblical times. It is no longer unusual for farmers in modern Israel to turn up archeological treasures as they till their fields. Both old and New Testament fiction have been generally en­riched by such finds as the "Dead Sea Scrolls" of 1947 and the constant valuable additions from caves in Palestine. A second stimulus to biblical fiction has re­sulted from cinema productions such as Quo Vadis and The Robe. Quo Vadis has been described as a "technicolored colossus" with seven million dollars worth of horses, lions, costumes, and scenery. This and the elaborate cinemascope version of The Robe present with their pageant of terror and destruction the lure of the original circus of Nero. Beyond this, however, they catch notes of Christian faith and devotion. Old Testament heroes have been popularly acclaimed in the films of "David and Bathsheba~ and "Samson and Delilah." In considerably less degree is _ the religious element paramount in Rita Hayworth's in­terpretation of the title role in "Salome." Wherever the producer chooses to place his emphasis, the popu­larity of biblical films tends to enhance the sale of biblical novels, which also vary in their manner of appeal. In any serious study of biblical fiction it is first necessary to assemble a bibliography comprising, as far as possible, all contributions in the field. Such a list has been arranged for the reader's convenience at the close of the discussion (1) alphabetically by authors, (2) chronologically by date of publication (with annota­tions as to content), and (3) according to subject matter. Chapter II comprises a historical survey of the development of the biblical novel as a literary genre from the beginning of the nineteenth century to the close of 1954, the date of the completion of this study. In gen­eral the discussion has been by decades, with separate consideration for British, American, and foreign authors. Chronological order is observed except when one writer has made more than one offering in biblical fiction; in that case, his entire contribution is discussed upon the intro­duction of his name. 7 A more detailed study is attempted in Chapter III in relation to the biblical novels of the forties by American authors. A careful analysis of such fic­tion in the last completed decade should offer an in­sight into the entire subject. All the books deal in some manner with familiar biblical materials. The fun­damental query, however, does not concern the extent or manner of the author's variation from his source so much as his reason for it. Why does an author elect to retell a story already well known to his reader? What is his purpose? Through the medium of the familiar narrative, what is he trying to say and how well does he succeed? How much of an artist is he in the process? In the concluding chapter an effort is made to explain the various steps in the development of the bibli­cal novel and to relate it to the contemporary social and political background. CHAPTER TWO A HISTORICAL SURVEY OF THE BIBLICAL NOVEL PART I. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Approximately three-fourths of the entire out­put of biblical fiction has been produced within the last fifty years, although the earlier books date back almost to the opening of the nineteenth century. It is difficult to deal definitely with some of the older novels, because they are almost inaccessible to readers today. A number of them are not even listed in the Library of Congress, and verification of their nature has had to be made through booksellers' catalogues of former years. One can never be sure of an exact count of these books, for there is always the possibility that some may have been overlooked. The more important ones, however, are extant; the more prolific writers, whether worthy or not, have attracted enough atten­tion to provoke reviews in the periodicals of their day. Until the middle of the nineteenth century there were very few biblical novels by either American or Euro­pean authors. Robert Watt in his four-volume Bibliotheca 8 9 Britannica (1824) mentions two of the earliest ones, which were published in London: The Abyssinian Reformer, ~The Bible and Sabre (1808)by Rev. Charles Lucas and Patriarchal Times, ~r The Land of Canaan: A Figurative History: Seven Books Comprising Interesting Events, Incidents, and Characters, Founded~ the Holy Scriptures (1811) by Adelaide O'Keefe. Besides the information fur­nished in the sub-titles and the fact that the first is a three-volume book and the second two-volumes, no other de­scription of the contents seems to be available. The next novel on record is a story of Maccabean