A STUDY OF THE CAREER PATHS AND PATTERNS OF 

AFRICAN AMERICAN SUPERINTENDENTS 

Approved by 

TH1S SAN OPIC:lNAL MANUSCRIPT. !T MAY NOT BE COPIED WITHOUT THE AUTHOR'S PERMISSlf) 
I 
Copyright 
by 
Howard Kevan Dunlop 
1997 

A STUDY OF THE CAREER PATHS AND PATTERNS OF 

AFRICAN AMERICAN SUPERINTENDENTS 
by 
HOWARD KEVAN DUNLOP, B.S., M.Ed. 
DISSERTATION 
Presented to the Dissertation Committee 
The University of Texas at Austin 
in Partial Fulfillment 
ofthe Requirements 
for the Degree of 
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN 
AUGUST 1997 

This dissertation is dedicated to the living memory of my late parents, Howard Arnold Dunlop and Mary Jean Dunlop and also to my loving wife, Patricia, and precious son, Kevan. Their patience, encouragement, and sacrifices during the past years have allowed me to pursue a dream. 
"To thine own selfbe true" 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

I would like to acknowledge those who provided patience, encouragement, and support during the completion of this dissertation. While there is always the chance of omission of important people who contributed to the completion of this dissertation. I wish to acknowledge the contribution of persons named as well as those unnamed university professors, professional colleagues, friends, and family members who have provided support and assistance during this project. 
First, I would like to thank and praise God Almighty for giving me the ability, perseverance, and fortitude to complete this project. God has always been there for others and for me whenever we needed His guidance. I acknowledge that I could not have accomplished this journey without His blessings. He is my ever­shining star of inspiration. 
I wish to express my gratitude to my dissertation committee members: Dr. Nolan Estes, my committee chair, mentor, and role model for providing valuable insights about this study and who showed confidence in my abilities as a student and as a person. He has also strengthened my professional commitment to providing an "equal life chance" for all students; Dr. Ben Harris, who shared many hours ofvaluable feedback, scholarly expertise, and advice with me. I will 
v 
always be grateful to him for making this a meaningful project; Dr. John McNeil, who took time to encourage and provide valuable insights into the quality of this project. Much gratitude and appreciation goes to other members of my dissertation committee: Dr. Donald Phelps and Dr. James Hill whom I admire and respect. Their encouragement and support will always be remembered. 
During the past two years, the Cooperative Superintendency Fellows, Cycle XI became my extended family. Our shared experiences both professionally and personally have left a rewarding impression for life. I have learned more from our shared experience than from textbooks. I will be eternally grateful for their support and will cherish our friendships. 
I am deeply grateful to Dr. Charles Moody Sr., Dr. Lois Harrison-Jones, Dr. William Sherpherd, Abel White, and other African American superintendents whose cooperation and encouragement for this study made it a reality. In keeping with tradition, I will also pass it on. 
Special notes of thanks are passed to Tobey Koop, Lisa Howe, Dr. Julia Ballenger, Betty Fuston, Silvia Haywood, and Maria Williams for providing technical and editorial assistance for this dissertation. Their time and efforts are greatly appreciated. 
VI 
I would also like to express thanks to my colleagues at the Texas 
Education Agency, with a special remembrance to the late Dr. Charles Wild; The University of Texas at Austin for their words of encouragement, and to other former Cooperative Superintendent Fellows who provided meaningful advice. 
Last, but not least, a very special thanks to my wife Patricia, son Kevan, sister Pam, nephew Stacy, and Aunt Sandra for their unconditional love, support, and understanding. 
Vil 
A STUDY OF THE CAREER PATHS AND PATTERNS OF 
AFRICAN AMERICAN SUPERINTENDENTS 

Publication No. 
Howard Kevan Dunlop, Ph.D. 
The University of Texas at Austin, 1997 

Supervisor: Nolan Estes 

The purpose of this descriptive study was to investigate the professional experiences ofAfrican American superintendents. The research questions focused on: (1) career path and career patterns; (2) the extent ofselected characteristics of their school districts prior and during their tenure as superintendents; and (3) the perceived racial barriers facing African American superintendents seeking the superintendency. 
A descriptive survey questionnaire was mailed to 202 African American superintendents. Frequency distribution and means were used to provide 
Vlll 
descriptive findings about career paths and career patterns. Correlations were used to identify the significance of relationships between prior and current selected school district characteristics. Perceived racial barriers were analyzed using a qualitative content analysis format. 
The findings of the study provided noteworthy information regarding biographical data, career paths to the superintendency, and career patterns of African American superintendents. This study offers concrete substantiation of the differences and similarities between African American superintendents and the general population of superintendents in the areas ofage, gender, marital status, salary, highest degree held, positions prior to the superintendency, process for selection, and other professionally related variables. 
The findings further revealed that African American superintendents are associated with primarily two career path groups: traditional intermediate route and traditional long route in their path to the superintendency. Additionally, data from the study revealed numerous perceived racial barriers facing African Americans seeking superintendency positions. These barriers include: mobility, networking, boards of education, preparation and competence, opportunities, unrealistic expectations, lack of support, and discrimination. Furthermore, the 
IX 
findings indicated several significant correlations between prior and current school district characteristics. These findings include an increase in the following: current operating expense per-pupil, number of African American teachers, African American population, and African American female school board members in school districts where African Americans were superintendents. The findings of the study also indicate a decrease in White student enrollment and number of White teachers in school districts where African Americans were superintendents. 
x 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................... x:v 

CHAPTER I -INTRODUCTION............................................................ 1 

Background ofthe Study .. .. ....... ..... ...... . ..... .. . . . . .. ... ..... .. . . ... . ..... .. ... . . . .. . . 1 Purpose of the Study . . .... . ...... ...... ...... .... . . .. ... .. . ........ .. . . .. . . .. ..... . . . . ... .. ... . 5 Rationale for the Study . . . . .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. ... . .. ... . ...... ... . . . 7 Research Questions ... . ..... .. .. .. ...... ........ .. .. ... . . . . .. ... .. .. ..... ... . ... . .. .. . ... . ... . .. 11 Methodology .... . ..... .... . .... . . .. . . . ..... ...... .. .. . . . . .. . . . .. .. ..... . . .. . . .. . . ..... .. . ...... .. .. 11 Selection of Subjects.................................................................... 12 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Pilot Study . ...... ...... .. .. ..... . . ..... .. .......... . . .. ... ...... .. . . . .. . . .. . . ..... .. . . .. .. .. 14 Data Collection . .. ..... . ........ .. ... . . . . ..... .. ........ .. . . ..... .. .. .. .. .. ... . . .. ... . . . . .. . ... ... . 14 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Definitions .. .. ..... ..... .. .. ... .. . ...... .. ..... . . ..... . . .. .. ....... .. . . . .. .. ........ . ... .. ... . . . . . . .. 18 Significance of the Study .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. ... . . .. ..... ... .. ....... .. .. ... .. . ... . .. ... ... . .. . . .. 20 Summary.............................................................................................. 21 Organization of the Dissertation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 
CHAPTER II -REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.................................. 23 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Historical Perspective on the African Americans in the Superintendency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Studies of Conditions, Characteristics, Problems ................................ 30 Demographic Studies ofAfrican American Superintendents ....................................................................... 32 Conditions of African American Superintendents .. . . .... . .. ..... . . ... . 34 Problems of African American Superintendents ........................ 38 Expectations and Roles of African American Superintendents ....................................................................... 39 Recruitment, Selection, and Placement ofAfrican American Superintendents ....................................................................... 41 Career Patterns and Career Paths . . . . ...... .. . . . . ...... .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. ... .. ... ... . .. . . .. . 43 
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Ortiz's Study .............................................................................. 44 The Career Paths of Superintendents .. .. ... .. . .. .. . . .. ... . . .. . . . . . . .. . ...... .. . . ... . . . 48 Career Patterns Prior to the Superintendency . .. . . .. . . .. ... .. . . .. . . .. . . .. 48 Perceptions, Attitudes, and Opinions .... . . .. .. . . ... .... ... ... .. . . .. ... . . . ... 51 Burnham's Study ........................................................................ 52 Classroom Positions.................................................................... 53 Building Level Administration..................................................... 54 Central Office Administration..................................................... 54 Career Path Groups..................................................................... 54 Conclusions . ...... .. .. . . . .. .... ... .. .. ...... . . ...... .... .. .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. ... ...... ... ... ... ... . . . .. . 57 
CHAPTER ID -METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN........ 61 Introduction of Survey Research . . . ... .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. .. ... .. ... . . .. . 62 Design of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Selection of Subjects . .. .. .. ... . . . . .. . . .. ... .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. . ..... .. . . .. . . . .. ... .. . . .. . . 67 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Review and Pilot Study .. .. ... .. . . ... ... ... . .... ... ... ........ .. . . .. ... .. .. .. . . ... ... 72 Data Collection .................................................................................... 74 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . 7 6 Career Path and Pattern Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . ... . . . . 77 Selected School District Characteristic Analysis......................... 78 Mentorship/Sponsorship Analysis ............................................ 79 Validity........................................................................................ 79 Rationale for Survey Questions.................................................. 80 Section 1 Career Paths and Career Patterns . .. . . . ... . . ... ...... ... .... . . .. . 81 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 
CHAPTER IV -FINDINGS OF THE STUDY....................................... 86 Biographical Data ....... ... .. . . ... ..... ....... .. ... .. ...... . . .. ... . . . .. . . .. .. . . . .. ........ .... . . .. 88 Type of Positions Held Prior to Superintendency............................... 94 Classroom Positions.................................................................... 94 Building Level Positions.............................................................. 95 Central Office Positions . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. ... .. .. .. . . . .. ... .. .... . . . .. ... .. ... ... ... . . . . . 95 Career Paths.......................................................................................... 96 Career Path Position Designations . .. ... . . ... ... .. .... . ..... ... . . . .. .. ... . . ..... 97 
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Path Group A: Traditional Short Route..................................... 98 Path Group B: Traditional Intermediate Route.......................... 99 Path Group C: Traditional Long Route...................................... 99 Path Group D: Non-Traditional Route. ..................................... 99 Career Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Selection to Superintendency . . . .. .. ... . . . .. . . .. .. . . . .. .. ... . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . 111 Characteristics of School Districts . . . ... . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . . . .. ... . . . . . . .. . . 115 Additional Findings.............................................................................. 123 Qualitative Data.................................................................................... 126 Responses to Question 32.................................................................... 127 Summary of Findings............................................................................ 141 
CHAPTER V -SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................... 146 
Overview .. ... .. .. ... .. . ...... .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . .. . . . .. .... ... ... ... . . . . . .. 146 Purpose........................................................................................ 14 7 Methodology........................................................................................ 148 Summary ofFindings............................................................................ 151 Research Question # 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Career Paths................................................................................. 151 Career Patterns.............................................................. .............. 153 Research Question #2........................................................................... 160 Research Question #3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Recommendations for Policy and Practical Usage... ............................. 169 Recommendation for Further Study........................................ ............. 170 
APPENDICES.............................................................................................. 173 

Appendix A 
Appendix B 

Cover Letter .............................................................. . 174 Survey Questionnaire Career Paths and Patterns of African American Superintendents....................................................... 176 
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Appendix C Reminder Post Card .................................................. . 185 
Appendix D Historically Black Colleges and Universities ............ . 187 
Appendix E Individual Career Paths ............................................. . 192 
Appendix F Individual Responses to Question 32 ....................... . 197 

REFERENCES............................................................................................. 208 

VITA.............................................................................................................. 219 

XIV 
LIST OF TABLES 
Table Number Title Page 
Table 3.1 Identified African American Superintendents by State as of February 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Table 3.2 Geographic Distribution of Responses and States by Region (Responses)...................................... 70 Table 4.1 Age of Respondents.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Table 4.2 Gender of Respondents................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Table 4.3 Marital Status.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Table 4.4 Highest Degree Held . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Table 4.5 Graduates of Historically Black Colleges and Universities................................................ 93 Table 4.6 Salary Categories of Respondents .......................... . 94 Table 4.7 Positions Prior to the Superintendency .................... . 96 Table 4.8 Career Path Groups of Respondents ....................... . 100 Table 4.9 Number of Positions Held by Path Group Prior to Superintendency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Table 4.10 Number of Years of Service by Path Group Prior to Superintendency........................................... 102 Table 4.11 Career Paths of District Type (Number of Respondents)............................... 103 Table 4.12 Career Paths of Gender....................................... 103 Table 4.13 Age and Career Paths of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Table 4.14 No Building Level Administration Experience............ . 105 Table 4.15 Respondents Who Held Instructional Supervisory Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Table 4.16 Number of Positions Held by Respondents Prior to Becoming Superintendent................................ 106 
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Table Number Title Page 
Table 4.17 Number of School Districts Employed ..................... . 107 Table 4.18 Years of Classroom Experience ............................. . 108 Table 4.19 Number of School Districts Served as Superintendent. ........................................ . 109 Table 4.20 Age Assumed First Superintendency .................... . 110 Table 4.21 Number of Years in Current Superintendency ......... . 111 Table 4.22 Use of Professional Search Firm for Current Superintendency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Table 4.23 Use of State Board of Education for Current Superintendency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Table 4.24 Use of State Educational Administration Association for Superintendency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Table 4.25 Use of Local School Board for Current Superintendency.......... .. ............................ 114 Table 4.26 Use of Other Selection Process for Current Superintendency...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Table 4.27 Types of School Districts Served.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Table 4.28 Ethnicity of Predecessor............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Table 4.29 Relationship of Operating Expense, Overall Student Enrollment and Student Ethnic Population . . . . . . . . . . 117 Table 4.30 Relationship of Current and Prior Teacher Ethnicity... 118 Table 4.31 Relationship Between Current and Prior Ethnic Community Characteristics...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Table 4.32 Relationship Between Current and Prior School Board Membership....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Table 4.33 Perceived Good Old Boy/Girl Network................. 122 Table 4.34 Sponsorship of African Americans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Table 4.35 Gender for Size of School District........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 
Table  
Number  Title  Page  
Table 4.36  Relationship of Differences Between Marital Status....  125  
Table 4.37  Relationship Between Highest Degree and Gender.....  125  

xvii 
Chapter I 
Introduction 

"O let my land be a land where Liberty 
Is crowned with no false patriotic wreath But opportunity is real, and life is free, Equality is in the air we breathe 
(There 's never been equality for me, Nor freedom in this homeland ofthe free. ) " Langston Hughes 
Background of the Study 
Public school superintendents have one of the most challenging, demanding, and visible positions in American society. They provide educational leadership in approximately 15,499 school districts across the United States. Their visibility is marked by the fact that the majority of leadership positions are held by non-minority individuals (American Association of School Administrators, 1992). The underrepresentation of minorities in public school leadership positions on a national level has been thoroughly documented over the years, and the limited representation of African Americans in top positions of public school administration is glaring (AASA, 1992, 1983; Jones & Montenegro, 
1988, 1985; Montenegro, 1993). 
The data available on the office of the superintendency in U.S. schools revealed that 3.4 percent were minority men, 0.4 percent were minority females, and 4.6 percent were white females (AASA, 1992). Additionally, data from this 1992 study disclosed that for the position of the assistant superintendent, minority men accounted for 8.6 percent of these positions; and minority women accounted for 3.3 percent. The total representation of women in assistant superintendent positions was 17.4 percent. 
It is widely believed that a diverse representation is needed in a pluralistic society such as the one that we live in, but perhaps more important is the need to utilize our human resources in order to develop the talents of all those who can make valuable contributions for the greater good of all. It is critically important children see that African American superintendents exist, that people of color can assume leadership positions. They are needed by the community to serve not just 
2 

as role models, but as educational leaders who can provide the best learning environments to fulfill the hopes and expectations of our nation's youth. 
In the area of school administration, the superintendency has traditionally been dominated by White males (Jones, 1985). Historically, minorities have been underrepresented in public school leadership positions, especially in the top position, the superintendency. While, women, African Americans, and other racial minorities have slowly joined their ranks, it has not been at a level representative ofthe population, or at a level that is proportional to their numbers in the teaching profession. In most U.S. organizations, the representation of culture groups i.e., minorities in the overall work population, and especially in the most powerful positions, is highly skewed (Cox, 1994). This trend is reflected in public school organizations as well. Not until the last three decades were African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans appointed to the office of the superintendency (Jones & Montenegro, 1983). 
To underscore the problem of the underrepresention of minorities in public school administration, a recent report revealed another fact: the minority teaching population is declining (Consortium for Minorities in Teaching Careers, 1992). This is alarming because accessing educational administrative positions begins with the possession of teaching credentials and teaching experience. Considering the already low number of minority teachers, it is obvious that the pool of potential minority public school administrators will be even smaller in the future. Historically, the largest group of African American professionals to provide leadership within the African American community has been educators. They have valued education as a method to achieve individual enrichment as well as social progress (King, 1993). 
The American Association of School Administrators (1992) reports that more than half ofthe public school administrators will be eligible for retirement by 1998. One would hope that such a prediction would allow minorities and women aspiring to positions of public school leadership to have windows of opportunity to move into leadership positions. However, these opportunities may not materialize given the historical nature of racial and gender promotional barriers that have plagued the fiber of this country since its inception. 
By the year 2020, the United States population is projected to be 30% African American and Hispanic (U.S. Census Bureau, 1990). Several states will have minority populations that are, in fact, the majority. African American and Hispanic youth are already the majority population in many urban school 
4 

systems. According to the U.S. Bureau of Census (1986), by the year 2000, 42% of all public school students will come from the African American and Hispanic minority groups. 
The changing demographics of the nation reflected in the student population warrant similar representation in public school administration. As the nation approaches the twenty-first century, the lack of minorities in positions of leadership in public schools-specifically as superintendents--continues to be an alarming problem in the United States (AASA, 1992). 
The context of the study of this introductory chapter provides an overview for the purposed study of the career paths and career patterns of African American superintendents as well as describing the extent ofconditions found in the sampled school districts prior to their appointment. A rationale for supporting the study follows. Chapter I also includes the research questions, definitions and the limitations of the study. 

Purpose of the Study 
A review of the literature suggests that a study of the career paths and career patterns of African American superintendents is worthy of intellectual pursuit (Jones, 1985; Shepherd, 1996). Information on minority educational administrators, specifically African American superintendents, is nearly absent from the literature. When examining the careers of women or minority educational administrators, few studies have included the career paths or career patterns of African American superintendents. There is also a need for comprehensive information on school districts headed by African American superintendents. The findings of such a study will provide an awareness and understanding ofthe problems and issues in African American administered school districts. 
The purpose of this research study is to: (1) examine and describe the career path and career pattern experiences of African Americans who have attained superintendency positions in public schools; (2) the study will examine the nature of selected characteristics found in the school districts prior and during their tenure as superintendent; and (3) examine the perceived racial barriers facing those seeking the position of superintendent. This study will focus on African American superintendents in the United States. During the 1995-96 school year, there was a total of 223 identified African Americans superintendents leading public school districts in the United States, as shown by a survey conducted by Charles Moody Sr. (1996). 
6 

Although other researchers (Burnham, 1989; Holliman, 1996) focused on the topic of career paths and career patterns, their investigations did not provide specific details about African American superintendents in their studies. Furthermore, research detailing the extent of characteristics existing in school districts prior to the appointment of African American superintendents has received little emphasis in the current research literature. 
It is the opinion of this researcher that examining the career paths, career patterns, and school district characteristics of current African American superintendents could prove beneficial to aspiring or current superintendents. 