days, translated from the German: Helon•s Pilgrimage to Jerusalem: A Pie­ture of Jadaism in the Century That Preceded the Advent of ~Saviour (1824) by Gerhard Friedrich Strauss. Then fol­lowed two narratives based upon the legend of the Wandering Jew: Salathiel, A Story of The Past, The Present, and The Future (1828) 1 by Rev. George Croly of London and Ahasverus (1834) by Edgar Quinet, French historian and philosopher. The translations of the books of Strauss and Quinet estab­lished an early precedent for the publication in English of 1 Salathiel was later republished by Funk and Wag­nalls under the title Tarry Thou !.!.!!.. ..!.. Come. biblical novels from other lands. It was not until 1841 that William Ware, a Unitarian clergyman of New York City, wrote Julian, the first American biblical novel. A popular novelist of his time, Ware portrayed in Julian the human side of Jesus, especially within the Nazareth home. In the second half of the nineteenth century the development of biblical fiction may be easily traced on both sides of the Atlantic, with the number of books increasing in each succeeding decade. One of the most important biblical novelists of the entire period, Joseph Holt Ingraham, appears in the opening decade. Already the author of eighty short novels, this American writer turned his attention to biblical fiction after entering the Episcopal ministry. His first effort in the field was The Prince of the House of David (1855), a phenomenal popular success with a sale of between four and five mil­lion copies in its numerous editions. Ingraham bases his plot upon the last three years of Jesus' life, which are related by a Jewish girl in letters to her father in Egypt. Also in the epistolary style are the author's two other biblical narratives: The Pillar of Fire (1859), a fictional extension of the Exodus, and~ Throne of David (1860), an account of David's reign told by an Assyrian ambassa­dor in letters to the King of Nineveh. A fourth narra­tive, featuring the life of Paul, was in progress at the time of Ingraham•s death. In spite of the somewhat monotonous use of letters, these novels give evidence of careful background study and definite narrative appeal. They helped to popularize fiction in America and to lib­eralize the general attitude toward religion. The decades of the sixties and seventies were unaccompanied by any biblical novels of great stature, although five of the authors made for themselves a reputa­tion still remembered in literary circles. A follower of Scott's methods in the historical novel, Georg M. Ebers, eminent German Egyptologist who wrote historical romances of ancient Egypt, enlarged his field in 1867 to include a two-volume biblical novel entitled Joshua: A Tale of Biblical Times. A popular English historical novelist of the same period, George James Whyte-Melville, also pub­lished one biblical narrative among his historical romances. His Sarchedon: A ~f2!. the Great Queen (1871) is a tale of Egypt and Assyria in the eighth century before Christ, with events in Egypt at the period before the Exodus intro­duced by a bold anachronism. Six years after this book was published Gustave Flaubert wrote Herodias, a fictional extension of the marriage of Herod Antipas and his brother's wife, the same plot used by Lloyd Douglas in his recent best seller, The Big Fisherman. The fourth popular novelist of the seventies to write bib­ lical fiction was Susan Bogert Warner, who used the pseudonym of Elizabeth Wetherell. Already the author of a long series of novels and children's stories in a day when sentiment and piety were more popular in litera­ture than now, she fictionized the Old Testament story of the return of the Jews to Palestine in her Broken Walls of Jerusalem and the Rebuilding of Them (1879). The fifth author of this group to achieve distinction other than by publication of a biblical novel was Rev. Edwin A. Abbott, headmaster of the City of London School and later a minister of note. Besides writing school books on gram­mar, he found time to publish two biblical novels: Philo­christus (1878), the first of a long line of "additional gospel" narratives in which a disciple of Jesus records his memoirs, and Onesimus, Christ's Freedman (1882), written as the memoirs of a disciple of Paul. Both books were widely read and appreciated for their scholarly back­ground and literary skill, as well as for narrative appeal. The second best-selling biblical novel of the nineteenth century came from the pen of Lew Wallace. In his distinguished career as soldier, lawyer, and statesman, Wallace found time to write three historical novels, one of which was