Rationale for the Study 
It was not until the 1970s that African Americans were appointed to urban school districts in any number. The first African American superintendents in urban centers were viewed by many constituents as representing their entire race and high expectations were placed on them (Jackson, 1995). These African American superintendents were usually appointed to urban school districts in which problems had become so severe that solutions seemed almost impossible. 
Moody (1971) identified twenty-one school systems headed by African American superintendents during the 1970-71 school year in connection with a dissertation study he conducted at Northwestern University. That study led him to organize the National Alliance of Black School Superintendents, which was later changed to the National Alliance of Black School Educators and included other school administrators and teachers. In 1974, forty-four African American superintendents were identified for a research study conducted by Scott ( 1980). The purpose of the research study was to seek basic information about their school systems. The study also sought background information on each of the African American superintendents. The most recent count of African American superintendents points to approximately 223 nationwide, out of a total of approximately 15,499 school systems (Moody, 1996). 
There is an interesting trend that has developed in the increase of African American superintendents. The trend is reflective in the twenty-one identified African American superintendents in 1971 (Moody, 1971) as compared to the two hundred twenty-three identified in 1996. This trend represents an average annual increase of more than 30% within that time frame. However, this increase is modest when one considers African Americans still constitute less than two percent of the 15,499 superintendents in school districts throughout the United States. The total population of African Americans in the U.S. is approximately 
29 .2 million or 11.7 percent of the population. The disparity in these figures give rise to a concern as to what factors could account for the under-representation of African American superintendents. The research literature suggests that there are several reasons for this noteworthy increase. The research of Jones (1985) and Scott (1980) reports that the increase in African American superintendents is due, in part, to the appointment of many African American superintendents to urban systems with high percentages of minority students. Additionally, Scott predicted that there would be an increase in the number of African American superintendents in school districts with high minority populations because of critical financial conditions and educational problems accrued from years ofneglect and deprivation. Accordingly, these unwanted superintendencies would be available for African Americans and recruitment would be unnecessary for those school districts by non-minority superintendents (Scott, 1980). The events predicted by Scott in the early 1980s have come to fruition during the mid 1980s and 1990s. This is especially true in the urban cities of Chicago, Atlanta, Houston, Oakland, New Orleans, etc. (Jones, 1993). 
Clearly the need exits for a current and more comprehensive survey of African American superintendents. The findings of such studies will provide an awareness and understanding of the nature of the African American superintendent and will be useful in the following areas: 
1. 
Information on the career path and career patterns of African American superintendents. There is a need for information about the career paths and career patterns ofAfrican American superintendents, which would shed insight to the upward mobility of this important leadership position. This will create an awareness among African American educational administrators ofvariables that may affect their chances for obtaining a superintendency. 

2. 
Information on the characteristics of districts headed by African American. There is a need for information on the prior and current status of districts headed by African American superintendents. This will create an awareness among African American superintendents of the challenges and opportunities within school districts, and be guided accordingly in their career decisions. 

3. 
What racial barriers have African American superintendents encountered? This will provide a framework for understanding discriminatory factors that may 


10 

impact obtaining and maintaining a job of superintendent in segregated and diverse environments. 
Research Questions 
The three major research questions for this study are as follows: 
1. 
What were the career path and career pattern experiences of African American superintendents that led to their ascension to the position of superintendent? 

2. 
What was the extent of selected characteristics of the school district prior to and during their tenure as superintendent? 

3. 
What are the perceived racial barriers faced by those seeking the position of superintendent? 



Methodology 
The design of this study utilized a descriptive survey approach in order to examine the career paths and career patterns of current African American superintendents. An additional focus examined the extent of selected characteristics of school districts prior to their appointments as superintendent. Those selected characteristics included the financial support, community, board of education and teachers of their districts. The purpose of any descriptive research is to accurately, factually, and systematically describe the existing facts and characteristics and phenomena of a given population (Isaac & Michael, 1991; Fink, 1995). Descriptive research "is the accumulation of a data base that is solely descriptive ... it does not necessarily seek or explain relationships, test hypotheses, make predications, or get at meanings and implications ... " (Isaac & Michael, 1981, p. 46). However, relationships between career paths, career patterns, and the extent of selected characteristics of school districts will be explored. The methodology involved the selection of a national population, development of a survey instrument, pilot-testing the survey instrument, administering the survey to the national sample, organizing the data, analyzing the data, and reporting the results of the data. Selection of Subjects 
The population identified for this study included all male and female African American superintendents serving in the public schools during the 1996­97 school. The database for the selection of subjects was obtained from the founder of the National Black Alliance of School Educators. This list is composed of all African American male and female superintendents serving in U.S. schools. 
The list has been updated from other national and state educational organizations to provide current data and eliminate the possibility of duplication. 

Instrumentation 
The instrumentation utilized in this study consisted of a descriptive survey questionnaire. A single descriptive survey questionnaire was developed, pilot-tested, revised, and mailed to the superintendents in the sample. The descriptive survey questionnaire contained questions concerning the following types ofitems: demographic information about the superintendents' sex, age, and educational level; characteristics of the school districts they administered, and characteristics ofthe school board. 
The instrumentation utilized in this study consisted of two types of questioning: closed-ended and open-ended. The researcher felt that this type of questioning was appropriate because of the wide range of responses anticipated. The content of these questions focused on factual responses from the participant. The goal of these questions was to have each participant respond accurately. 
Pilot Study 
The researcher conducted a pilot study to test the appropriateness of the descriptive survey questionnaire. The pilot study was conducted by administering the descriptive survey questionnaire to a panel consisting offive to seven educational researchers and former superintendents. The pilot study enhanced the credibility of the research and provided data for testing, analytical procedures and suggested possible revisions needed (Marshall & Rossman, 1989). Additionally, the feedback obtained as a result of the pilot study gave the researcher information about the appropriateness and clarity of the questions. 


Data Collection 
Packets of information pertaining to the study were mailed to each participant. Each packet included a cover letter, a copy of the survey instrument, and a postage paid, self-addressed return envelope. Each survey was coded with an ID number to ensure the confidentiality of participants and provide a system for data collection. The packets were mailed during the second week ofFebruary 1997. A reminder card was mailed 14 days after the initial mailing to all non­respondents emphasizing the importance of the study. To increase the response rate, telephone calls were placed to non-respondents. A personalized thank you note was sent to each respondent upon receipt of the completed survey emphasizing the importance of the study and expressing the researchers' gratitude for their response to the survey. 
The researcher hoped for a high response rate. However, some non­response is inevitable. Rubin's & Babbie's (1993) review of the literature revealed that there is a wide range of response rates for adequate analysis and reporting. The response rate is the number who respond divided by the number of eligible respondents. No single response rate is considered the standard (Fink, 1995). 
Data Analysis 
Data analysis is the process of making coherent meaning out ofthe raw data collected. Efficient management of the raw data is required, or the researcher will be overwhelmed with data. It is task of the researcher to organize the data into a workable format. This survey is designed to be descriptive; however, there are some qualitative elements that will be included. 
Each returned questionnaire was reviewed for completeness. The results of participants' response to the questionnaire was the only major source of data analyses. Responses to the questionnaire items were sorted for specific items of data analysis. 
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the data. SPSS is a data management and analysis software product. Among its features are modules for statistical data analysis including descriptive statistics such as plots, frequencies, charts, and lists as well as sophisticated inferential and multivariate statistical procedures such as analysis of variance, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and categorical data analysis. This software package was well suited for descriptive survey research. Validity 
Validity refers to the degree to which a survey instrument assesses what it purports to measure (Fink, 1995). Each participant in the present study received the same set of questions. An effort was made to ensure that the questions were analyzed and interpreted in the same manner for all participants. The researcher used closed-ended questions to solicit answers that would be appropriate for the focus of the study. Additionally, the researcher used an open-ended question to solicit the kind of response that was desired for that particular theme. Because the descriptive survey was conducted by mail, interviewer bias was not a concern. 


Limitations 
There are several limitations to this research study. First, the study is limited by the design, researcher bias, and the selection of the participants. The goal of this descriptive survey is to provide rich description about the career path and career pattern experiences for current African American superintendents. An additional focus will examine the extent of conditions of school districts prior to their appointments as superintendent. However, the survey research design may produce a low rate of return. The survey response is dependent on the willingness ofthe respondents to share and return personal information. The collection of data was also dependent upon the willingness ofthe participants to share personal information about their career paths, career pattern experiences and the extent of selected conditions of their school districts with the researcher. 
Second, in documenting the rich description, researcher bias may occur in the processing of information, data gathering, and drawing conclusions. As an African American, the researcher acknowledges his association with a study referencing African American superintendents. However, this bias is viewed as an asset and not as a hindrance. 
Third, the selection ofAfrican American superintendents may fluctuate with the employment ofthe participants during the 1996-97 school year. There are limitations on the thoroughness of the national survey list. 

Definitions 
To enhance the clarity and consistency, the terms below are defined for the purpose of this study. African Americans-all people born, raised, and living in the United States who are descendants of African slaves. However some people ofAfrican ancestry may prefer to be referred to as Afro-American, Black, and Negro. American Association of School Administrators (AASA)-a professional association of school administrators and other professional educators. Membership includes superintendents, associate and assistant superintendents, and central office administrators. Membership also includes area administrators, professional educational administrators, and educators who aspire to become school administrators. Career path-the sequence of identifiable positions held over years of an individual's career. 
Career patterns-an identifiable pattern of position sequence, tenure, and other features characterizing and differentiating careers ofgroups ofindividuals. Superintendent-chief executive officer of a local public school system. He/she is expected to assist in the development, planning, implementation, and evaluation of the board of education goals, objectives, and policies. Discrimination-the practice ofusing sex, race, age, language, and other characteristics to make prejudicial decisions. Glass ceiling-a promotion barrier that prevents, restricts, delays an individual's mobility within an organization or field of endeavor. Mentorship/Sponsorship-engagement in a professional relationship with an experienced individual or individuals to provide career-role model assistance and offer advice and guidance; make recommendations; and assist entry into the administrative (Little, 1980). Minority-a part of a population differing from others in some characteristic and often subjected to differential treatment (Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 1993). Mobility-upward movement from position to another position. 
National Alliance of Black School Educators-(NABSE) a professional association of Black school educators. Membership includes a wide range of educational positions. The NABSE is organized to promote and facilitate the education of all students, Black students in particular. Also, this organization provides a coalition of Black educators and others directly and indirectly involved in the educational process (NABSE, 1987). School district-a unit of administration of a public school system within a given geographical location. It is empowered by state law to administer a public school (system). Upward Mobility-upward movement from one position to another position. Vertical Mobility-movement up or down the administrative ladder from one administrative position to another administrative position. 

Significance of the Study 
Although other researchers (Burnham, 1989; Holliman, 1996) focused on the topic of career paths and career patterns, their investigations did not provide detail about the African American superintendent in their studies. Furthermore, research detailing the extent of selected characteristics existing in school districts prior to the appointment of African American superintendents has received little emphasis in the current research literature. It is the opinion of this researcher that examining the career paths and career patterns of current African American superintendents could prove beneficial to aspiring administrators en route to the superintendency. Additionally, the finding will provide an awareness and understanding ofthe problems and issues in African American administered school districts. 
This study will magnify the understanding of the career paths, experiences, and perspectives ofAfrican American superintendents. In the initial review of literature, there was a dearth of information about African American superintendents' experiences and perspectives. Finally, it is hoped this study will provide a rich body of information about African American superintendents for future research studies and for prospective school administrators who aspire to the position of the superintendency. 

Summary 
This study has developed out of the researcher's personal and professional interest about the position of superintendent and the factors and conditions that influence their careers. Because ofthe need to attract, train, and employ qualified candidates for the superintendent's role, it is critical to gather information and knowledge about those factors that will impact the superintendent's career. Studies in this area have primarily focused on the dominant group. However, identifying other groups' factors and conditions may potentially prove beneficial for others aspiring to the position of superintendent. 

Organization of the Dissertation 
The dissertation will be organized into five chapters. A review of literature about African American superintendents and background information about career paths and career patterns of superintendents is provided in Chapter II. Chapter III provides a description of the research design and methods that will be used to examine the proposed research questions. The results and analyses of the data will be presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V includes a summary of the study as well as findings, conclusions, and implications. 
Chapter II 
Review of The Literature 

Introduction 
Public school superintendents have one of the most challenging, demanding, and visible positions in American society. They provide educational leadership in approximately 15,499 school districts across the United States. This visibility is marked by the fact that the majority of leadership positions are held by non-minority individuals (AASA, 1992). The underrepresentation of minorities in public school leadership positions on a national level has been thoroughly documented over the years, and the limited representation of African Americans in top positions of public school administration is glaring (AASA, 1992, 1983; Jones & Montenegro, 1988, 1985; Montenegro, 1993). 
The purpose of this section is twofold: first, in a survey of the literature, the author provides an overview of African American superintendents; second, a review of several studies provides background information relative to the career pattern and career path experiences of African American superintendents. Furthermore, conclusions and a need for further study will also be presented in the final analysis. 
This section begins with a discussion ofthe limited number of research studies regarding the underrepresentation of minorities in educational administration. The author provides a historical overview of the African American superintendent. A review of literature relative to the conditions, characteristics, problems, expectations and roles of the African American superintendent is provided. Next a review of the recruitment, selection and placement of African American superintendents is provided. Finally, a body of research on the career patterns and career paths of superintendents is also presented. 
A segment of the educational administration community has been somewhat neglected in the educational administration literature. Information on minority educational administrators, specifically African American superintendents, is nearly absent from the literature. When examining the careers of women or minority educational administrators, few studies include African Americans superintendents' career patterns or career paths. Yet, it should not be assumed that the experiences of African American superintendents who are different in their ethnicity from the majority of those who lead public school districts, are either irrelevant or uninformative. 
Research on minorities and women in educational administration has focused primarily on White female school or district leaders. The under­representation of minorities and women in educational administration employment has been thoroughly documented in recent years (AASA, 1992, 1983; Glass, 1992; Jones & Montenegro, 1988, 1985; Jones, 1983). The few studies that exist generally describe the characteristics of minority and women educational administrators; the obstacles they overcame; and their performance as active school or district leaders. Although this research area is rich with data concerning White females, there is a dearth of information on minority administrators, both female and male, (Yeakey, Johnston, & Adkison, 1986). Yeakey et al. further note that there is little published research that speaks to the cause of this disparity in the literature. 
Within the limited number of studies on minority educational administrators are reports on the status of female and male minority administrators as well as suggestions for increasing these individuals' participation in educational administration (Leonard & Papa-Lewis, 1987; Moody, 1973; Ortiz, 1982). Furthermore, studies investigating the experiences of minority school leaders have focused on the influence that race or ethnicity has had on acquiring administrative positions (Yeakey, Johnston, & Adkison, 1986; Ortiz, 1982). 
This review is primarily limited to African Americans in the school superintendency. Although one might assume that since all marginalized groups suffer underrepresentation in educational administration positions, they can be analyzed together. Yet the reasons for the underrepresentation are as deceptively complex as they are pervasively subtle. For this reason, the investigation of African American superintendents warrants separate special consideration. 

Historical Perspective on the African Americans in the Superintendency 
There is a scarcity of information about African Americans in school administration before the second half of this century. However, the limited research on African American superintendents revealed two early periods in which they were either state superintendents or the equivalent of school superintendents (Jones, 1983; Moody, 1995). During the Reconstruction Period there were five states where African Americans served as state superintendents: Arkansas, J. C. Corbin; Florida, Johnathan C. Gibbs; Louisiana, Mississippi; and South Carolina, James Brown (Moody, 1995). However, the first African American school 
administrators mentioned in history who were the equivalent of present day 
school administrators were in schools sponsored by the Quakers. They managed the Quaker sponsored Institute for Colored in Philadelphia from 1802 to 1903 (Jones, 1983). African American administrators and faculty were influential in determining the educational objectives and practices of the Quaker sponsored African American institutions during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 
At the tum of the twentieth century, another wave of African American school administrators emerged. This new wave of school administrators directed, maintained, and assisted rural, community, and county schools for, "southern Negroes" with a one million dollar endowment directed by Quaker, Anna T. Jeanes (Jones, 1983). 
The first modem day African American superintendents (one woman and one man) were believed to have been appointed in 1956 (Jones, 1983). The National Alliance ofBlack School Educators (NABSE, 1987) identified four African Americans as forerunners ofcurrent African American superintendents: Lillard Ashley of Boley, Oklahoma (1956); Lorenzo R. Smith of Hopkins Park, Illinois (1956); E.W. Warrior ofTaft, Oklahoma (1958); and Arthur Shropshire of Kinloch, Missouri (1963). However, several African American superintendents, namely R. H. Hudson, D. Council Noble, and Waymon T. Carter, were employed to head the all Black system of Taft, Oklahoma, between 1930-1958 (Jones, 1983; Scott, 1983). 
It was not until the 1970's that African Americans were appointed to urban school districts in any number. The first African American superintendents in urban centers were viewed by many constituents as representing their entire race and high expectations were placed on them (Jackson, 1995). These African American superintendents were usually appointed to urban school districts in which problems had become so severe that solutions were almost impossible. 
Moody (1971) identified twenty-one school systems headed by African American superintendents during the 1970-71 school year in connection with a dissertation study he conducted at Northwestern University. That study led him to found the National Alliance of Black School Superintendents, later changed to the National Alliance of Black School Educators to include other school administrators and teachers. In 1974, forty-four African American superintendents were identified for a research study conducted by Scott (1980). The purpose of the research study was to seek basic information about their school systems. The study also sought background information on each of the African American superintendents. The most recent count of African American superintendents points to approximately 223 nationwide, out of a total of approximately 15,000 school systems (Moody, 1996). This recent count is reflective of a national survey collected by Charles and Christella Moody for the National Alliance of Black School Educators. 
There is an interesting trend that has developed in the increase of African American superintendents. The trend is reflective of the twenty-one identified African American superintendents in 1971 (Moody, 1971) as compared to the two hundred twenty-three identified in 1996. This trend represents an increase of more than one thousand percent within that time frame. The research literature suggests that there are several reasons for this noteworthy increase. The research ofJones (1985) and Scott (1980) reports that the increase in African American superintendents is due, in part, to the appointment of many African American superintendents to urban systems with high percentages of minority students. Additionally, Scott predicted that there would be an increase in the number of African American superintendents in school districts with high minority population because of critical financial conditions and educational problems accrued from years of neglect and deprivation. Accordingly, these unwanted superintendencies would be available for African Americans and recruitment would be unnecessary for those school districts (Scott, 1980). The research findings predicted by Scott in the early 1980s have come to fruition during the mid 
1980s and 1990s. This is especially true in the urban cities of Chicago, Atlanta, Houston, Oakland, New Orleans, etc. (Jones, 1993). The emergence of African American superintendents has provided a limited number of research studies. These research studies were conducted mainly in the 1970s and 1980s. In the review that follows, an effort has been made to identify some of those studies. 

Studies of Conditions, Characteristics, Problems 
The review of the literature on African American superintendents reveals eight thematic research areas: (1) identification of African American superintendents (Jones, 1985; Jones & Montenegro, 1982; Revere, 1985; Moody, 1971,1983); (2) conditions and characteristics of school districts headed by African American superintendents (Amez, 1985; Doughty, 1980; Jones, Moody, 1971; Scott, 1980; Sizemore, 1981); (3) problems and characteristics ofAfrican American superintendents (Amez, 1981; Chambers, 1979; Coates, 1980; Jones 1983, 1985; Jones and Montenegro, 1982; Lavender, 1983 Revere, 1985; 1985; Scott, 1980; Sizemore, 1981 Bulls, 1986); ( 4) relations between African American superintendents and school boards (Arnez, 1981; Jones, 1985); (5) perceptions, attitudes, and opinions of African American superintendents on various critical issues (Amez, 1981; Coates, 1980; Scott, 1983; Williams, 1984; Scott, 1990); 
(6) processes used to recruit, select, and place African American superintendents (Amez, 1981; Edwards, 1974; Moffet, 1981; Moody, 1983); (7) roles and expectations of African American superintendents regarding administrative, supervisory, instructional, curricular, and political processes and policies (Amez, 1981; Napier, 1984; Scott, 1990); and (8) job satisfaction of African American superintendents (Cole, 1974; McClain, 1974). 
All of the above areas of research on African American superintendents are related to the professional status of the African American superintendent. However, a selected summary of the areas ofresearch most relevant to the study of the career patterns, career paths and the conditions of school districts headed by African American will be developed. 
Demographic Studies of African American Superintendents 
Jones' (1985) dissertation study surveyed 72 African American superintendents. The purpose of the study was to: (a) produce a profile of African Americans superintendents; (b) identify the problems ofAfrican American superintendents and the communities in which the school district were located; ( c) reveal the district's characteristics, and ( d) describe the district's perceived training needs. Her study included 59 males and 13 females. They had similar educational levels, and 50% or more of the superintendents had doctoral degrees. The average age ofthe superintendents was 46. Jones also found that African American male superintendents tended to be younger than African American female superintendents. African American superintendents were at least two years younger than the typical superintendents in a study sponsored by the American Association of School Administrators (AASA) in 1982. Additionally, Jones recommended that a study be conducted to determine the factors underlying the recent trends in hiring African American superintendents by predominantly white communities to shed light on hiring practices and access of African Americans into the larger society. 
A recent study conducted by Moody (1996) surveyed African American superintendents in order to develop a profile of current African American superintendents. This study was a continuation of his dissertation research initially conducted in 1971. Of the 95 respondents, 73% were male and 27% were female. The average age range ofthe superintendents was between 50-60. Both males and females had similar educational levels. Moody reports that 74% of the superintendents had obtained a doctorate degree. This figure represents an increase from the study conducted by Jones (1985) which reported that 50% or more had obtained doctoral degrees. A majority (72%) ofthe superintendents were in their first superintendency. This is consistent with Moody's 1971 study which found that 100% of the superintendents were in their first superintendency. Moody's findings also reveal that 74% of the student population was African American where the respondents assumed superintendencies. This represents a decrease from his earlier study which reported the enrollment of 94% African Americans. Additionally, Moody found that the majority of the district's staff was composed of45% African Americans. This figure represents a slight decrease from the 1971 findings which reported that the composition of the staff was 4 7% ofAfrican American. 
In summary, the data from the profile of African American superintendents reveals a number of interesting characteristics: (a) a noteworthy increase of African American superintendents; (b) African American superintendents are predominately male; ( c) the age of the African American superintendents has increased; ( d) a majority of the respondents held doctoral degrees; ( e) a majority of the African American superintendents were in their first superintendency; (f) a majority of the school district's student population was African American; and (g) there was a high concentration of African American school district staff. Conditions ofAfrican American Superintendents 
The emergence of the African American superintendent has gone relatively unnoticed (Scott, 1980). Yet their emergence has made a drastic impact on the personnel structure of more than two hundred school districts across the nation. Along with the inheritance of school districts that serve capable but disadvantage students, African American superintendents face conditions, characteristics, and challenges which are unique to their superintendency experiences. Indicators of conditions, characteristic, and challenges can be gleaned from several research studies that were designed for this propose. 
Moody ( 1971) reported, "there is a decline in the financial conditions of the school districts manifesting themselves in deficit prior to the appointment of an African American superintendents" (p. 12). While this condition may also occur prior to the appointment of other superintendent groups, it's seems endemic to African American superintendents. 
The decline in the financial condition of the school district contributes to the success or failure ofthe selected African American superintendent as is noted by former Washington, D. C., superintendent, Barbara Sizemore (Sizemore, 1986). However, such a strong claim can be made on behalf of all school superintendents without a strong local economy which provides an adequate tax base. School districts in most states would have a difficult time securing adequate resources to provide basic instructional services. Nevertheless, the decline of the financial condition is a condition that confronts the African American superintendents disproportionate!y. 
According to Scott ( 1980), the future financial conditions ofdistricts headed by African Americans do not look too promising. He asserted the future financial conditions relevant to African American superintendents will include the following problems: In urban school districts with a high concentration of disadvantaged students, school officials and other school personnel will not have the resources to improve the quality of life and the level ofacademic achievement without more assistance from other essential service institutions. Significant increases in the number ofblack superintendents will reflect continued societal deterioration and increased racial isolation rather than decisions by school boards to comply with the principle of equal employment opportunity (Scott, 1980 p. 184). Doughty ( 1980) contends that African American administrators still face 
other conditions and challenges. One such condition is the conscious or unconscious resistance from within the educational system in obtaining employment. She maintains that Affirmative Action and Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) programs designed to aid minority access to employment do not provide an edge for minority superintendency candidates. Although EEO programs may provide minorities a better chance for an interview, their applications were often screened out and used only as evidence of an attempt to meet federal requirement. 
Another condition and challenge faced by African American superintendents is the assertion that "people respond to an African American superintendent differently because of their color" (Scott, 1980 p. 53). Scott (1980) suggested that African American superintendents are expected to immediately solve problems that stem from decades of economic, social, and racial injustice. Additionally, Scott maintains that there is a persisting of"test of fire" or quality of interaction with like peers, staff, and students. He also asserts, "Many cannot seem to be satisfied unless there is a constant confrontation with the superintendents, where he or she has to pass or fail. African American superintendents need to first pass the the test before they can be regarded as professional" (p. 55). 
Another condition according to Jackson (1995) facing African American superintendents is the school district's counterproductive bureaucracy. Jackson concluded that African American superintendents faced school bureaucracies that were often unwilling or unable to make the necessary school reforms needed for school improvement. She cites examples of different superintendents' efforts to make the school districts more responsive to the new majority African American student population which often were thwarted by unyielding boards of education and school bureaucracies. Problems ofAfrican American Superintendents 
In her study of the problems of African American superintendents, Clark (1980) identified a diverse and complex range of problems that were perceived by the participants. The majority of the superintendents participating in the study reported they had encountered at least some of the problems listed below at some time or another while in the position of superintendent: (a) racial and or sexual discrimination; (b) lack ofrole models of the same race and or sex; ( c) community relations problems; ( d) deficit finances; ( e) memberships in certain organization closed to them; ( t) credibility as a superintendent questioned; (g) unrealistic expectations of oneself in terms of amount and quality ofwork produced; 
(h) myths and stereotypes; (i) lack of acceptance by colleagues as a competent administrator; and (j) problems working with colleagues of the opposite sex or different race. Additionally, Clark noted a significant difference between African American superintendents and White superintendents on the response of questions relating to race and role model. The African American superintendents perceived racial discrimination and lack of role models a definite problem. 
Lavender (1983) developed a study of African American superintendents 
formulated to ascertain commonality of agreement among respondents to the ranking ofquestions in a 1982 Gallup Poll. Lavender reported that lack of proper financial support posing a major problem for African American superintendents was the foremost problem confronting school as perceived by African Americans superintendents. This finding is consistent with the research of Amez, (1981); Jones, (1985), Moody, (1971), and Scott, (1980). Lavender also noted different views were held by African American superintendents and the public responding to the 1982 Gallup Poll regarding major problems confronting public schools. Expectations and Roles of African American Superintendents 
The tenure of African American school administrators, especially African American superintendents, tends to be one of a short duration because they are mostly in urban districts with problems so severe they "can be solved only by miracles" (Scott, 1983). Scott also noted that African American superintendents must be able to solve financial problems; quell personnel problems; restore discipline; raise academic achievement; unite the community; and literally be able to "walk on water." These superintendents are engaged in responding to immediate crises, more so than attending to long term problems and planning of the school district (Scott, 1980). In his research, Moody (1971) stated that in terms of their responsibility, African American superintendents are not allowed to concentrate on the instructional aspects of the system. He wrote that the African American superintendents are "expected to be miracle men who can undo in a few days conditions that years of neglect, and in some cases, mismanagement have created" (Scott, 1980 p. 48). Moody's 1971 dissertation study reveals the following about roles and expectations of African American superintendents: 
1. 
There is a decline in the financial conditions of the school system manifesting itself in a deficit prior to the appointment of African American superintendents of school districts. 

2. 
The nonwhite student population was in the majority at the time of the appointment of the African American superintendent. 

3. 
The nonwhite population of the community is in the majority or projections indicate it soon will be. 

4. 
There is a majority nonwhite school board at the time ofthe appointment of the African American superintendent. 


Recruitment, Selection, and Placement of African American Superintendents 
The recruitment, selection, and placement of African American superintendents is an interesting process. The importance of external factors relating to the selection process is critical to enhancing African American mobility to school leadership. In studying this process Moody (1984) notes, "that traditionally attainment of a school superintendency has depended to an appreciable extent on the help and information an aspirant received from professional contacts" (p. 40). In his study of sponsored mobility of African American superintendents, Moody ( 1981) investigated the role ofprofessional contacts as consultants, mentors, and advisors in the selection and placement of African American superintendents. The study revealed that some sponsors or mentors, such as consultants and other superintendents, offered several reasons for fostering certain individuals: (a) ability to fit into a school district, 
(b) competence, ( c) background and experience, ( d) membership in an organization, (e) career aspirations, and (t) educational leadership. 
Moody's (1981) study also revealed that white males were the dominant group sponsoring aspiring African American superintendents. The last position held by a majority of sponsors was that of superintendent. This fact is important to note because it has a direct impact on the recruitment, selection, and placement of superintendents. Moody notes this important fact by suggesting that the experience ofthe sponsors gives them a natural tie to board ofeducation members, other superintendents, and professors at local universities. This network not only help influence the upper-level job opportunities, but can also be crucial in improving the communication flow that is so vital to career development. Additionally, Holliman (1996) in her recent study of superintendents suggests that sponsorships provide access to information and guidance that is crucial to upward mobility. Although sponsorships offer no absolute guarantee of career success, it may increase the likelihood that professional advancement will take on newmeamng. 
Several trends were noted in the recruitment and selection ofAfrican American superintendents in research studies published ten years apart (Scott, 1983; Jones, 1993). Below is a review of their findings: 
1. The larger the minority student population of a system, the more likelihood an African American superintendent is appointed. African Americans have headed the school systems of Chicago, Detroit, Minneapolis, Rochester, Baltimore, Washington, D. C., Atlanta, Richmond, Newark, and New Orleans (Scott, 1983). 
2. The tenure of African American school administrators, especially superintendents, tends to be of short duration because they are mostly in urban districts with problems so severe they "can be solved only by miracles" [italics added]. 
Relatively little attention has been focused on the importance of sponsorship and mentorship in the superintendency. Kram (1985) notes that without sponsorship individuals are likely to be overlooked for upward mobility, regardless ofcompetence and performance. 

Career Patterns and Career Paths 
As stated earlier, a main focus of this study will examine the career patterns and career paths of superintendents in an effort to identify and understand developmental experiences which take place in the job setting. Career patterns of superintendents for the purpose of this review emphasize studies related to career paths pursued, and specific educational positions held. Career paths of superintendents for the purpose of this review include the succession of positions held during the superintendent's administrative career. Compared to the literature concerning White male and female superintendents, it must be noted that there is very little research on the career patterns and career paths of minorities, specifically African American superintendents (Scott, 1980; Ortiz, 1982). 
The next two subsections provide a review of three noteworthy studies relative to career patterns and career paths of public school administrators. The first study reviews the career patterns of women, men and minorities in public school administration. The next two studies review the career paths of superintendents. It is potentially beneficial to be aware of career patterns and career paths for those aspiring to be superintendents or current superintendents. Ortiz's Study 
A seminal study relating to, and contributing to further development on the career patterns of women, men and minorities in public school administration was conducted by Ortiz (1982). Her work has been frequently cited in studies (Leonard & Papa-Lewis, 1987; Shakeshaft, 1987; Holliman, 1996) focusing on women and minorities in educational administration. Her study examined and analyzed the career patterns and other characteristics of 350 individuals in public school administration who held California State administrative credentials. She concluded that there is a differential interaction between organizational variables and personal attributes of candidates seeking administrative positions in public school administration. 
Ortiz (1982) used socialization and role theories to explain organizational participation and the mobility patterns of public school administrators in California. She developed a career path theory consisting offour organizational variables: (a) hierarchy, (b) organizational space, (c) deposit of opportunity, and 
(d) power. The hierarchical concepts consist of difference due to rank and level. The organizational space concept denotes the differences in working environments, interpersonal relationships, and professional activities, each with specific role characteristics. Oritiz's third organizational factor was deposits of opportunity and power, which consists of opportunity positions and power positions. Opportunity positions are factors referring to frequent career review for advancement. These factors provide maximum exposure ofthe position holder, engagement of position holder in projects that require knowledge and connections ofmore than one administrative function, and association of position holder with more senior level individuals. Power positions are those that provide the position holder with informal political influence, access to resources, outside status, sponsorship, and mobility prospects. 
In Ortiz's study of the career patterns of women, men, and minorities in public school administration, the vice principal was the lowest of administrative positions. She describes the organizational placement as hierarchical between the teacher and principal. This baseline position provides the opportunity for gaining administrative experience. The principal is next in the administrational hierarchy, however, the elementary principal is considered to be below the secondary principal in administrative status. The top rank of the hierarchy are the administrative positions at the district's central office. 
Oritz (1982) divides the district's central office positions into four tiers. The first tier is the highest level of the hierarchy, and it consists of the superintendent, deputy or assistant superintendent, and other high level line positions. Individuals who hold these line positions have the most influence and decision-making power within the organization. A second tier ofcentral office administrative hierarchy is composed of staff positions that provide support to the first tier hierarchy. Their primary function is to interact with principals and teachers. The third tier that Oritz identified was composed of area administrators. 
She notes that this group is typically composed of minorities whose main focus is to interact with minority community constituents. According to Oritz, this group has the least possibility ofgaining administrative skills and experience needed for the first and second hierarchy positions. This tier provides minimal visibility to individuals who could facilitate their career growth. The final tier consists of individuals who have had a negative marked performance of their past duties, but for various reasons cannot be terminated. These individuals have reached the end of their administrative careers. 
Oritz ( 1982) found two groups of minorities within the school systems. The first group consisted of members whose careers began before the mid-sixties and early seventies and those who entered during and after that time frame. Those who entered before the mid-sixties began with teaching and possessed regular educational certification credentials. The other group who entered the school districts during the mid-sixties and seventies may have begun in another capacity besides teaching. In addition, Oritz reported that minorities were employed in professional positions in the most undesirable schools and were relegated to teaching in specific curricular areas such as Spanish, Black Studies, and physical education. She notes that there are several problems with this practice. First, school personnel perceive minority teachers and administrators as ethnic representatives rather than just regular school personnel. This perception maybe due in part to the assigned duties. Second, this practice also tends to limit minority teachers and administrators from interacting with others. 
In summary, this study described the various roles that white males, women and racial minorities acquire as a result of differing socialization processes. Essentially, the structure of public school administration consisted of white males occupying line positions, women occupying staff positions, and minorities occupying special project positions. She found that white males manage and administer adults, women instruct children, and minorities direct and contain other minorities. Finally, the lasting impression is that the structure mentioned in Oritz's study contributes to the perpetuation of the present school system. 

The Career Paths of Superintendents 
Under the direction of researcher Thomas Glass (1992), the AASA conducted a national survey of superintendents. The results of that survey were described in a publication entitled, The 1992 Study of the American School Superintendency: America's Education Leaders in a Time of Reform. The report represents the latest in a series of studies conducted by AASA since 1923. The only lapse came in the 1940's during World War II. These studies provide a benchmark to track the progress of the superintendency and explore other issues that effect education. The content and direction of the studies have varied. However, all of the studies have defined the superintendency, who superintendents are, and described what they do. 
The research for the 1992 study was conducted through a descriptive survey mailed to 2,536 practicing superintendents across the nation. The number ofusable surveys returned was 1,724, accounting for 68% representation of the 2,536 number of the total superintendents nationwide. Only 67 (3.9%) surveys were identified as minority respondents, compared to 1,656 (96.1 % ) White respondents. In the review that follows, an effort has been made to identify information that was pertinent in describing career patterns and career paths of minority superintendents. Those career patterns and career paths of minority superintendents were described: 
1. 
Minority superintendents began their administrative career at the building level more frequently than nonminority superintendents. 

2. 
Minority superintendents also were more likely to have begun their careers at the elementary level than nonminority superintendents. 

3. 
Minority superintendents were somewhat closer to their White counterparts in classroom teaching experience (0-10 years). 

4. 
Minority superintendents, on average, received their first administrative position at about the same age as nonminority superintendents (25-30 years of age). Nearly 60% of males were appointed to their first position before age 30. Career Patterns Prior to the Superintendency The career patterns prior to the superintendency were described in the following manner: 


1. 
A majority of minority superintendents started their administrative careers as a coordinator or assistant principal. 

2. 
Minority superintendents are almost twice as likely than non­minorities to follow a career pattern ofteacher, principal, central office administrator, and superintendent. 

3. 
Minority superintendents ascended to their positions from inside the district as often as nonminority superintendents. 

4. 
The majority in each group (male and nonminority) in the study came into the superintendency from another district. 

5. 
Relatively few minority superintendents have spent their entire professional careers in the same district. 

6. 
Fewer than half (49.2%) ofminority superintendents said it took less than a year to find their first superintendency. Perceptions, attitudes, and opinions The perceptions, attitudes, and opinions of minority superintendents were described in the following manner: 


1. 
Very few minority superintendents cited the "old boy/old girl" network as a hindrance to gaining the superintendency. 

2. 
Minority superintendents perceived discrimination as a major problem in hiring practices. This compares to 16.6 % of nonminority superintendents. 

3. 
The use of research in the superintendency by minority superintendents was perceived as more essential than nonminority superintendents. 