Ben-Hur; .2!. The Days of the Mes­siah (1880), a book which has become an institution in American fiction. This panoramic romance of life in the first century sold a million copies and was translated into foreign languages and into braille, with pirated copies springing up on every hand. The theatre, recog­nizing the drama within the pages of the book, presented the story six thousand times; the ~ovies featured it in a colossal version; the chariot race, which became the main event of Barnum and Bailey's Circus, has appeared in altered form as recently as 1942 in Manuel Komroff 1 s In the Years of Our ~· Within a few years after the publication of Wallace's novel, a whole "Ben-Hur School" developed, producing such books as Barabbas (1893) by Marie Corelli, Titus (1896) by Florence Kingsley, Paul of Tarsus (1900) by Robert Bird, Adnah (1902) by J. B. Ellis, Saul of Tarsus (1906) by Elizabeth Miller, and The Court ~Pilate (1906) by Roe R. Hobbs. Among other biblical novels of the eighties are three from authors who have received varying degrees of literary recognition and four by translation from foreign languages. Francis Marion Crawford, who published his biblical novel two years after Ben Hur, is classed as an American, although he was born in Italy and educated in Europe. Two of his forty novels, which were equally popu­lar in England and America, received the commendation of the French Academy; one of these was his biblical narra­tive, Zoroaster (1885), a stirring tale of Darius the Persian and the prophet Daniel. Three years later a popu­lar English novelist and foreign correspondent, George Alfred Benty, wrote The Cat of Bubastes: A Tale of Egypt in~ Time of Thothmes III (1888). At the height of his popularity, Benty turned out an average of three or four novels a year; then he turned to writing adventure stories for boys, and among eighty such narratives is numbered his biblical novel dealing with Moses and the Exodus. The third novelist of the eighties to be remembered was an English clergyman and author of juvenile literature, Rev. Alfred John Church. His first story, The Hammer (1889), concerns the struggle of the Maccabees and was later re­published as Patriot and Hero. His other books were based on the New Testament: The Burning of Rome: A Stori of Nero's Dais (1892) and The Crown of Pine (1905), an account of Jewish opposition to Christianity, especially to the preaching of Paul. Translations from foreign authors during the eighties include The Romance of ~ Mummy (1882) by French Theophile Gautier, a narrative about the Exodus; The King's Treasure House (1886) by German Wilhelm Wal­loth, another romance concerning the Exodus; and Martyr of Golgotha (1887) by Spanish E. P. Escrich, a story of the passion of Jesus. In 1889 Anatole France published the first of his two biblical novels, Belthazar, featur­ing the visit of the Magi in Bethlehem. His The Procura­tor of Judaea (1892) is a sardonic narrative in which Pilate fails to recall in later years the trial of Jesus because of the slight impression the event made upon him and contemporary history. Almost three times as many biblical novels were published in the nineties as in the eighties. They may be considered in three groups: those by translation from foreign tongues, those by British authors, and those by Americans. The third scriptural narrative before 1900 to receive world acclaim belongs to the first category and was shown as recently as 1951 in an elaborate cinema ver­sion in technicolor. This spectacular story of the early Christians was entitled Quo Vadis: A Narrative of the Time of Nero (1895) by its Polish author, Henrik Sienkiewicz. Against the pageantry and glitter of decadent Rome, the author's portrayal of the moral purity and faith of the Christians exemplifies his belief that the novel "should strengthen life, not undermine it; ennoble, not defile it." Sir Henry Rider Haggard, author of the first English biblical narrative of the nineties, wrote numer­ous historical novels. The two with biblical themes con­cern the Exodus: The World's Desire (1890), a half­allegorical romance which includes both the Exodus and the death of Ulysses, and Moon of Israel (1918), a story of Moses. The most colorful of the British novelists of the nineties, however, was Mary (or Minnie) Mackay, who wrote under the pseudonym of Marie Corelli. Her works were translated by Rostand, and among her admirers were Queen Victoria, Edward VII, Gladstone, Tennyson, Ellen Terry, and Oscar Wilde. Her biblical novel, Barabbas (1893), is highly imaginative with lyric measures break­ing in at unexpected moments to express an erotic