In summary, this study clearly raises the level of awareness of the commonalties and differences between different groups of superintendents. 
Burnham's Study 
Burnham's (1989) study was sponsored by AASA and The University of Texas, at Austin, In Pursuit of Excellence in the Superintendency, has been cited in numerous research studies on the career paths and career patterns of superintendents. This national study focused specifically on the differences between effective superintendents and typical superintendents on several career paths dimensions. Specifically she examined the participant's: (a) formal graduate preparation experiences, (b) non-formal professional experience career paths, and 
(c) career patterns. Additionally, the study compared the career paths and career patterns of male and female superintendents for the differences between the two groups. 
There were 1,008 superintendents in her study who represented two groups--effective superintendents and typical superintendents. There was a total of 93 superintendents who were identified as effective superintendents through a nomination process. To be included in the study, individuals in the effective superintendent's group had to be nominated by five educational organizations in their home states. The criteria for selection were those identified by the National School Boards Association and used with its Executive Educator awards program. 
The other group, typical superintendents, was composed of 915 superintendents who were drawn from a random sample from the data based obtained from the United States Department of Education and were selected by a university research staff. 
The sample was composed of 360 superintendents from metropolitan locations and 647 from non-metropolitan areas. The effective superintendent group consisted of 35 from the metropolitan locations and 57 from non­metropolitan areas. The ethnicity of the participants was provided by 741 of the respondents. There were 731 White, five African Americans, four Hispanics, and one Native American respondents. Classroom positions 
Burnham found that women were more likely than men to have been elementary teachers (55% of the women compared to 23% of the men). The majority of superintendents had secondary teaching and administrative experience. The respondents indicated that only a third of the women's previous experience was as teacher/coach (7%), with 34% of the men holding this position. Her study also found that a significantly higher proportion of women had served as counselors early in their careers. 
Building level administration 
Burnham also found that men had held secondary principalships (52%) and women held elementary principalships (34%) in route to the superintendency. In the typical group men averaged 6.14 years and women averaged 3.62 years of service. Central office administration 
In Burnham's study a higher proportion ofwomen were more likely than men to have held high level central office positions (34% compared to 31% ). She found that women averaged 5 .11 years in central office administration compared to 3.29 years for men in the effective superintendents group. In the typical group men averaged 6.09 years and women averaged 3.27. Career path groups 
Burnham also analyzed the career paths of 185 of her participants, including 90 from the effective superintendents subsample and 95 from the typical subsample. From that analysis, she constructed eight identifiable career paths. Furthermore, she reduced these eight career paths into four overall "superpath groups." 
In Path Group A, the superintendents had experience at the building 
administration level, but had no central office level experience. This path represented 31% of all individuals in the career path study. 
Path Group B included superintendents that had served in the principalship and had held at least one other non-teaching position prior to the superintendency. This path represented 47% ofall individuals involved in the career path study. 
The superintendents in Path Group C had the widest range of experiences. It represented 9% of all individuals in the career path study subsample. The careers ofthis group included building level (administration) experience, in addition to other mid-level non-principal roles and high-level central office expenence. 
The Path Group D was characterized as the "fast track." It consisted of non-traditional path group members since these superintendents had no building level administration experience. Most of the group members had held only high level central office positions before reaching the superintendency. This group represented 8% of the subsample for the career path study. 
In summary, the findings from Burnham's study indicate that the most conventional career path followed by the largest number of superintendents was to begin work as a teacher, move to assistant principal or principal, and then to the superintendency. Only 12% of the effective superintendent group, however, followed this career path. 
Generally, the effective superintendent's path was one ofteacher--central office--superintendent, avoiding building level experiences (e.g., principal or assistant principal) altogether. The majority of the effective superintendent sample was drawn from non-metropolitan areas which necessitated the superintendent supervising a number ofcentral office specialists in such areas as personnel, curriculum, and finance. This career path was described as moving directly from the building level to the superintendent. With respect to gender, the Burnham study also revealed that women superintendents are more likely to have served as elementary principals and directors of instruction or curriculum than their male counterparts. 
One of the limitations of her study that she mentions is "that it did not include an analysis ofminority superintendent career experiences" (p. 80). Based on the finding of her study, Burnham recommends a study to examine minority 
superintendents' career paths, which could be useful in providing support and 
guidance to minority superintendents. She adds, a sample that examined differences between minority superintendents and majority superintendents, particularly in view of these findings for the effective and females samples, could prove useful in providing support and guidance to minority administrators. This information could provide direction to those in positions of leadership in ways to encourage minorities to move up the administrative ladder to the superintendency." However it is not the intent or scope of this paper to provide such an analysis. 

Conclusions 
Historically, minorities have been underrepresented in public school leadership positions, especially at the top position, the superintendency. In most organizations, the representation of minorities in the overall work population, and especially in the most powerful positions, is highly skewed (Cox, 1994). This trend is also reflected in public school organizations. Not until the last three decades were African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans appointed to the superintendency (Jones & Montenegro, 1983). 
Another examination of employment trends for minority public school administrators presents a different pattern. According to an AASA (1985) study ofpublic school administrators in 41 states and the District of Columbia, three percent of the superintendents, nine percent of the assistant superintendents, and 17% ofthe principals were individuals from racial or ethnic minority groups. In comparison to 1981-1982 statistics, these figures represent a two percent increase in female and minority superintendents and a five percent gain at the school principal level. The study also revealed that of the 11,055 male and female school administrators surveyed, Hispanics constituted 1.4% of the superintendents; African Americans were one percent; American Indians were 0.5%; and Asian Americans were 0.1 %. African Americans accounted for the largest share of assistant superintendent and principal positions in the group. Hispanics were the second minority group at both administrative levels. 
To underscore the problem of the underrepresention of minorities in public school administration, a recent report revealed another alarming fact. The minority teaching population is declining (Consortium for Minorities in Teaching Careers, 1992). This is alarming because accessing educational administrative positions as has been delineated in this paper, begins with the possession of 
teaching credentials and teaching experience. Considering the already low number 
ofminority teachers, it is obvious that the pool of potential minority public school administrators will be even smaller in the future. 
To impact these numbers in the future, increasing the number ofminorities entering and completing teacher education programs and employment as teachers is a first step. An examination ofthe formal and informal barriers and plans to eliminate these barriers are just as important. Accessibility to public leadership positions relates to having the knowledge of the opportunities and a belief that there is a possibility to advance to the position. The second phase of accessibility requires one to believe it is possible to advance to such a position after acquiring the necessary skills and experiences. Aspiring minority administrators have only to look at the past practices of school districts in the appointment and retention of minorities in leadership positions to feel a sense of hopelessness in the pursuit of leadership positions in public school administration (Thompson, 1992). 
The reasons why minorities are underrepresented in public leadership positions are numerous. Many minorities face formidable attitudinal barriers when pursuing public leadership positions. Murray, Husk, and Simms (1993) describe several formidable attitudinal barriers that exist for minorities when pursuing leadership positions: (a) lack ofpeer acceptance, (b) subject to subtle or overt acts ofracism and sexism, ( c) subordinates challenging their authority; 
(d) limits being placed on their decision-making responsibility; and ( e) lack ofrole models, mentors, and sponsors. While this is not an exhaustive list ofbarriers resulting in the underrepresentation of minorities, it does provide a scope of the barriers that aspiring minority school leaders might or are likely to face. 
Staffing patterns are as important to the educational renewal process as curriculum. The best policy decisions will come from school organizations that include a variety of viewpoints. Members of minority and women groups may have unique perspectives on certain problems; perspectives that can broker and enrich the decision-making process at every level (Coursen, 1975). 
Chapter Ill 
Methodology and Research Design 

The design and methodology for this study will be discussed in this chapter. The purpose of this study was to examine the career paths and patterns of African American superintendents and describe the extent of selected characteristics found in the school districts prior and during their tenure as superintendents. The career paths and patterns of African American superintendents were analyzed using self reports of experiences leading to the superintendency. To examine the differences in prior and current school district characteristics, the following variables were examined: the financial support, demographic information about the school district's community, board of education, and teachers of the district. This chapter is divided into seven sections. Section one provides a general overview of descriptive survey research. The second section describes the design of this study. The selection of subjects is described in the third section. Instrumentation for the study is described in the fourth section. The fifth section provides descriptions about the data collection for the study. Data analysis is discussed in the sixth section. The final section identifies the limitations for the study. 
Introduction of Survey Research 
Survey methods are among the oldest techniques for conducting research (Dane, 1990; Rubin & Babbie, 1993). Survey research is a general description given to a variety of research methods that share a common goal--to produce statistics that are quantitative or numerical descriptions of some aspects of the study's population. The use of survey research involves obtaining information directly from groups or individuals. Furthermore, survey research may be utilized for descriptive, explanatory, and exploratory purposes (Rubin & Babbie, 1993). 
Survey research methodology involves obtaining information directly from the respondents by posing appropriate questions. The questions may be presented orally, on paper, or in some combination, but responses come from the persons to whom the question is addressed (Dane, 1990). Thus, the researcher and respondents are working together to collect data. The researcher asks the question and the respondent responds. 
Description is perhaps the most frequent purpose for survey methodology. There are three types of information that are obtained from survey participants: facts, opinions, and behaviors. Most surveys include all three types of information. The words used to described the different types of information may be familiar, but they have specific meanings in the context of survey methodology (Dane, 1990). The three types of content information: fact, opinions and behavior that are obtained from surveys are briefly described below. 
In survey research, facts are characteristics available to anyone who knows how to observe and interpret them. Often called demographic characteristics, facts may include variables such as age, race, gender, income, and education level. Facts are anything that can be verified independently (Dane, 1990). In some surveys, facts are a somewhat misleading label because respondents' self-reports are not accepted without independent verification (p. 122). 
Opinions in survey research are expression of a respondent's preference, feeling, or behavioral intention. Opinions can be measured objectively but cannot be verified independently. The major difference between facts and opinions concerns the agreement about the way in which the two can be operationally defined (Dane, 1990). 
The third type of content information gathered from surveys is behavior, which refers to an action completed by a respondent. Like facts, behaviors can be verified, but only ifa witness or indirect evidence can be obtained. Most surveys include all three types of information. Dane ( 1990) asserts, "there is a tendency to disregard distinction among them" (p. 123). 
Survey research is the appropriate mode of inquiry for making inferences about a large group ofpeople. The basic aim of survey research is to describe the variability of certain features of a population. The logic of survey research gives distinctive style to the research process; the type of instruments are determined by the information needed. For the purpose of this study, the researcher has chosen survey methodology as the mode of inquiry to examine the career paths and career patterns of African American superintendents. This methodology was appropriate to examine selected characteristics of the school districts prior to the appointment of the superintendents studied. 
There are three types of surveys: mail, telephone, and personal interview. Survey research has advantages and disadvantages to its applications. Marshall and Rossman (1989) note the relative advantages and disadvantages of survey research that are highlighted through the following criteria: (1) appropriateness of the method to the problem studied, (2) accuracy of measurement, 
(3) generalizability of findings, (4) administrative convenience, and (5) avoidance of ethical or difficulties in the research process (p. 84). 


Design of the Study 
The design of this study utilized a descriptive survey approach to examine the career paths and career patterns of current African American superintendents in the US. An additional focus examined the extent of selected characteristics of school districts prior to their appointment of the superintendents. In summary the purpose of descriptive research is to systematically describe the facts and characteristics of a given population accurately and factually (Isaac & Michael, 1991). Descriptive research "is the accumulation of a data base that is essentially descriptive..." (Isaac & Michael, 1981, p. 46). 
The use of survey methodology involving a questionnaire provided the researcher with a method of data collection that was efficient and systematic. It also allowed the study to include the entire population in the U.S. of African American superintendents. The data solicited was quantifiable and could be expressed in numerical values to facilitate data interpretation. The focus was primarily on factual information with only limited attention to opinions. The intent of this research study was to describe the career paths and career patterns ofAfrican American superintendents and the extent of selected characteristics of school districts prior to the superintendent's appointment. 
In Chapter I, three research questions that guided this study were identified. The following provides a delineation ofsubquestions to further define the study: 
1. 
What were the career paths and career patterns experiences of African American superintendents that led to their ascension to the position of superintendent? 

la. What formal academic preparation experiences are characteristic of 
African American superintendents? 
lb. What are the career path characteristics of African American 
superintendents? 
1c. What are the career pattern characteristics of African American 
superintendents? 


2. 
What was the nature of selected characteristics of the school district prior to 


and during their tenure as superintendent? 2a. What are the relationships between changes in district characteristics? 
3. What are the racial barriers perceived by those seeking the position of superintendent? 
3a. What are the common racial barriers faced by African Describe the 
racial barriers faced by African American superintendents? 3b. Are African American superintendents aware of sponsored mobility? 

Selection of Subjects 
The population identified for this study included all male and female African American superintendents serving in United States public schools during the 1996-97 school year. An African American superintendent was defined as a chief executive officer of a local public school system who was ofAfrican American ethnicity. The total population of these superintendents was analyzed as stratified samples that reflected different district types and sizes. Table 3.1 represents the states that had identifiable African American superintendents. The database for the selection of subjects was obtained from the founder of the National Black Alliance of School Educators during the fall of 1996. Furthermore, the list was updated from other national and state educational organizations to provide current data and eliminate the possibility of duplication. Initially the list contained 223 superintendents. Responses which indicated changes in appointments resulted in a current population of only 205 superintendents. 
Procedures involved seeking responses from the entire population. 
Responses were reviewed and special effort made to survey minimum numbers in all six geographic regions and representing large, medium and small districts as well as all kinds of communities. 
The survey questionnaire designated a response rate of 52%. Reminder cards were sent to all not responding by the designated time. With a response rate of approximately 48%, telephone calls were utilized to selectively encourage further responses from various regions and types of districts. The final results of responses are shown in Table 3.2. 
Table 3.1 
IDENTIFIED AFRICAN AMERICAN SUPERINTENDENTS BY STATE AS OF FEBRUARY 1997 
Alabama-12  Mississippi -33  
Arkansas -5  Missouri -3  
California -18  New Jersey -22  
Colorado -1  New York-8  
Connecticut -3  North Carolina -7  
Delaware -2  Ohio -6  
District of Columbia -1  Oklahoma-0  
Florida -2  Rhode Inland -0  
Georgia -4  South Carolina -16  
Illinois -16  Texas -10  
Indiana -4  Tennessee -2  
Louisiana -2  Virginia -5  
Maryland -2  Washington -1  
Michigan -15  Wisconsin -3  
Minnesota -1  U.S. Virgin Islands -1  

69 

Table 3.2 
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES 
Re~ion  Frequency  Percent  
North East  15  14.1 %  
North Central  29  27.3 %  
South  38  35.8 %  
South East  17  16.0 %  
Far West  7  6.6%  

Total responses 106 Total 100.0% 
STATES BY REGION (RESPONSES) 
North East  North Central  South  South East  Far West  
Connecticut 1 Delaware 1 Maryland 1 New Jersey 10 New York 2  Illinois 14 Indiana 2 Michigan 6 Ohio 5 Wisconsin 2  Alabama Arkansas Florida Loui siana Mississippi Texas Tennessee  4 1 1 1 20 9 2  D. of C. 1 N. Carolina 6 S. Carolina 7 Virginia 3  California Colorado  6 1  
Sub Total 15  29  38  17  7  

Instrumentation 
In designing and refining the questions for the survey instrument, the researcher reviewed several instruments that were applicable to this study (Holliman, 1996; Shepherd, 1996; AASA, 1992; Hudson, 1991; Burnham, 1989; Jones, 1985; Moody; 1971). Items from these instruments were modified and incorporated into the instrumentation design. Additionally, the researcher incorporated technical strategies for questionnaire design advocated by a variety of noteworthy sources (Fink, 1995; Fowler, 1993; Rubin & Babbie, 1993; Foddy, 1993; Isaac & Michael, 1981). The instrumentation utilized in this study consisted of a single descriptive survey questionnaire. The descriptive survey questionnaire was developed, pilot-tested, revised, and mailed to all the 223 superintendents in the population. The descriptive survey questionnaire consisted of four sections with a total of 32 questions: (1) Biographical data on each superintendent was collected; (2) selected of career paths and career patterns ofeach superintendent, details regarding the selected characteristics of each superintendent's school district and school board members, and prior and current demographics. The final section contained a question that requested each superintendent to reflect on the racial barriers faced by those seeking the position of superintendent. 
The instrumentation utilized in this study consisted of two types of questioning: closed-ended and opened-ended. Questions 1-31 utilized closed­ended questions. The content of these questions focused on factual responses from the participants. The goal of these questions was to have each participant respond accurately. Question 32 was an open-ended question constructed to elicit a personal reflection from each participant. The researcher felt that this type of questioning was appropriate because of the wide range of responses anticipated. Review and Pilot Study 
A draft of the survey questionnaire was developed by the researcher under the guidance of members of the dissertation committee and reviewed by six educational administrators. The six reviewers were requested to critique the items for clarity, ease in completion of the survey items, and adequacy of the content of the questions in obtaining the information desired to answer the research questions. Based on the feedback from the six reviewers, the instrument was modified, edited and revised. The researcher faxed the revised survey questionnaire to Charles Moody, Sr., a noted researcher on African American superintendents for an extensive review. After survey instrument refinement, a pilot study was undertaken. 
A pilot study was conducted to gather information for the following purposes: (1) to gather data regarding the internal reliability ofquestionnaire items, (2) to identify questionnaire items that needed to be added or deleted, and 
(3) to check for clarity of instruction. The pilot study was conducted by administering the descriptive survey questionnaire to a panel consisting of a total of five educational researchers and former superintendents. Each participant in the pilot study was given a cover letter describing the proposed study and a copy of the survey instrument. The cover letter for the pilot study explained the purpose of the study and requested the subject's participation. The participants were requested to answer each item and comment on the appropriateness and clarity of the survey instrument. Each participant in the pilot study completed and returned the survey instrument. None of the respondents indicated any difficulty in completing the items in the questionnaire. The analysis of the pilot study data was done by the researcher and a research consultant to determine the reliability ofthe each survey item in the questionnaire. Data gathered from the pilot study revealed that each item thoroughly and appropriately assessed the characteristics it intended to measure. Each survey item demonstrated a lack of response bias. The respondents did not offer any suggestions regarding the addition or deletions of questions, the clarification of instructions, or improvements in format. 


Data Collection 
Packets of information pertaining to the study were mailed to each participant. Each packet included a cover letter, a copy of the survey instrument, and a postage paid self-addressed return envelope. The cover letter was individually signed by the researcher. Each survey was coded with an ID number to ensure the confidentiality of participants and provide a system for data tracking. The packets were mailed during the second week of February 1997. Prior to the mail out, materials were weighed at the US Postal Service to ensure that packets and return envelopes had adequate postage to enhance the proper handling to the participants. (See Appendix A and Appendix B for Cover Letter and Copy of Questionnaire.) 
A reminder card was mailed to all non-respondents 14 days (first week in March) after the initial mailing. The card emphasized the importance ofthe study 
and the desirability of a high rate of response. (See Appendix C for Reminder 
Card.) To increase the response rate, telephone calls were placed to non­respondents to encourage each superintendent to respond to the survey during the third week of March. A personalized thank you note was sent to each respondent upon receipt of the completed survey expressing the researcher's gratitude for their timely response to the survey instrument. 
The response rate is the number who respond divided by the number of eligible respondents. The researcher was optimistic for a high response rate for several reasons. First, the superintendents who were surveyed were well­educated professionals and should have no problem understanding the questions posed. Questions were well thought-out and written in a logical manner. Also, the results of the study were likely to be of personal interest to the participants. However, some non-response was inevitable and anticipated by the researcher. Rubin's & Babbie's (1993) review of the literature revealed a wide range of response rates for adequate analysis and reporting. Furthermore, the authors stated that a response rate of at least fifty percent or better is usually considered adequate for analysis and reporting. 

Data Analysis 
Data analysis is the process of making coherent meaning out of the raw data collected. Efficient management of the raw data is required, or the researcher will be overwhelmed with data. It is task of the researcher to organize the data into a workable format. This survey is designed to be descriptive in nature; however, there are some qualitative elements that were included to elicit the "voice" of the participants. 
Each returned questionnaire was scanned for completeness and assigned an identification number. The assigned identification numbers were used for monitoring the response rate. Additionally, the identification number for each participant was used to facilitate follow-up mailings and personal telephone calls to non-respondents. The use of this coding system allowed for efficient manipulation of the raw data (Rubin & Babbie, 1993). 
The participants' responses to the questionnaires were used for all data analyses and reporting. A code book was developed by the researcher for analyzing the responses to the questionnaire. Each response item on the questionnaire was assigned a code value to sort specific items for data analysis. The participant's individual response item raw score was given one to six space 
identifications in the code book depending on the response. A yes response on an 
individual item received a score of 1, and a no response received a score of0. Non-responses to survey items were deleted from data coding. Incomplete and missing response items were excluded from the statistical analysis. Responses to item #32 were used to add a qualitative element to the study. The responses to this item were reported verbatim, with patterns or themes emerging across the group for data reporting. 
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the quantitative data. SPSS is a data management and analysis software product. The descriptive statistics programs was used to analyze the data. Frequencies, means, ranges, and standard deviations were determined for independent samples in examing the relationship of variables. Career Path and Pattern Analysis 
Career paths were identified from the analysis of the reported experiences prior to becoming superintendent from item #7 Career Path Sequence of Assignments. A career path is defined as series of career steps leading to the superintendency that consist of a specific set of sequentially held educational positions (Burnham, 1989). An example of a typical career path would consist of: 
teacher ---t assistant principal ---t principal ---t central office ---t assistant superintendent ---t superintendent. The assignment data were analyzed for commonalties in career path sequences. Commonalties consisted ofthe number of 
assignments, length ofassignments, and number ofrepetition in assignments. Additionally, a Chi square analysis was used to reveal differences between graduates ofhistorically Black colleges and universities and non-graduates ofthose institutions with respect to their career path commonalities. 
Career patterns were analyzed using the data from items #1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6, #10, #26, #27, #28, #29, #30, and #31. A career pattern is defined as set of group or individuals identifiable characteristics. Examples of career patterns for this study include the following but are limited to: age of first superintendency; number of different school districts employed throughout career; highest degree earned; and salary range. Frequencies, means, and standard deviations were used to examine the extent of variables of career patterns of African American superintendents in the population. Selected School District Characteristics Analysis 
Prior and current selected school district characteristics were analyzed from items #11, #12, #13, #14, #15, #16, #17, #18, #19, #20, #21, #22, #23, #24, 
and #25. For the purpose of this study selected school district characteristics 
included: (1) number of schools in the district, (2) operating expense per-pupil, 
(3) student enrollment, (4) ethnic percentage ofthe students, (5) racial and gender of school board members, ( 6) racial identity of teachers, and (7) racial composition ofthe community. The data from the sample was analyzed using frequencies, means, standard deviation to measure relationships between each prior and current selected school district characteristic. Mentorship/S ponsorship Analysis 
For this study mentorship/sponsorship was measured by survey items #8 and #9. Mentorship/Sponsorship is defined as formal or informal engagement in a professional relationship with an individual or individuals to provide career assistance, offer advice, and guidance for career mobility (Little, 1980). The data from the sample were analyzed using frequencies and means ofthe survey items. Validity 
Validity refers to the degree to which a survey instrument assesses what it purports to measure (Fink, 1995). Each participant in the present study received the same set of questions. An effort was made to ensure that the questions were analyzed and interpreted in the same manner for all participants. The researcher used closed-ended questions to solicit answers that would be appropriate for the focus of the study. Additionally, the researcher used an open-ended question to solicit the kind ofresponse that was desired for that particular theme. Because the descriptive survey was conducted by mail, interviewer bias was not a concern. 
Fowler (1993) identified four basic reasons why survey respondents might not report information with less than perfect accuracy for data analysis and reporting. The reasons were: a lack of knowledge about issues or concerns, problems with recall of information, questions not reviewed for clarity and understanding, and report of sensitive items. However, these were not considered to be problems in this study. Rationale for Survey Questions 
The survey instrument was developed to describe selected conditions of African American superintendents identified in the literature. These conditions were: (1) career paths and career patterns, (2) selected characteristics of school district, current and prior to appointment, (3) biographical data, and (4) perceived racial barriers. 
Section I Career Paths and Career Patterns 
Responses to Section I and III of the survey instrument were used to answer Research Question 1: What were the career path and career patterns experiences of African American superintendents that led to their ascension to the position of superintendent? The career patterns of African American superintendents were analyzed in terms of career paths and educational positions. Career paths and career patterns were examined in questions 1-7 in terms of several separate but related dimensions. The dimensions include the following: 
• 	
Number of school districts employed throughout career. 

• 	
Years ofservice as a classroom teacher. 

• 	
Number of school districts served as superintendent. 

• 	
Number of years in current superintendency. 

• 	
Sequence of educational positions held (e.g., elementary teacher, secondary teacher, assistant principal, principal...superintendent). 


Questions 8 and 9 in the questionnaire were designed to gather information about sponsorship or mentorship. The importance of having a sponsor or mentor is highlighted in the literature. Also emphasized in the literature is the perception of a "Good Old Boy/Girl" network in the selection of superintendents. The questions required a yes or no response. They are as follows: 
• 	
Is there a "Good Old Boy/Girl" network in your state that helps individuals get positions as superintendents? 

• 	
Have you actively sponsored other African Americans who aspire to the 


superintendency? Additional information on the career paths and career patterns were addressed in questions 26-31. The following information was gathered from the respondents: 
• 	
Gender of respondents 

• 	
Place of birth of respondents 

• 	
Martial status of respondents 

• 	
Highest earned educational degree 

• 	
Graduate ofa historically Black college or university 

• 
Salary range of the respondents Responses to Section II of the survey instrument answered Research Question 


2: What was the nature of selected characteristics of the school district prior to their appointment as superintendent? The selected characteristics of the superintendent's school district were used to analyze prior and current status. 
Questions were asked about selected characteristics to provide a better understanding about the general conditions of school districts for prospective African American superintendents. The selected characteristics analyzed were: 
• 
Number of schools in district 

• 
Gender and ethnicity ofpredecessor 

• 
Operating expense per pupil 

• 
Student enrollment 

• 
Ethnic and racial demographics ofschool district 

• 
Ethnic, racial identity and gender of school board 

• 
Ethnic and racial identity ofteachers 

• 
Ethnic and racial identity ofcommunity served 


Responses to Section IV ofthe survey instrument answered Research Question 3: What are the perceived barriers faced by those seeking the position of superintendent? The information gathered from this question provided data concerning perceived racial barriers facing African Americans seeking the superintendency. 

Limitations 
There are several limitations to this research study. First, the study is limited by the design, researcher bias, and the selection of the participants. The goal of this descriptive survey is to provide rich description about the career path and career pattern experiences for current African American superintendents. An additional focus examines the extent of characteristics of school districts prior to their appointment as superintendent. 
The survey response is dependent on the willingness of the respondents to share and return personal information. The collection of data is dependent upon the willingness of the participants to share personal information about their career paths, career pattern experiences and the extent of selected conditions of their school districts with the researcher. 
Second, in documenting the rich description, researcher bias may occur in the processing of information, data gathering, and drawing conclusions. As an African American, the researcher acknowledges his association with a study referencing African American superintendents. However, this bias is viewed as an asset and not as a hindrance. The survey will provide a foundation for quantitative and qualitative research on African American superintendents. 
The selection of the population of African American superintendents posed a number of concerns: (1) the number of African American superintendents may fluctuate with the employment of the participants during the 1996-97 school year; and (2) there are limitations on the thoroughness of the national survey list. Despite, the researchers best effort to update the accuracy of the national survey list for actual employed African American superintendent for the 1996-97 school year, there was a variance for actual employed African American superintendents and the national survey list. 
Chapter IV 
Findings of the Study 

The purpose of this study was to examine the career paths and patterns of African American superintendents and to describe the extent of selected characteristics found in their school districts prior to and during their tenure as superintendents. The career paths and patterns of African American superintendents were analyzed using self reports of experiences leading to the superintendency. To examine the differences in prior and current school district characteristics, the following variables were examined: operating expense per pupil, demographic information about the school district's community, board of education, and teachers of the district. Specifically, the study was based on the following research questions: 
1. What were the career paths and career pattern experiences of African American 
superintendents leading to their ascension to the position of superintendent? 1a. What formal, academic preparation experiences are characteristic of African American superintendents? 1 b. What are the career paths that characterize African American superintendents? 
le. What are the career patterns that characterize African American superintendents? 
2. What was the nature of selected characteristics of the school district prior to 
and during their tenure as superintendent? 2a. What are the relationships between changes in school district characteristics? 
3. What are the racial barriers perceived by those seeking the position of 
superintendent? 3a. What are the most and least common racial barriers faced by African American superintendents? 3b. Are African American superintendents aware of sponsored mobility? The four sections of this chapter present an analysis ofthe data gathered 
from the descriptive questionnaire that was initially mailed to participants in February 1997. Responses to survey questions are presented and analyzed in the order ofthe descriptive questionnaire. Tables and figures are used extensively to report the data from the analyses throughout this chapter. The questionnaire contained one open-ended question that is also analyzed in a qualitative format. Section one provides biographical data on the population of the study. The survey results are presented in section two, which provide a statistical analysis to answer the research questions mentioned above and delineated in chapter three. The final section provides a summary of the findings. 
The study involved male and female African American superintendents serving in the United States public school systems during the 1996-97 school year. Returned responses indicated changes in appointments that resulted in a current and usable population of 202 superintendents. Of the 202 superintendents contacted by mail, 106 were returned for a usable return rate of 
52.4 percent. Data was gathered through a self-administered questionnaire that was mailed to each superintendent in February 1997. Note: all percentages in the tables have been rounded to the second decimal place. 


Biographical Data 
The survey respondents were primarily male; ages ranged between 42-70. The typical career path of teacher, principal, central office heavily dominates the African American superintendent (AASA, 1992). Each of these career steps requires training and years of experience. Table 4.1 shows the age ofall the respondents. The mean ofthe respondents was 53.5. Respondents ranged in age from 42 to 70. The age group that represented the highest frequency was between age 50-54. 
Table 4.1 AGE OF RESPONDENTS 

Age Group of Respondents  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
No Response  17  16  
40-44  6  5.6  
45-49  17  16  
50-54  29  27.4  
55-59  24  22.6  
60-64  8  7.4  
65-69  4  3.7  
70 and over  I  .9  
Total  106  100.0  

Mean 53 Maximum 71 Table 4.2 illustrates the distribution of survey respondents based on gender. Eighty-five (80.2%) of the respondents were male and twenty-one (19.8%) of the respondents were female. The statistics representing gender are less pronounced than the typical disparity between minority female and males superintendents found in public schools in the United States (AASA, 1992). In 
the 1992 Study of the American School Superintendency: America's Leaders in a Time of Reform respondents were (93%) males and (7%) female. 
Table 4.2 GENDER OF RESPONDENTS 

Gender  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
Male  85  80.2  
Female  21  19.8  
Total  106  100  

Table 4.3 represents the distribution of the survey respondents based on current marital status. Most of the respondents (83%) were married. Only sixteen (17%) were single, divorced, separated, widowed, or other. (AASA, 1992) suggested that superintendents may be expected to be a role model in terms of family values. This reason may explain the high rate of married superintendents for the respondents in this study. The 83% of current married African Americans is somewhat lower than all superintendents (92%) in the United States. 
Table 4.3 
MARITAL STATUS 
Marital Status  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
Single  1  .9  
Divorced/Separated  13  12.3  
Widowed  3  2.8  
Married  88  83.0  
Other  1  .9  
Total  106  100.0  

Respondents were asked to indicate the highest degree earned. The respondents were given the following choices: Bachelor ofArts/Bachelor of Science; Master ofArts/ Master of Science; Master ofEducation; Specialist; Doctor ofEducation, and Doctor of Philosophy. While the required educational degree for most superintendent positions across the United States is a master's degree, 68.9 percent of the survey respondents had a doctoral degree. These figures represent a pattern far exceeding that ofthe total superintendent group in the United States according to AASA (1992), which reported that a total of 36 percent held doctoral degrees. Table 4.4 provides information on the highest 
degree held by respondents. Fifty-two (49.2%) held Ed. D.'s, and twenty-one (19.8%) held Ph. D.'s. 
Table 4.4 
HIGHEST DEGREE HELD 
Degree Held  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
BA/BS  1  .9  
MA/MS  6  5.7  
M.Ed.  12  11.3  
Specialist  13  12.3  
Ed.D  52  49.2  
Ph.D.  21  19.8  
Other  I  .9  
Total  106  100  

The respondents were asked to indicate if they were graduates of a historically Black college or university. (See Appendix D for a list of historically Black colleges and universities.) Sixty-one (58%) of the respondents indicated that they were graduates of this type of college or university. Forty-five (42.5%) 
ofthe respondents indicated they were not graduates of historically Black colleges or universities. 
Table 4.5 
GRADUATES OF IDSTORICALLY BLACK COLLEGES 
AND UNIVERSITIES 

Responses  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
No  45  42.5  
Yes  61  57.5  
Total  106  100.0  

Table 4.6 illustrates the salary range of all respondents. The salary range was between $40,000 as a minimum to more than $129,000. The most frequent category of the respondents was $100,000 to $110,000. This finding shows an increase in salaries for African American superintendents' salaries compared to Hudson's (1991) study, which indicated the most frequent range was $40,000 to $49,999. In addition, the respondents were also higher than the AASA (1992) study, which indicated the most frequent salary range was above $49,000. 
Table 4.6 
SALARY CATEGORIES OF RESPONDENTS 
Salary Categories  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
No Response  2  1.8  
$40,000-$49,000  1  .9  
$50,000-$59,000  7  6.6  
$60,000-$69,000  14  13.2  
$70,000-$79 ,000  8  7.5  
$80,000-$89,000  18  17.0  
$90,000-$99,000  13  12.3  
$100,000-$ 110,000  19  17.9  
$120,000-$129 ,000  9  8.5  
More than $129,000  15  14.2  
Total  106  100  


Type of Positions Held Prior to Superintendency 
Respondents were asked to indicate the sequence of the positions they had served in before they secured their first superintendency. Table 4.7 shows the positions held by respondents. Classroom Positions 
A higher percentage of respondents had been employed as secondary classroom teachers (70.8%) than elementary classroom teachers (40.6%). Some of the secondary teachers had served as elementary classroom teacher also. Only (4.7%) of the respondents were employed as teacher aides. Additionally the 
respondents indicated that (20.8%) were employed as a counselor, and (19.8%) 
held supervisory positions on their first path to the superintendency. 
Building Level Positions 

At the building level, the respondents indicated that (52.8%) had served as secondary principals compared to (38.7%) as elementary principals. The respondents also indicated that ( 51.9%) had served as assistant secondary principals compared to ( 15.1 % ) as assistant principals. Central Office Positions 
The respondents indicated that (30.2%) held director or coordinator positions at the central office. In addition to those positions, high level central office positions were held by (17.9%) of the respondents. While (51.9%) percent of the respondents held the position of assistant superintendent. 
Table 4.7 POSITIONS HELD PRIOR TO THE SUPERINTENDENCY 

Positions held by Respondents  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
Teacher Aide  5  4.7  
Elementary Teacher  43  40.6  
Secondary Teacher  75  70.8  
Counselor  22  20.8  
Supervisor  21  19.8  
Ass't. Elem. Principal  14  15.1  
Ass't. Sec. Principal  55  51.9  
Elementary Principal  41  38.7  
Secondary Principal  56  52.8  
Director-Coordinator  32  30.2  
High-Level Central Off.  19  17.9  
Ass't. Superintendent  55  51.9  
Other  24  22.6  

Career Paths 
The career paths designated for this study are those similar to Burnham (1989) in her national superintendents study. However, the researcher added several additional positions for analysis. The additional individual positions were combined to create a limited number of designations. These were then used to produce simplified career path groupings. Those additional positions are underlined in the descriptions below. 
Career Path Position Designations 
(
1) The teacher assistant designation for all career paths includes individuals serving in the following roles: elementary teaching assistant, secondary teaching assistant, and Title I assistant. 

(2) 
Teacher designation for all career paths includes individuals serving in the following roles: elementary teacher, secondary teacher, and any combination ofthose categories (e.g., elementary and secondary teacher). 

(3) 
Principal designation for all career paths include individuals serving in the following roles: elementary principal, secondary principal, and/or both elementary and secondary levels. 

(
4) Assistant principal designation for all career paths includes individuals serving in the following roles: elementary assistant principal, secondary assistant principal, and/or assistant principal at both the elementary and secondary levels. 

(5) 
Mid-level non principal positions include individuals in one or more of these categories: (a) counselor, (b) department chair, (c) head teacher, 

(
d) supervisor. 

(6) 
High-level central office positions include individuals serving in one or both ofthe following central office categories: director and coordinator. 

(7) 
Assistant superintendent designation for all career paths includes individuals serving in the following roles: assistant, associate, or deputy superintendent at the central office level. 

(8) 
The designation of Other for all career paths includes individual serving in the following roles: assistant professor, professor, director of a state educational agency, supervisor in a state educational agency, researcher, dean ofa college, consultant, and deputy chancellor. 


The findings from this study revealed 78 different career paths for the respondents (See Appendix E for a list of individual career paths). To allow for further analysis the researcher collapsed the 79 career paths into four major super career path groups following Burnham's (1989) model. Table 4.8 shows the respondents' individual career paths sorted under each of the four super career path groups. Path Group A: Traditional Short Route 
In Path Group A, the respondents served as either a teaching assistant, elementary teacher, secondary teacher, elementary or secondary assistant principal, or elementary or secondary principal but had no central office experience of any kind. This career path was the third most common of the four path, accounting for 28% of all respondents. Path Group B: Traditional Intermediate Route 
In Path Group B, the respondents served in one non teaching position other than assistant principal or principal before obtaining the superintendency. This was the most frequent career path of the four path groups, accounting for 40% of the respondents. Path Group C: Traditional Long Route 
Path Group C represents those respondents who came up through the ranks (Holliman, 1996; De Valcourt, 1991; Burnham, 1989). In this career path group, experiences included teaching and building administration positions along with one or more mid level positions as well as one or more high-level central office positions. This group was the second most frequented group by the respondents. It accounted for 30% of all respondents. Path Group D: Non-Traditional Route 
Path Group D was a unique and non traditional career path group. It is considered the shortest route to the superintendency. Burnham (1989) notes this group as the "fast track" group because the respondents in her study typically moved from teacher positions to a high-level central office positions prior to obtaining the superintendency. This group accounted for 2% of all African American respondents. By far, this was the least frequented ofthe four career path groups. 
Table 4.8 CAREER PATH GROUPS OF RESPONDENTS 

Path Group of Respondents Path Group A Path Group B Path Group C Path Group D Total  Number of Respondents 30 42 32 2 106  Percent of Respondents 28 40 30 2 100.0  

Table 4.9 shows the number of positions held by respondents prior to becoming superintendent. Path Group A respondents held an average of 3 positions. Path Group B respondents held an average of 4 positions. Path Group C respondents held an average of 6 positions. For respondents in Path Group D which was a unique and non-traditional career path group, the average position held was .5 prior to becoming a superintendent. 
Table 4.9 
NUMBER OF POSITIONS HELD BY PATH GROUP PRIOR TO THE SUPERINTENDENCY 
Path Group of Respondents  Number of Positions  Percent of Respondents  
Path Group A  3  28  
Path Group B  4  40  
Path Group c  6  30  
Path Group D  .5  2  
Total  100.0  

The number of years of service by each path group is shown in Table 4.10. For respondents in Path Group C the average number of years served in positions leading to the superintendency was 24 years. As noted earlier this path group was the traditional long route for the respondents. The average for Path Groups A and B was 22 years. Path Group D, the non-traditional route, had an average of one year for number of years in positions leading to the superintendency. 
Table 4.10 
NUMBER OF YEARS OF SERVICE BY PATH GROUP PRIOR TO THE SUPERINTENDENCY 
Path Group of Respondents  Years of Service  Percent of Respondents  
Path Group A  22  28  
Path Group B  22  40  
Path Group C  24  30  
Path Group D  I  2  
Total  100.0  

Table 4.11 shows the respondents career path group sorted by district type. Path Group A was the most dominant path group of the respondents from rural school districts. Path Groups A and B were found in equal numbers in urban, suburban, and rural school districts. Path Group C was the dominant path group in urban school districts. Path Group D which had only two respondents was found only in this path group. 
Table 4.11 
CAREER PATHS OF DISTRICT TYPE (Number of respondents) 