mysti­c ism. Two years after Barabbas, Joseph Jacobs wrote As Others Saw Him: A Retrospect, A.D. 54. Jacobs, an Australian Jew who edited The Jewish Encyclopedia, was also an anthropologist and a historian. Interested in all problems concerning the Jews, he used his biblical novel to retell the life of Jesus from the Jewish view­point. Toward the close of the nineties a fourth British novelist, Charlotte Yonge, included two biblical narra­tives among her total of more than 150 books. Although many of her novels evidence a close connection with High Anglicanism, she ranged widely through history, with biblical settings for her Pilgrimage of the ~Beriah (1897), a story of Moses and the Exodus, and Patriots of Palestine (1898), an account of the Maccabean uprisings. Biblical novels in America became increasingly popular during the nineties. Elbridge Streeter Brooks, editor and dramatic critic, opened the decade with A Son .£.!. Issachar (1890). This rather melodramatic and dull story of Judas Iscariot had a good sale, as did his other many books for young people. In the same year Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, a prolific writer who claimed that "life ~moral responsibility," entered the field of biblical fiction with her narrative of Daniel, The Master of the Magicians (1890). This novel and Come Forth (1891), a very readable story of the resurrection of Lazarus, were both written in collaboration with her husband, Herbert Dickinson Ward. Six years later two prominent Americans published biblical novels: William Osborn Stoddard and Henry Van Dyke. Stoddard, known as writer, inven­tor, and secretary to President Lincoln, wrote over seventy books for boys. Among these are his two bibli­cal stories: The Swordmaker 1 s Son: A Story of the Year 30 A.D. (1896) and Ulric the ~: tent Thief (1899). Van Dyke, clergyman and educator, wrote one of America's best loved Christmas classics, The Story of the Other Wise Man (1896), a narrative of the Magi who spent his life searching for the Child of the Bethlehem Star. In 1914 he published a second story of Jesus called The Lost Boy, picturing the lad Jesus separ­ated from his parents during their pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem. Within the nineties three Americans--Annie Fel­lows Johnston, Florence Kingsley, and Robert Bird--began their careers as authors of juvenile biblical fiction. It is true that the juvenile field is a literary division in itself, a complete treatment of which would be outside of the limits of the present study; however, brief mention is made of such books which appear in lists of scriptural novels. Mrs. Johnston, one of the most frequent and popu­lar writers for periodicals of her day and author of the widely-read juvenile series of "Little Colonel" books, wrote her one scriptural narrative, Joel, ~~of Galilee (1895), which is a story of the time of Jesus. Neither Bird nor Mrs. Kingsley seems to have any claim to fame except through their biblical stories. Bird's first narrative was a story of Jesus called Jesus, the Carpenter of Nazareth (1891); this was followed in 1895 by Joseph the Dreamer and in 1900 by Paul of Tarsus. Beginning in 1895, the seven novels of Mrs. Kingsley fol­ lowed in quick succession: Titus, ~Comrade of the Cross (1895), the Gospel story ending with the Resurrection; two New Testament narratives called Stephen, ~ Soldier of the Cross (1896) and Paul,~ Herald£! the Cross (1897); The Cross Triumphant (1900), a relation of the early days of Christianity from the Jewish standpoint; Love Trium­ phant;~'! Street~ of Jerusalem (1905); a fictional biography of Esther entitled The Star of Love (1909); and Veronica (1913), a story about Pilate's wife. PART II. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY The largest yield of biblical fiction before wit­nessed in any single decade came from the press in the first ten years of the twentieth century. Although the books, which number more than forty, indicate the increasing popu­larity of the genre in America and elsewhere, no particular pattern is evident; a miscellaneous group of authors emerged, writing about all kinds of biblical heroes and heroines. Robert Bird, Florence Kingsley, and A. J. Church, whose work has already been noted, continued to publish. Many authors, otherwise obscure, tried their hand at scriptural narrative. Several deserve special mention: five Americans and three from Europe. William Stearns Davis, American history profes­sor and author of several historical novels, gave fie­tional enlargement to the prophets Daniel and Isaiah in his Belshazzar: A Tale of the Fall of Babylon (1902). Two years later two prominent writers contributed to the field. Elizabeth Miller published her account of Moses called The Yoke (1904), which has several times been favor­ably compared with the historical romances of the German Egyptologist Georg Ebers, author of Joshua (1867). Miss Miller wrote a second biblical narrative in 1906, en­titled Paul of Tarsus: A Tale of the Early Christians. The second biblical novelist of 1904 was Irving Bacheller, popular American writer, whose Vergilius: A Tale of the Coming £!._ Christ is the story of the birth of Christianity against the background of the Roman Empire. He added a second scriptural narrative in 1927 called Dawn: A Lost 21 Romance of the Time of Christ, 2 in which his Grecian heroine is assumed to be the New Testament woman taken in adultery and released after Jesus wrote in the sand. One other well-known American, the humorist Opie Read, of The Arkansas Traveler, published a biblical novel dur­ ing the opening~decade of the century. His The Son of a Swordmaker (1905) is a juvenile offering whose hero is a Roman soldier in the time of Christ. The novels of three Europeans--an Italian, a German, and a Russian--were made accessible to English readers at this time by translation. From Italy came an anonymous work, The Life~ Saint Mary Magdalen (1903), with a quaint description of Palestine in terms of the scenery and manners of Italy. A humble German carpenter named Peter Rosegger, writing from his prison death cell in simple colloquial style, gave his version of the saving grace of Christ in a book called A Prisoner's Story of the Cross (1905). Feeling himself unjustly accused, he some­how managed to blend his own cause with that of the other Carpenter unfairly sentenced to the Cross. The third European, distinguished Leonid Andreev of Russia, wrote three brief scriptural stories, which were later published under a single cover. The first, Ben Tobit (1903), is an 2 This was also published as The Trumpets of God. account of the Crucifixion from the viewpoint of a merchant standing near the Cross, concerned only with his aching tooth during this momentous event that shook the world; the second, Eleasar (1906), is a terrible story of the life of Lazarus after his resurrection from the dead; the third, Judas Iscariot (1907) which com­pletes the trilogy, is a psychological narrative of the growing madness of Judas after his betrayal of Jesus. The thirteen biblical novels of the second decade of the twentieth century represent the smallest list to be published in any decade since the 1880 1 s. The names of Robert Bird and Florence Kingsley appear again, as do also those of Henry Van Dyke and Sir Henry Rider Haggard. No others offer unusual interest except that of George Moore, who wrote in 1916 The Brook Kerith. In this novel Moore portrays Jesus as an Essene who does not die upon the cross but recovers under the care of Joseph of Arimathea and grows to feel that his own blasphemy in claiming to be one with God was the cause of his crucifi­xion. In a dramatic climax, when Paul meets face to face the fifty-two-year-old shepherd whom he has been proclaim­ing as the Risen Lord, Jesus urges without avail the end of the farce. In this extremely controversial work of fiction the Syrian landscape is beautifully described from the author's actual observation. An effect of the speaking voice is achieved throughout the story by a method of "oral narrative," which Moore derived from the Irish folk-tale. After the paucity of biblical novels in the preceding decade, the number of books more than tripled during the twenties. The rationalistic note introduced by Moore continued through many of them with an insist­ence that characterizes the decade. Both British and Americans are observed among the authors; seven of the novels come to us by translation from other languages. Abraham Mapu's Ahavath Zion, the first novel to appear in Hebrew literature, was translated in 1920 into English as The Sorrows of Noma, a readable romance woven into the events of the Ahab era. Mapu followed this with a second Old Testament story about the prophet Isaiah, entitled The Shepherd Prince (1937). Russian Aleksandr Ivanovich Kuprin also went to the Old Testament to find his hero for Sulamith: A Prose Poem of Antiquity (1923). His choice of Solomon and the Shulamite peasant girl of the Song of Songs was developed from both traditional and biblical sources into a surprisingly beautiful love story 24 of poetic delicacy. In the next year a second novel about Solomon was published, coming by way of a French translation from the native Arabic of the author Joseph