Urban  Suburban  Small  Rural  
Town  
Path Group A  5  3  4  18  
Path Group B  12  12  6  12  
Path Group C  22  6  2  2  
Path Group D  2  0  0  0  
Total  41  21  12  32  

Table 4.12 shows the career paths of gender. Males were found mostly in Path Group B followed by Path Groups A and C. Females were found mostly in Path Group C followed by Path Group B and A. 
Table 4.12 CAREER PATHS OF GENDER 

Path Group  Male  Female  
Path Group A  25  5  
Path Group B  33  6  
Path Group C  25  10  
Path Group D  2  0  
Total  85  21  

The age and career path ofrespondents are shown in Table 4.13. The respondents were divided in to two groups. The younger group was 51 years old or less and the elder group was 52 year old and more. The younger group was associated with mostly with Career Path Groups A and B. Career Path Groups B and C were mostly associated with the elder group. 
Table 	4.13 AGE AND CAREER PATH OF RESPONDENTS 

Path Group  Younger  Elder  
Path Group A  16 (15%)  14 (13.2%)  
Path Group B  15 (14.1%)  27 (25.4%)  
Path Group C  6 (5.6%)  26 (24.5%)  
Path Group D  0  2 (2.8%)  
Total  37  69  

The number ofrespondents who held no building level administrative experience is shown in Table 4.14. The number ofrespondents is shown by district type and percentage of district type. The respondents (5) in suburban school districts had the largest number (24%)of who held no building level administrative experience prior to becoming superintendent. 
Table 4.14 NO BUILDING LEVEL ADMINISTRATION EXPERIENCE 

Type of District Number of Respondent Urban 3 Suburban 5 Small Town 1 Rural 0 Total 9  Percent of District Type 2.8 23.8 8.3 0  

Table 4.15 shows the number and percentage of respondents who held instructional supervisory positions prior to becoming superintendents. Supervisory positions also included director and coordinator. The data revealed that 50 percent of the respondents had served in this type of position prior to the superintendency. 
TABLE 4.15 
RESPONDENTS WHO HELD INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISORY POSITIONS 
Position  Number of Respondent  Percent of  
Respondents  
Supervisor  21  19.8  
Director/Coordinator  32  30.2  
Total  53  50.0  

Table 4.16 shows the number of positions held by the respondents prior to the superintendency. The range for number of positions was 0-9. The majority of the respondents had 3 or more position changes prior to becoming superintendent. A point of note is the respondent who had no positions changes prior to becoming superintendent. This individual was in unique career path and did not move from the traditional career path route. 
Table 4.16 
NUMBER OF POSITIONS HELD BY RESPONDENTS PRIOR TO BECOMING SUPERINTENDENT 
Number of Positions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total  Number of Respondent 1 2 9 21 27 29 9 4 0 2 106  Percent of Respondents .9 1.8 8.4 19.8 25.4 29 8.4 3.7 0 1.8 100  

106 

Career Patterns 
The number of school districts the respondents have served m as an educator is shown in Table 4.17. Eighty-six (81.1 % ) of the 106 respondents had worked in two or more school districts as an educator during their careers. The statistical mean for this group was 2.88. This finding is consistent with AASA (1992), which found that 89.9% of its respondents had served in more than one school district during their careers. 
Table 4.17 NUMBER OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS EMPLOYED 

Number of  Number of  Percent of  
School Districts  Respondents  Respondents  
0  3  2.8  
1  17  16.0  
2  28  26.4  
3  26  24.5  
4  16  15.1  
5  11  10.4  
6  3  2.8  
7  2  1.9  
Total  106  100  
Mean 2.8  

Maximum 7 
Table 4.18 shows the years of classroom experience reported by the respondents. Classroom experience ranged from 1-22 years, with an average of 7 years served as a classroom teacher. 
Table 4.18 YEARS OF CLASSROOM EXPERIENCE 

Years of Service  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
0  4  3.8  
1-4  31  29.2  
5-9  46  43.4  
10-14  17  16.  
15-19  6  5.6  
20-20+  2  1.8  
Total  106  100.0  

Mean7 Maximum 22 As Table 4.19 shows, 80 respondents (75.5%) were serving in their first district as superintendent of school, 23 (21. 7%) had served in two or more school districts as superintendent. The mean for this group was 1.3. 
108 

Table 4.19 NUMBER OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS SERVED AS SUPERINTENDENT 
Number of School Districts  Number of Respondents  Percent of Resnondents  
 
0  3  2.8  
1  80  75.5  
2  18  17.0  
3  4  3.8  
9  1  .9  
Total  106  100.0  

Mean 1.3 Maximum 9 
Table 4.20 shows the age of the respondents when they assumed their first superintendency. The range was from ages 23-70. Sixty-one (57.6%) ofthe respondents reported assuming their first superintendency during the ages of 40­
49. The eldest respondent to assume the position was age 70. The mean for this group was 45. 
Table 4.20 
AGE ASSUMED FIRST SUPERTINDENCY 
Age of Respondents  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
No response  2  1.9  
20-29  3  2.7  
30-39  15  14.2  
40-49  61  57.5  
50-59  22  20.7  
60-69  2  1.9  
70 and over  1  .9  
Total  106  100.0  

Mean45 Maximum 70 
The superintendency is often perceived as a position with rapid turnover. The mean for length oftenure for the respondents was 6.2 years. These results are reflected in Table 4.21. This data is consistent with findings from AASA, (1992). This data implies that the average respondent is in his or her second contract. 
Table 4.21 NUMBER OF YEARS IN CURRENT SUPERINTENDENCY 

Years Served  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
No response  1  .9  
1  14  13 .2  
2  12  11.3  
3  16  15. 1  
4  18  17.0  
5  10  9.4  
6  7  6.6  
7  5  4.7  
8  6  5.7  
9  3  2.8  
10  4  3.8  
12  1  .9  
17  2  1.9  
20  2  1.9  
21  2  1.9  
25  1  .9  
44  1  .9  
60  1  .9  
Total  106  100.0  

Mean 6 Maximum 60 
Selection to the superintendency 
Respondents were asked to identify the group or individuals who managed the search process for their current superintendency. As Table 4.22 shows, 28 respondents (26.4%) used a professional search firm for their current superintendency. Seventy-eight respondents (73.6%) did not use a professional search firm for their current superintendency. 
Table 4.22 
USE OF PROFESSIONAL SEARCH FIRM FOR CURRENT SUPERINTENDENCY 
Profession Search Firm  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
No  78  73 .6  
Yes  28  26.4  
Total  106  100.0  

The respondents indicated that 20 (18.9%) used the State Board of Education Association for their current superintendency search process. Eighty-four respondents (79 .2) did not use a the State Board of Education for their current superintendency. 
Table 4.23 
USE OF STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION FOR CURRENT SUPERINTENDENCY 
State Board of Education Association  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
No Response  2  1.9  
No  84  79.2  
Yes  20  18.9  
Total  106  100.0  

Only three respondents (2.8%) indicated that they had used the state educational administration for their selection process (Table 4.24). One hundred-one (95.3%) did not use the State Educational Administration Association for their current superintendency. 
Table 4.24 
USE OF STATE EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION ASSOCIATION FOR CURRENT SUPERINTENDENCY 
State Ed. Admin. Association  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
No Response  2  1.9  
No  101  95 .3  
Yes  3  2.8  
Total  106  100.0  

Based on the responses, the local school board managed the selection process of 56 respondents (52.8%) for their current position (Table 4.25). Forty-nine respondents (46.2%) did not use the local school board for there current superintendency. The majority of the respondents were selected by this process for their current superintendency. 
Table 4.25 
USE OF LOCAL SCHOOL BOARD FOR CURRENT 
SUPERINTENDENCY 

Local School Board  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
No Response  1  .9  
No  49  46.2  
Yes  56  52.8  
Total  106  100.0  

Respondents also indicated other methods in the selection process (Table 4.26). Eighteen respondents (17%) indicated a method other than the professional search firm, State Board of Education Association, State Educational Administration Association, and local school boards. 
Table 4.26 
USE OF OTHER SELECTION PROCESS FOR CURRENT SUPERINTENDENCY 
Other  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
No Response  1  .9  
No  87  82. l  
Yes  18  17.0  
Total  106  100.0  

Characteristics of School Districts 
Respondents were asked to describe the type of district they served according to four categories: rural, small town, suburban, and urban. Table 4.27 details the type of districts they indicated. Two categories received the largest response: rural and urban. Of the 106 respondents, 3 3 (31 % ) indicated they served in a rural community, and 40 (37.7%) indicated they served in an urban district (Table 4.27). 
Table 4.27 
TYPES OF SCHOOL DISTRICT SERVED 
Size of School District  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
Rural  33  31.1  
Small Town  12  11.3  
Suburban  21  19.8  
Urban  40  37.7  
Total  106  100.0  

Table 4.27 shows that 59 of the respondents (55 .7%) were preceded in their current school district as superintendent by a white superintendent and 43 of the respondents (40.6%) replaced an African American superintendent. 
Table 4.28 
ETHNICITY OF PREDECESSOR 
Ethnicity  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
African American  43  40.6  
Asian American  0  0  
Hispanic  2  1.9  
Native American  I  .9  
White  59  55.7  
Other  I  .9  
Total  106  100.0  

A paired t-test was used to compare current and prior school district characteristics on the following: operating expense per-pupil, student enrollment, and ethnicity of the student population. Table 4.29 shows the status, mean, significance of difference for each selected school district characteristic. Note that only two of the selected school district characteristics had a statistically significant difference in current and prior means. The increase in the current and the prior operating expense per-pupil and the decrease in the enrollment ofWhite students were significant. 
Table 4.29 
RELATIONSIDP OF OPERATING EXPENSE, OVERALL STUDENT 
ENROLLMENT, AND STUDENT ETHNIC POPULATION 

Status  Characteristic  Mean  Correlation  2-Tailed Sienificance  
Current  Operating expense per-pupil  $ 4,527.69  .679  SIG  
Prior  $ 3 766.38  
Current Prior  Student enrollment  23,749 21 99 1  .990  NS  
Current  Ethnic Population  63.7  .823  NS  
Prior  African American  61.8  
Current  Ethnic Population  7.3  .911  NS  
Prior  Hispanic  6.6  
Current  Ethnic Population  22.8  .866  SIG  
Prior  White  26  
Current  Ethnic Population  2  .612  NS  
Prior  Asian American  1.3  
Current  Ethnic Population  .2  .526  NS  
Prior  Native American  .3  
Current  Ethnic Population  .9  .629  NS  
Prior  Other  1  

Respondents were asked to identify the percentage of the ethnic composition of the teachers in their school districts prior to and current. Based on the responses, the superintendents indicated that 49% of their current teachers were White; 41 % were African American; and 2% were Hispanic. A t-test revealed a significant difference in the statistical means for the current and prior African American teachers and White teachers, with small but significant increases in the number ofAfrican American and Hispanic teachers. A decline in the number of White teachers was noted (Table 4.30). 
Table 4.30 RELATIONSHIP OF CURRENT AND PRIOR TEACHER ETHNICITY 

Status  Ethnicity  Mean  Correlation  2-Tailed Significance  
Current  Ethnic Teachers  40.6  .891  SIG  
Prior  African American  38.l  
Current  Ethnic Teachers  2.3  .280  NS  
Prior  Hispanic  2.2  
Current  Ethnic Teachers  49.4  .899  SIG  
Prior  White  52 .2  
Current  Ethnic Teachers  .5  .130  NS  
Prior  Asian American  .6  
Current Prior  Ethnic Teachers Native American  0 . 1  .501  NS  
Current  Ethnic Teachers  .3  .307  NS  
Prior  Other  .2  

Respondents were asked to identify the current and the prior percentage of the ethnic composition ofthe community in their school districts. Based on the responses, the superintendents indicated that the composition of their communities was 36% White, 47% African American, 6% Hispanic, 1 % Asian American, .2% Native American, and .7% Other. At-test revealed a significant difference in the statistical means for the current and prior African American community composition. These figures are reported in Table 4.31. 
Table 4.31 
RELATIONSIDP BETWEEN CURRENT AND PRIOR ETHNIC 
COMMUNITY CHARACTERISTICS 

Status  Characteristic  Mean  Correlation  2-Tailed Significance  
Current  Ethnic Community  46.8  .909  SIG  
Prior  African American  44.5  
Current  Ethnic Community  6.2  .900  NS  
Prior  Hispanic  5.8  
Current  Ethnic Community  36.5  .877  NS  
Prior  White  36.7  
Current  Ethnic Community  1.4  .763  NS  
Prior  Asian American  .8  
Current  Ethnic Community  .2  .973  NS  
Prior  Native American  .2  
Current Prior  Ethnic Community Other  .7 I  .792  NS  

Table 4.32 shows data to determine the means and relationship between female and male school board membership. Respondents were asked to identify the current and prior percentage of the ethnic composition of the school board in their school districts. The following table reveals the means for each female and male ethnic group. Note that there was a was a significant difference in the statistical means for current and prior African American school board members. 
Table 4.32 
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENT AND PRIOR SCHOOL BOARD 
MEMBERSHIP 

Status  Characteristic  Mean  Correlation  2-Tailed Si1mificance  
Current Prior  School Board Member Afr American females  1.5 1.1  .639  SIG  
Current Prior  School Board Member Afr American males  2.1 2.0  .651  NS  
Current Prior  School Board Member Hispanic females  .12 .1  .621  NS  
Current Prior  School Board Member Hispanic males  .07 .06  .388  NS  
Current Prior  School Board Member White females  .8 .9  .501  NS  
Current Prior  School Board Member White males  1.7 1.9  .742  NS  
Current Prior  School Board Member As American females  0 0  99.00099  NS  
Current Prior  School Board Member As American males  .03 .01  .700  NS  
Current Prior  School Board Member Na American females  0 0  99.00099  NS  
Current Prior  School Board Member Na American males  .01 0  -.010  NS  
Current Prior  School Board Member Other females  .0094 .0094  -.010  NS  
Current Prior  School Board Member Other males  .0094 .0000  99.000099  NS  

Afr= African Amencan As = Asian Amencan Na = Native Amencan 
Respondents were asked to indicate "yes", "no" or "don't know" if they were aware of a "Good Old Boy/Girl" network in their state that might help individuals get positions as superintendents (Table 4.33). The findings for this question show that 52 respondents ( 49 .1 % ) indicated they were aware of this type of network. Forty-four (41.5%) of the respondents indicated they didn't 
know, and ten (9.4%) indicated that they were not aware of the "Good Old Boy/Girl" network in their state. 
Table 4.33 PERCEIVED GOOD OLD BOY/GIRL NETWORK 

Response  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
Yes  52  49.1  
No  JO  9.4  
Don't Know  44  41.5  
Total  106  100.0  

Respondents were asked if they had actively sponsored other African Americans who were aspiring to the position of superintendent (Table 4.34). The finding for this question shows that 73 (68.9%) indicated sponsorship of other African Americans who had aspirations of obtaining the superintendency position and 32 (30.2%) did not. 
Table 4.34 
SPONSORSHIP OF AFRICAN AMERICANS 
Response  Number of Respondents  Percent of Respondents  
No Response  1  .9  
No  32  30.2  
Yes  73  68 .9  
Total  106  100.0  


Additional Findings 
In this chapter, frequency tables and t-test results were used to present the responses given to individual survey questions. In addition to the previously mentioned analyses, a crosstabulation analysis was used to examine the following gender variables: size of school district, degree, marital status, and age. The intent of this analysis was to explore and discuss trends related the to these variables. 
A crosstabulation was done to analyze the relationship between gender and the size of school district. The statistical analysis revealed that females were clustered in the cell representing suburban and urban school districts. A significant number of males were clustered in cells representing rural and urban school districts. The results are found in Table 4.35. 
Table 4.35 
GENDER FOR SIZE OF SCHOOL DISTRICT 
Gender  Rural  Small Town  Suburban  Urban  Row Total  
Male  29  12  13  31  85 80.2%  
Female  4  0  8  9  21 19.8%  
Column Total  33 31.1%  12 11.3%  21 19.8%  40 37.7%  106 100.0%  

Chi-Sguare Significance 8.7942 .0322 
A crosstabulation was used to analyze the relationship between gender and marital status. A significant number of males were clustered in cells representing rural and urban school districts. It is interesting to note the significant statistical difference in cells representing females marital status. The cells for the females, while predominantly married as were males, revealed more incidence ofnon-married categories. Results are shown in Table 4.36. 
Table 4.36 RELATIONSIDP OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MARITAL STATUS 
Gender  Single  Div/Sep  Widowed  Married  Row Total  
Male  0  7  2  76  85 80.2%  
Female  1  6  1  12  20 19.8%  
Column Total  1 .9%  13 12.3%  3 2.8%  88 83.0%  105 100.0%  

Chi-Square D.F. Si~ficance 12.51275 3 .008 
A crosstabulation revealed no significant statistical difference between 
educational level ofmales and females. The results are shown in Table 4.3 7. 
Table 4.37 
RELATIONSmP OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IDGHEST DEGREE AND GENDER 
Gender  Other  BA/BS  MAIMS  M.Ed  Spec  Ed.D  Ph.D  Row Total  
Male  1  0  5  11  11  39  18  85 80.2%  
Female  0  1  1  1  2  13  3  21 19.8%  
Column  1  1  6  12  13  52  21  106  
Total  .9%  .9%  5.7%  11.3%  12.3%  49.1%  19.8%  100.0%  

Chi-Square  D.F.  Siiruificance  
6.7723  6  .3424  
125  


Qualitative Data 
The questionnaire contained one open-ended question that asked participants to briefly write about the perceived racial barriers facing African Americans seeking superintendency positions. Specifically, the purpose of the open-ended question was to elicit the "voices" of African American superintendents regarding racial barriers facing African Americans seeking the superintendency. 
This section contains a summary of comments made by 66% of the participants. The responses to item #32 are reported verbatim, with patterns and themes emerging from these responses. Emerging patterns and themes were grouped according to the preponderance of certain words used by respondents in their answers. The respondents "voiced" the following comments regarding their perceptions ofbarriers facing African American seeking superintendency positions. 
Responses to Question 32 
What are the perceived racial barriers facing African American seeking 
superintendency positions? 
• 
No perceived racial barriers 

• 
Lack of mobility 

• 
Networking 

• 
Boards of Education 

• 
Preparation and competence 

• 
Opportunities 

• 
Stereotypes 

• 
Discrimination 

• 
Lack of support 

• 
Unrealistic Expectation 


No perceived racial barriers 
(
5) responses 

(14) 
responses 

(12) 
responses 

(
14) responses 

(13) 
responses 

(
11) responses 

(6) 
responses 

(8) 
responses 

(8) 
responses 

(5) 
responses 


003 	The number of black superintendents in Mississippi is growing rapidly. Therefore there are no racial barriers from my perspective. It there is a barrier at all, it is a lack ofpreparation. It you wish to become a 
superintendent, you must be willing to pay your dues starting in the 
classroom and working your way through the system. It is also important 
to stay in one school district and not move around. 
009 	None 
083 I am not aware of any perceived racial barriers. 181 None 
223 	I'm not convinced that there are racial barriers opposing Black-Americans seeking superintendency positions. 

Lack of Mobility 
014 Limited mobility for African American candidates is a reality because we are still unofficially confined to urban/majority black populated districts. 030 Our options are limited to small rural African American school districts. We have to be male or very fair skinned. 033 Black superintendents are primarily hired only in predominately black school districts. 
036 African Americans are generally shut out of the superintendency until 
district is heavily minority with declining test scores, funding, and community support. 
064 	Lack of desire to move (often have strong community ties church, family, etc.) 
069 	Usually we are selected to serve districts with financial problems. 
075 Mobility/marriage issues; 105 African American tend to be limited to school district with a majority African American. 107 African American are still largely employed in districts with a high occurrence ofproverb and limited financial resources these districts also are among those that perform the lowest on academic tests. 118 Urban versus suburban; majority white school boards; majority white community, majority white student population. 145 Accessibility to district classified as white is limited. You're are apt to secure a "Black" District than non-Black. Black District are more likely to have poor achievement, financial problems, and a high indigency. 
170 There is a perception that an African American can only be the superintendent of a district that is primary minority. 196 African American superintendents seem to always become supt. in school districts that are in financial and academic trouble. 
199 	The idea that African Americans can only run a school district after there is an economic and educational decline in the school setting. In my area black superintendents are hired only after the whites have drained everything out, supposedly. 

Networking 
057 	African American superintendents are small in number which affects the networking or any semblance of the "good ole boy" syndrome, thus thwarting opportunity for movement 
064 	Old networks do still exist 
066 	Search firms are not pushing African Americans. 
075 	lack of mentors and advocates; 
088 	The lack of a viable network of African Americans for recruiting and advocating for African American candidates to the superintendency appears to be a hurdle. 
089 	not part of the Good old Boys Network; 
105 	African American superintendent African American superintendents do not have as efficient a safety network to help them obtain a second superintendency after having their first as white superintendents do. 
108 Search process; 
126 difficult to be part of the good old boys network. 
147 Networking, knowing where the jobs are. 
156 Few opportunities to network with sitting superintendents. 
235 Lack of internal networking and inside knowledge. 

Boards of Education 
029 	Imbalance in boards of education: Mostly white males, Racism. A lack of diversity on boards of education. 
044 	The limited number of African American accepted for superintendency positions is a clear indication of reservation on the part ofcontrolling Boards of Education. 
05 6 	Most boards ofeducation are made up of white males who select superintendents like themselves. 
064 	Large percentage of Boards still predominantly white male. 
066 Majority white Board are not hiring African Americans. 073 biased attitudes by certain school boards 075 Boards ofEducation. 103 Most Boards appear to be more concerned about how to satisfy the business community and those that do not have children in school. If supt. can satisfy the upper-class parent and power leader and can relate. That in their experience and interview they may have a chance, other wise Board members regardless of color will be very hesitant to hire. 105 African American tend to be limited to school district with a majority African American. School boards are still made up primarily ofwhite males. African American superintendent African American superintendents do not have as efficient a safety network to help them 
obtain a second superintendency after having their first as white superintendents do. 
118 	majority white school boards 
120 	A reluctance by some boards and communities to consider elevating a minority to the top position. Also, a fear of doing something not previously done. 
178 	Unfortunately boards are usually made up of whites! 
180 Board perceive that African American candidates are only appropriate when the majority of students in the systems are African American. 214 A lack of strong Board members who are willing to openly provide employment opportunities for African Americans. 
Preparation and Competence 
033 	Ifthere is a barrier at all, it is a lack of preparation. 
044 	Consequently, the perception would be that African Americans lacks experience at the various levels. A further perception is that African Americans must be overly prepared to perform as Superintendent. 
057 	Many feel that African American superintendents competence is suspect; yet most advanced degrees are awarded from predominantly Caucasian graduate schools. 
066 Majority white communities are not interested in African Americans supt. regardless of academic prep. Perception African Americans are not equal with the tools address high achieving children. 081 There are a lack of qualified interested candidates for central offices positions of the supt.' s position. 089 lack of experiences in central office and building level. 108 lack of degree (professional); 132 Preparedness, opportunity. No matter what other considerations you throw into the equation it all comes back to one and two above. 174 Blacks (African Americans) are only effective in all African American or predominately African American systems. Lack of a true since of educational philosophy. Poor budget skills. Will not plan thoroughly for long range planning, budgets, curriculum, facilities, etc. A non-minority population will respond positively to African American leadership, a fear of a backlash from the community. Prevailing fear that the quality of 
services will decline. Social prejudice, African Americans will not be a 
great spokesperson for a majority district. There is fear of poor speaking, 
writing, and general communication skills. Fear of not making tough 
decisions in crisis situation. Lack of vision for the district. Will not 
involve themselves with majority organizations and therefore the district 
will start to look African American. Note: Many of these issues fall into 
prevailing stereotypes of how the majority view African American. Keep 
in mind, when A board employs a superintendent they are employing a 
person to lead the district. An African American credential often times get 
buried in the prevailing stereotypes situations. 
175 	Being prepared to deal with perceptions that other's have of you. Prepared educationally with the knowledge to run a good school, look for new and better ways to improve student achievement. 
179 Excet Exam 217 Perceived lack of competence by white and African American board members. 231 Preparation and experience. 
135 


Opportunity 
014 	Predominantly Caucasian districts do not actively seek qualified minority candidates to fill vacancies, and minorities are not seriously considered. 
028 	Not given opportunity to select, but accountable for team failure. 
071 	The major barrier is that most predominately white districts do not consider hiring non-white superintendents. 
075 opportunities to serve as an assistant superintendent of deputy superintendent (white males go easily from high school principalship, but women and African American must touch all bases to be considered seriously for superintendent positions); 108 lack ofbeing selected 153 Opportunity 
156 Few opportunities to network with sitting superintendents. No direct link to information regarding vacancies. Few opportunities to join "good old boy" network. 176 Opportunities are very limited especially where the board majority is non­African American of student body is not majority African American. 
180 There are too few opportunities for African American educators to assume 
high level positions in educational organizations where they can develop the experiences required for effective performance in the superintendency. 
221 	Opportunity to work in suburban areas. 
235 	Very few opportunities in small communities ... usually not as diverse. 
Stereotypes 
006 	The notion that African Americans can only manage urban school districts successfully. 
028 	The color of our skin, the lack of opportunities to gain experience, The feeling that we can't handle it. We are not often given the chance, because of attitudes held by others. This attitude is helped by many, many whites and too many Blacks. 
056 	African Americans aren't capable of being CEO's. White males make strong leaders. 
073 	inability to handle politics and finances (budget). 
086 	There are barriers facing African American superintendents in the realm of control of media tends to concentrate on publishing negative image news 
and creating images for the public or magnify ills of urban areas. Also in 
trying to create a legitimate network to ... other superintendents, it is 
normally artificial and frequent interactions don't occur on a local level. 
Frequency of contact and supportive information is crucial in the initial 
steps of creating leadership strength and imagery. 
168 	That Blacks can't be or make good CEO's. That we can't handle people or money ... 
Discrimination 
028 	The color of our skin. 
029 	Racism 
030 	We have to be male or very fair skinned. 
059 It has been my experience that most barriers are "gender" related rather racial. 093 By the fact that you are African American the playing field is not level. 096 All of the barriers that I Have faced have been racial or political. 108 just plain old racism. 
152 Pervasive racism that says we will not be led by blacks no matter how 
competent. 
222 	Racism still plays a major factor in Board selection. Race is not a prohibiting factor. More Afro-Americans superintendent must dare to lead majority districts. 
Lack of Support 
022 	Lack of respect for African American candidates with the same credentials as those of other ethnic background. Responsibility and accountability with limited or no real authority. 
064 Lack of support from colleagues. 065 Lack of support base. Majority school boards usually do not support African American superintendents. 069 We are often given little support or inadequate support to achieve objectives. 
073 	Lack of support from people in position power and influence. 
139 	The number one problem which African Americans face is the perception that they will not be well perceived by a majority white population . This 
139 

barrier prohibits many excellent and highly capable persons from securing good positions. 
151 	As a African American superintendent I am constantly "second guessed" about decision that have been well thoughtout. The media is much quicker to exploit any situation in our district and analyze happenings more closely. 
199 	Then there is the general feeling of the community and staff that you will fail, so you watched a lot closer that a white superintendent. 
Unrealistic Expectations 
030 	We are willing to work for less. 
069 	Usually we are selected to serve districts with financial problems. Often we are expected to obtain miracles. We are often given little support or inadequate support to achieve objectives. Minorities often feel we can overcome years of inequities to serve their personal needs. We have to guard against having unrealistic expectations of ourselves. Being superhuman!! 
082 	Unrealistic expectation on the part of African American community coupled with a lack of support on the part-when the "Tire meets the road." 
199 	The idea that African Americans can only run a school district after there is an economic and educational decline in the school setting. In my area black superintendents are hired only after the whites have drained everything out, supposedly. Then there is the general feeling ofthe community and staff that you will fail, so you watched a lot closer that a white superintendent. 
191 	One becomes a messiah or scapegoat. 
Summary of Findings 
The purpose of this study was to present a descriptive analysis of data relevant to the career paths, career patterns, and selected school district characteristics ofAfrican American superintendents. Data related to those variables and related to the research questions were presented in tabular and narrative form. 
• 	
Based on the data analysis presented in this chapter, the following observations and findings were made regarding African American superintendents: 

• 	
A majority of the respondents (58%) were graduates of historically Black colleges and universities. 

• 	
A majority ofall superintendents (88%) were married. 

• 	
The respondents were highly educated; 69% held doctorate degree. 

• 	
A majority of the respondents earned $60,000 or more annually. 

• 	
Classroom experience for the respondents averaged 7 .1 years. 

• 	
A higher percentage of respondents (70.8%)were employed as secondary classroom teachers than were employed as elementary teachers (40.6%). 

• 	
At the building level, 53% of the respondents served as secondary principals; and 39% of the respondents served as elementary principals. 

• 	
A majority of the respondents served in instructional supervisory positions. 

• 	
The data revealed that 52% of the respondents served as assistant superintendents prior to their superintendency. 

• 	
The career paths groups the respondents were most associated with were the traditional intermediate route (Career Path Group B) 40%. For this path 


group (Traditional, Intermediate Route) the respondents had experience as a 
teacher, building level administrator, plus one other non-teaching position 
prior to the superintendency. The traditional short route 28% (Career Path 
Group A), the respondents had experience as a teacher and building level 
administration, but no experience at the central office level. The traditional 
long route (Career Path C) which respondents had experience as a teacher, 
building Adminstrator, plus two of more non-teaching position prior to the 
superintendency accounted for 30% ofthe respondents. 
• 	
Career Path C was mostly associated with urban school districts. 

• 	
The younger respondents were associated mostly with Career Paths A and B. 

• 	
The elder respondents were associated mainly with Career Paths B and C. 

• 	
The majority of males were associated with Career Path B (Traditional Intermediate Route). 

• 	
The majority offemales were associated with Career Path C (Traditional Long Route). 

• 	
A majority of the respondents served in three or more positions prior to the superintendency. 

• 	
A majority of the respondents served 22 years or more prior to obtaining a superintendency. 

• 	
A majority of the superintendents assumed their first superintendency between the ages of40-49. 

• 	
The study revealed that 53% ofthe respondents used the local school board for their current superintendency search. 

• 	
The majority of the respondents served in either an urban (38%) school district or in a rural (31 % ) school district. The remainder served in small and/or suburban school districts. 

• 	
A majority (56%) of the respondents followed White superintendents in their current superintendency. 

• 	
The study revealed that 69% of the respondents actively sponsored African Americans who had aspirations of obtaining the position of superintendency. 

• 	
Data indicated a significant statistical difference in the relationship between current and prior operating expenses per-pupil. 

• 	
A significant statistical difference was noted in the relationship between current and prior African American student population. There was an increase in African American student enrollment. 

• 	
There was a significant statistical difference between the relationship between current and prior African American and White teachers with decline in the number of White teachers and increases in the number of African American teachers. 

• 	
There was a significant statistical difference in the current and prior number of Whites members in the community. 

• 	
There was a significant statistical difference in the relationship between the current and prior African American number of female school board membership. 

• 	
The data revealed a significant statistical difference between the marital status ofmale and female African American superintendents. Males tended to be married to a greater extent than females. 

• 	
Female respondents tended to be located in suburban and urban school districts than male respondents. Males tended to be located in rural and urban school districts. 


ChapterV Summary of Findings, Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations 
Overview 
Public school superintendents have one of the most challenging, demanding, and visible positions in American society. They provide educational leadership in approximately 15,499 school districts across the United States. Their visibility is marked by the fact that the majority of leadership positions are held by non-minority individuals (American Association ofSchool Administrators, 1992). The underrepresentation of minorities in public school leadership positions on a national level has been thoroughly documented over the years, and the limited representation of African Americans in top positions of public school administration is glaring (AASA, 1992, 1983; Jones & Montenegro, 1988, 1985; Montenegro, 1993). 
It is clearly obvious that a diverse representation is needed in a pluralistic society such as the one in which we live, but perhaps more important is the need to use our human resources to develop the talents ofall those who can make valuable contributions for the greater good of all. It is critically important for children to see that African American superintendents exist and that people of color can assume leadership positions. African American superintendents are needed by the community to serve not just as role models but as educational leaders who can provide the foremost learning environments to fulfill the hopes and expectations of our nation's youth. Purpose 
The purpose of this research study was to: (1) examine and describe the career path and career pattern experiences of African Americans who have attained superintendency positions in public schools; (2) examine the extent ofselected characteristics found in the school districts prior to and during their appointment as superintendent; and (3) examine the perceived racial barriers facing African American superintendents. This study focuses on African American superintendents in the United States. During the 1995-96 school year, there were a total of223 identified African American superintendents leading public school districts in the United States, as shown by a survey conducted by Charles Moody Sr. (1996). 
This study was expected to magnify and expand the knowledge base about current African American superintendents. In the review of literature, there was a dearth of information about current African American superintendents' experiences and perspectives. 
Methodology 
The design ofthis study used a descriptive survey approach to examine the career paths and career patterns of African American superintendents in the United States. An additional focus examined the extent of selected characteristics oftheir school districts prior to and during the tenure. 
The use of survey methodology involving a questionnaire provided the researcher with a method of data collection that was efficient and systematic. It also allowed the study to include the entire population ofAfrican American superintendents in the United States. 
The questionnaire was developed, pilot-tested, revised, and mailed to all 202 superintendents in the population. The questionnaire consisted of four sections with a total of 32 questions: ( 1) biographical data on each superintendent was collected; (2) selected career paths and career patterns of each superintendent, 
(3) details regarding the selected characteristics of each superintendent's school district and school board members and; (4) prior and current demographics ofthe school district. The final section contained a question that requested each superintendent to reflect on their perceived racial barriers faced by African American seeking the position of superintendent. 
The data solicited was quantifiable and could be expressed in numerical values to facilitate data interpretation. The responses to the survey items were analyzed using computations of frequencies, means, and correlation coefficients. Additionally, one narrative response survey item was analyzed using a qualitative content analysis procedures. 
Three limitations of the study were noted. One limitation of the study was dependent on the willingness of the respondents to share personal and factual information. The researcher could not address respondents who did not provide responses to certain questions. The non responses had minimal effort on the statistical analysis of the study. However, an over riding limitation of the study was the limited responses of 52% of the total African American superintendent population. A second limitation was in documenting the rich description of the responses, researcher bias may have occurred in the processing of information and drawing conclusions. Finally, this study was limited by the fluctuation of the employment of the particpants during the 1996-97 school year. 
The intent of this study was to describe the career paths and career patterns ofAfrican American superintendents and the extent of selected characteristics of school districts prior to and during the tenure of the superintendents. 
Summary of Findings 
Research Question #1 What were the career path and career pattern experiences ofAfrican American superintendents that led to their ascension to the position of superintendent? Findings ofthe study for this research question include: Career paths 
The present study identified 78 individual career paths leading to the superintendency (See Appendix E). The 78 individual career paths were grouped using Burnham's (1989) superpath model. Path Group B (40%) was the most commonly used path followed by Path Group C (30%), Path Group A (28%) and, Path Group D (2%). 
In Path Group A (Traditional, Short Route), the respondents had experience as a teacher and building level administration, but no experience at the central office level. In Bumham's study, this path group was ranked second in terms of frequency. For the present study this path group was ranked third. 
The respondents in the path group had 3 positions changes within 22 years prior to reaching the superintendency. This path group was dominate by the respondent in rural school districts. 
For Path Group B (Traditional, Intermediate Route), the respondents had experience as a teacher, building level administrator, plus one other supervisory position prior to the superintendency. This path group for the present study ranked first in term of most frequent path. In Burnham's study, this path group ranked first in terms of frequency as well. 
The respondents in this path group had 4 position changes with 22 years prior to becoming superintendent. This path group was equally distributed in urban, suburban, and rural school districts in the study. 
In Path Group C (Traditional, Long Route), the respondents had experience as a teacher and building level administrator, along with one or more high-level central office positions. This career path in the present study was the second most traveled prior to the superintendency. In Burnham's study, this path was the third most traveled path prior to the superintendency. 
Respondents in the path group had 6 position changes within 24 years prior to reaching the superintendency. These path group respondents were found mainly in urban school districts. 
Path Group D (Non-Traditional, Short Route) was a unique career path. Respondents in this career path group moved from teacher to a high-level central position prior to the superintendency. For the present study, this career path was the least traveled path by the respondents. This result was also consistent with Bumham's study. 
This unique career path group respondents had .5 position changes within 1 year of service. Respondents in this path group appeared to come from outside of public school systems prior to becoming superintendents. This group path group was found only in urban school districts. 
Additional career path data revealed that male respondents were found mostly in Path Group B followed Path A and C. Female respondents were found mostly in Path Group C followed by Path Groups B and A. It appears from these findings that males respondents were appointed to superintendent positions at a faster rate than female respondents. This assumption is supported by the fact that for age and career path ofrespondents, males tended to dominate the expeditious routes to the superintendency. And female respondents tended to be clustered in the more deliberate routes to the superintendency. Career Patterns 
The superintendents who participated in this study were primarily male (80.2%) between the age of 42 and 70. Females accounted for 19.8% of the study participants. The average age of all superintendents in the present study was 53 years of age. In the AASA (1992) study, the average age ofits superintendents was 49 .4 years. This study indicates that African American superintendents are somewhat older than the general superintendent population. 
In the present study, the majority of respondents were married. This finding is consistent with data from AASA, which reported that a majority of their respondents were married. The data also revealed that African American male superintendents were married in more frequency than African American female superintendents. For the AASA study, this variable was not present. 
The present study revealed that African American superintendents were highly educated. The percentage of African Americans holding doctoral degrees was 69%. The finding from the present study is higher than AASA respondents for highest degree held. AASA reported that 36% of respondents held doctoral degrees. 
Respondents in the present study were more likely to have been graduates ofhistorically Black colleges and universities. This finding is not surprising to the researcher given the average age of the respondents in this study. A majority of the respondents were of college age during the era of"separate but equal". Until 1954 and the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown vs. Board ofEducation, which ended "separate but equal" school systems, historically Black college and universities were mostly the option for the majority of the respondents trying to get a college education. 
Most superintendents are well-paid professionals. The salary range of all respondents in the present study was between $40,000 and $129,000 per year. The most frequent range of salaries was between $100, 000 and $110, 000. The present study is also reflective of the rise in superintendents' salaries as reported by AASA (1992). 
The African American superintendent is most typically a former secondary teacher. A higher percentage ofAfrican American superintendents had been employed as secondary teachers (70%) than elementary teachers (40.6%). 
AASA (1992) study found that 69.8% were secondary teachers, and only 28.5% of its superintendents were elementary teachers. The findings from this study reinforces the reality that the superintendency is dominated by professionals who get their start as secondary teachers. However, they are more likely to have been an elementary teacher than the general population of superintendents. 
Respondents in the present study had classroom experience ranging from 1-21 years. The average classroom experience of the respondents was seven years. Data revealed that this was two years more than superintendents in the AASA study, who on the average spent three to five years as classroom teachers before being administrators. This finding indicates that there is comparable choice by African American superintendents and the general population of superintendents to make early career choices when aspiring to administrative positions. 
Respondents in the present study had a prominent level of experience in instructional supervisory positions prior to becoming superintendent. Specifically, at the positions of supervisor, director, and coordinator. This finding appears to indicate that the respondents had a high level of instructional supervisory experience and skill that is necessary to positively impact student performance. 
The present study supports the findings that local school boards of education managed most superintendency search processes. In the AASA study, the local school board managed the search process for the respondents' current superintendency 62.4% of the time. The present study data indicates that the local school board managed the search process for the respondents' current superintendency 53% of the time, followed by a professional search firm 26.4% and state boards of education 19%. Although studies have shown that minorities are more likely to be hired by professional search firms that managed the search process, this was not evident in this study. A noteworthy finding is that the state boards ofeducation managed the search process for some of the African American superintendents. This may be due in part to some states assuming monitoring status or control over the hiring process of some local school districts such as is found in New Jersey and Mississippi. 
Respondents in present study served in rural school districts 31 % of the time and urban school districts 37% of the time. However, the data revealed that female African American superintendents are likely to be found in urban school districts, and male African American superintendents are likely to be found in rural and urban school districts. In the AASA study, female superintendents were more likely to found in smaller districts. In the present study, however, females were found in the larger urban districts. It is interesting to note that the data for the present study indicate that few African American superintendents are found in suburban school districts. 
The present study indicates that African American superintendents are likely to follow a White superintendent. The are several possible explanations for this finding. One reason could be that the ethnic composition of a school population has changed, which may have warranted a change in the representation in the local control of the school district. This change of local control can also include the local school board, which has the responsibility of hiring the superintendent. This reason is supported by Scott (1980) and Jones (1985) who reported that the increase in African American superintendents was due, in part, to school districts with high percentages of minority students and educational problems accrued from years of neglect and deprivation. 
The present study supports the findings of the AASA study in which a majority of superintendents are mentors to other aspiring superintendents. 
AASA (1992) suggest that the presence ofmentors is of great importance of any profession. The respondents in the present study (69%) were more likely to sponsor other African Americans who had aspirations of obtaining the superintendency position. To underscore the importance of mentorship, Moody (1984) notes 
That traditionally attainment of a school superintendency has depended to 
an appreciable extent on the help and information an aspirant received 
from professional contacts. 
Additionally, Holliman (1996) in her study of superintendents suggested that mentorship provides access to information and guidance that is crucial to upward mobility. 
The present study supports the assumption of the existence of a "Good Old Boy/Girl" network in states that help individuals get positions as superintendents. This finding is consistent with the AASA study that found the same assumption present. Their study found that 57% of superintendents supported the assumption of the existence of a "Good Old Boy/Girl" network. The present study indicated 49 .1 % agreed with the assumption. It is noteworthy that the present study revealed 41.5% of respondents did not know this network 
existed in their state. One reason for this perceived assumption may be attributed 
to their comfort level, denial or reality of the total "big picture," or the underresprentation of African American superintendents. 
Research Question #2 
2. What was the nature of selected characteristics of the school district prior to and during their tenure as superintendent? 
The present study revealed an increase in the per-pupil operating expense and student enrollment during the tenure of African American superintendents. Given that a significant number of African American superintendents are employed in urban districts that may have an eroding tax base, this finding may indicate that supporting instructional programs may be problematic for the rising student enrollment. This finding also supports Moody's (1971) contention that African American superintendents are more likely to inherit districts with precarious financial conditions and rising enrollments. 
The data from the present study indicated that the student composition of African American-run school districts was 64% African American, 7% Hispanic, 23% White, 2% Asian American, and 4% Native American and Other. This finding is similar to compositions found by Jones (1985), Scott (1980), and Moody (1971). Given the data from the present study and earlier related studies, the composition of a school district should not limit the upward mobility of any aspiring superintendents. 
The present study supports the findings in Moody's (1971) study that African American run school districts have a decrease in the number ofWhite teachers and an increase in the number of African American teachers. The present data revealed that the composition of their school districts was 49% White teachers, down from 52%. The number of African American teachers was 41 %, up from 38%. There was a scarcity of other minority teachers in African American superintendents school districts. 
The local school board composition in the present study was characterized by the high presence of both male and female African American representation. This finding is also supportive of earlier studies on the characteristics of African American school districts. A significant finding in this study was that prior and current representation of African American females on local boards of education represented a significant increase. The study also revealed a decrease in the representation of White males and females. 
The present study also supported previous studies that suggest that "White flight" had occurred in urban school districts. It is interesting to point out that African American superintendents in rural districts were located in "pocket" areas in the deep South. These "pocket" areas usually have a high concentration of African Americans. The current composition of the communities that had African superintendents from the present study was African American 4 7%, White 36%, Hispanic 6%, Asian American 1 %, Native American .2%, and Other 1%. 
Research Question #3 
3. What are the racial barriers perceived by those seeking the position of superintendent? 
In the present study, the respondents were asked to indicate the perceived racial barriers facing African American superintendents. Of the survey population, 66% responded to the question. Responses fell into 10 themes or patterns. They were as follows: (1) no perceived racial barriers; (2) lack of mobility; 
(3) 
networking; (4) boards of education; (5) preparation and competence; 

(6) 
opportunities; (7) stereotypes; (8) discrimination; (9) lack of support; and 

(10) 
unrealistic expectations. 


Very few ofthe respondents indicated that they perceived no racial barriers facing African Americans seeking superintendency positions. As the researcher alluded to earlier, a possible explanation for this response could be attributed to their comfort level, denial of reality of the total "big picture". 
The most often cited barriers were lack of mobility and boards of education. For lack of mobility, the present study indicated that African American superintendents perceived that they are limited to and confined to urban and majority African American populated school districts. However, some perceived that mobility was limited to small rural African American populated school districts. Also, some ofthe African American superintendents perceived that the only types of districts that seemed to be available were districts with financial and academic trouble. This finding is consistent with Moody (1971), Scott (1980), and Jones (1985) who reported that African American superintendents held positions in school districts with a high percentage of minorities and dwindling financial resources. 
The local board ofeducation was cited with the same frequency as the above perceived barrier. The African American superintendents mentioned perceived biased attitudes by certain school boards. Also cited was the imbalance in composition ofmost boards ofeducation, favoring White males. This perceived assumption was further heighten by the fact that the majority White boards of education select superintendents like themselves. Some ofrespondents perceived that the limited number of African Americans accepted for superintendency positions was a clear indication ofreservation on the part of the controlling board. 
The respondents also felt strongly about preparation and competence as a racial barrier facing African Americans seeking the superintendency. They perceived that there is a perception on the part of non-African Americans that African Americans lack experience at certain levels, their competence is suspect, and that African Americans do not possess the proper skills needed to make the tough decision in crisis situations. Many feel that regardless ofacademic preparation and competence, the decisions that are made will always be perceived as incompetent. 
Another perceived barrier by the respondents was opportunity. Respondents cited opportunities as being very limited, especially when the majority is non-African American. They also mentioned the lack of opportunities to work in suburban areas. 
Networking was another commonly perceived racial barrier. The superintendents felt that the lack of viable networks of African American superintendents for recruiting and advocating candidates to the superintendency appears to be a hurdle. Additionally, they felt that African American superintendents are small in number, which affects the networking--thus thwarting opportunities for movement. 
Discrimination and lack of support received the same frequency of responses. For discrimination, the respondents perceived that African Americans are not on the same "playing field" or that the "playing field is not level." Some perceived that discrimination still plays a major factor in the selection superintendents by the local school board. A noteworthy perception was that discrimination barriers favored being "fair skinned" and male. The "fair skinned" perception is a noted sociological construct of the African American community. Gender issues were noted in Holliman's (1996) study as a barrier facing female superintendents. Her study noted that being a female was seen a handicap and not as a strength. 
Lack of support was considered a barrier faced by African Americans 
seeking the superintendency. Many of the respondents perceived a lack of a support base, lack of support from colleagues, and inadequate support from the local school board to achieve school district objectives. 
Respondents voiced the perception that African American superintendents face unrealistic expectations in seeking the superintendency. Such expectations include that one either becomes a "messiah" or "scapegoat" for school districts that are in a economic and educational decline status. 
Conclusions 
The findings from this study clearly identified several important characteristics of the career paths and career patterns of African American superintendents. This study developed out of the researcher's personal and professional interest about the position of superintendent and the factors and conditions that influence there careers. Because of the need to attract, train, and employ qualified candidates for the superintendent's role, it was critical to gather information about factors that impact there careers. The following are conclusions derived from this sample of African American superintendents in this study: 
1. 	
A majority of African American superintendents are married. Eighty-three percent of respondents in the present study were married. 

2. 	
African American superintendents are highly educated professionals. Sixty-nine percent of the respondents in the present study held doctoral degrees. 

3. 	
A majority of African American superintendents began their professional careers as secondary classroom teachers. A higher 


percentage of respondents (71 % ) were employed as secondary 
teachers at the beginning of their careers. 
4. 	
A majority ofAfrican American superintendents had experiences as instructional supervisors. Fifty percent of respondents had experiences as instructional supervisors during their careers. 

5. 	
The career path most frequented by African Americans toward the superintendency was the traditional intermediate route (Path Group B), which included positions of secondary teacher, assistant principal or principal, and one other non-teaching position. 

6. 	
The Traditional Short Route (Path Group A) was mostly associated with rural school districts. A majority of the respondents from rural districts was in this path group. 

7. 	
The Traditional Immediate Route (Path Group B) was associated mostly with urban, suburban, and rural school districts with African American superintendents in rural school districts. Path Group B was equally distributed among these district types. 

8. 	
The Traditional Long Route (Path Group C) was mainly found with urban school districts. A majority of the respondents from urban school districts were in this path group. 

9. 	
African American superintendents tended to hold 3-6 positions prior to obtaining a superintendency. These positions were associated with the individual's career path. 

10. 	
African American superintendents tended to be a "seasoned veteran" with 22-24 years of experience prior to becoming superintendent. This range of experience included positions such as teacher, building-level administrator, and central office positions. 

11. 	
Local school boards usually conduct the search process for African American superintendents. Fifty-three percent of the respondents indicated this was the process used for their current job. 

12. 	
The majority of African American superintendents are employed in rural and urban school districts. Thirty-one percent of the respondents were employed in rural school districts and thirty­eight percent were employed in urban school districts. 

13. 
African American female superintendents are employed more 


167 

168 

frequently in suburban and urban school districts. Thirty-eight 
percent of female respondents were employed in suburban school 
districts and forty-three percent were employed in urban school 
districts. 
14. 	
A majority of African American superintendents actively mentor other African Americans who aspire to the superintendency. Sixty-nine percent of respondents indicated they mentored other African Americans who had aspirations of obtaining the superintendency position. 

15. 	
Respondents in the study indicated the following: there was a significant decrease in the White student population community and a significant increase in the African American student population during the African American tenure as superintendent. 

16. 	
The present study indicated there was a significant increase in the number of African American school board members during the tenure of African American superintendents. 


169 

Recommendations for Policy and Practical Usage 
These recommendations are based on the findings of this present study. The recommendations are not intended to be all inclusive or exhaustive; they are suggestive in nature for potential practical use and future education employment policy. 
First, specialized training programs should be available to local school board members to make them sensitive to possible discriminatory practices in their screening, hiring, and evaluating potential applicants for the position of superintendent. 
Second, current research data on the status of African American superintendents should be provided to local school boards to assure them that African American superintendents have a proven track record ofpreparation and performance. 
Third, departments of educational administration should be leaders in facilitating mentoring and sponsoring networks among African American superintendents. This practice could include curricula with a focus on developing networking skills. It is critical that worthwhile networks exist for upward mobility. 
Fourth, departments of educational administration should provide superintendency programs that are experience based instead of theory based. These programs need to provide the "big picture" which includes all members of society and not just a select segment. 
Fifth, aspiring African American school superintendents should form support networks with current and retired superintendents, regardless of color. 
Recommendations for Further Study 
The findings and implications from this study give rise to recommendations based on the findings of this present study. The recommendations are not intended to be all inclusive or exhaustive but suggestive in nature for potential further study. 
1. 	
In a continuation of Moody's (1971) request, a study should be conducted each ten years on the status of the African American administrated school districts. 

2. 	
This study could be enhanced by a companion Asian Americans or Hispanic superintendent qualitative research study emphasizing career paths. 


3. 
Further research is needed from a theortical perspective about the 

career path and selection process of prospective minority superintendent. 

4. 	
Further research is needed to explore the various barriers that minorities may face moving from building level administrator to central office administrator. 

5. 	
Strategies need to be explored about how the inclusion ofall superintendents in formal and networks can be improved. 


172 

APPENDICES 

APPENDIX A 
COVER LETTER (UT STATIONERY) 

February 14, 1997 
TO THE SUPERINTENDENT ADDRESSED: 
As one of the African American superintendents in the nation, you have been selected to participate in a current research study entitled "A Study of the Career Paths and Patterns of African American Superintendents from 1970-1997". Your name was selected from a national data base. The American Association of School Administrators and the University of Texas at Austin have been collaborating on a series of studies to determine the characteristics of exemplary superintendents. The results have contributed not only to the development of preparation programs for the position of superintendent but also for professional development of school executives. 
I am an African American doctoral candidate in the Department of Educational Administration, Cooperative Superintendency Program at the University of Texas at Austin. My area of specialization is the superintendency and cultural diversity. This research study is an elaboration on the work ofCharles Moody founding member of the National Alliance ofBlack School 
Educators. 
To date, few research studies have been conducted regarding the career paths, career patterns, and barriers Africans Americans face as they aspire to the superintendency. The study I am conducting will provide valuable feedback for aspiring superintendents, professors in educational administration leadership programs, school board members, search firm consultants, and other educators. 
Information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. The ID number on your survey is for analysis purposes only. Completing and returning the survey will be taken as evidence of your willingness to participate in this study, thereby giving your consent to have the information used for the purposes of this study. 
Ifyou have any questions regarding this study or the completion of the questionnaire, please feel free to contact me at (512) 475-3681. You may also contact Nolan Estes or Ben M. Harris, my dissertation co-chairs, at the University of Texas at Austin (512) 471-7551. Thank you in advance for your cooperation. Your response by March 14, 1997, will be appreciated and will contribute greatly to this research project. 
Sincerely, 
Howard K. Dunlop Doctoral Candidate 
Enclosure 
APPENDIXB 
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE 

Participant No. ____ 
QUESTIONNAIRE 
Career Paths and Patterns of African American Superintendents 

Place a check(--./) in the appropriate space(s) or write an individual response in the space provided. Additional personal comments are encouraged and will enrich this study. Respond to every numbered item as best you can. 
SECTION I: Career Paths and Patterns Leading to the Superintendency 
1. 	
In how many different school districts have you been employed throughout your career in education? __ 

2. 
How many years of service did you have as a classroom teacher prior to entering administration or supervision? __ 

3. 
In how many school districts have you served as district superintendent? __ 

4. 	
At what age did you assume your first superintendency? __ 

5. 	
How many years have you served in your current superintendency position? 

6. 	
What group/individuals managed the search process for your current superintendency? 


Professional Search Firm 
State School Board Association 
State Educational Administrators Association 

Local School Board 
Other: Please describe: ________________ 

7. 	Place a check(--./) in each box to designate the sequence ofthe positions in which you have served. Leave blank all positions that are not a part ofyour career path. For each position indicate years of service. 
Career Path Sequence of Assignments 

8. 	
Is there a "Good Old Boy/Girl" network in your state that help individuals get positions as superintendents? Yes _ No _Don't know _ 

9. 	
Have you actively sponsored other African Americans who aspire to the superintendency? _ Yes No 


SECTION II: Characteristics of Your School District In this section, please describe your current school district's characteristics and the characteristics prior to your appointment as the district's superintendent. 
10. 
How would you describe your school district? 

Urban Suburban Small Town Rural 

11. 
How many schools are in your district? ___ 

12. 	
How many schools did your school district have prior to your appointment as superintendent? __ 

13. 	
When you were hired as superintendent of your present district, was your predecessor: 


MALE 	FEMALE 
African American African American Asian American Asian American 
_Hispanic _Hispanic 
Native American Native American 
White White 
Other Other 

14. 
What is the current operating expense per pupil in your district?$ ___ 

15. 	
What was the operating expense per pupil in your district prior to your appointment as superintendent? $ 

16. 
What is the current student enrollment in your district? 

17. 	
What was the school district's student enrollment prior to your appointment? 

18. 	
Identify the current ethnic population of the students in your district: 

% African American % Asian American 
% Hispanic % Native American 
% White % Other 


19. 	
Identify the ethnic population of students prior to your appointment as superintendent: 


% African American % Asian American 
% Hispanic % Native American 
% White % Other 

20. Please identify the number ofthe current gender and racial/ethnic identity of 
your school district's board members. 
MALES 
African American 
Asian American 

_Hispanic Native American White Other 
FEMALES 
African American Asian American 
_Hispanic Native American White Other 
21. Please identify the number of the gender and racial/ethnic identity ofyour school district's board members prior to your appointment as 
superintendent: 
MALES 
African American Asian American 
_Hispanic Native American White Other 
FEMALES 
African American Asian American 
_Hispanic Native American White Other 
22. 	What is the current racial/ethnic identity of teachers in your school district? 
% African American % Asian American 
% Hispanic % Native American 
% White % Other 

23 . 	What was the racial/ethnic identity of teachers in your school district prior to your appointment as superintendent? 
% African American % Asian American 
% Hispanic % Native American 
% White % Other 

24. 	
Identify the current racial/ethnic population of the community you serve. 

% African American % Asian American 
% Hispanic % Native American 
% White % Other 


25. 	
Identify the racial/ ethnic population of the community prior to your appointment as superintendent. 


% African American % Asian American 
% Hispanic % Native American 
% White % Other 

SECTION III: Biographical Data Please check one (-.J) 
26. 	Gender: Male Female Birth Date 
27 Place of Birth: City _____ State Country 28 Marital Status: Single ___ Married Divorced/Separated ___ Widowed 
29. 
Your highest earned educational degree: 

B.A./B.S M.A./M.S. M.Ed. Specialist __ 
Ed.D. Ph.D. Other (Specify) ____ 


30. 
Did you graduate from a historically Black college or university? 

Yes No Ifyes: Undergraduate_ Graduate_ 

31. 
The salary range which reflects your current compensation package: 


$40,000-$49,000 -$50,000-$59,000 
$60,000-$69,000 -$70,000-$79,000 
$80,000-$89,000 -$90,000-$99,000 

$100,000-$110,000 _ $110,000-$120,000 _ 
More than $120,000 

SECTION IV: Personal Reflections 
(Please feel free to continue your response on the reverse side) 

32. What are the perceived racial barriers facing African Americans seeking 

superintendency 
positions?__________________________ 

Thank you for taking time to participate in this study. Please feel free to attach additional comments on as many pages as necessary if you wish to elaborate on any of the questions. Please return the completed survey in the envelope provided and mail to: 
Howard K. Dunlop 
Department of Educational Administration 
George I. Sanchez Building (SZB) 310 
University of Texas at Austin 
Austin, TX. 78712-1291 
APPENDIXC 
REMINDER POST CARD 

Dear Superintendent: 
In February you received a copy of a questionnaire "Career Paths And Patterns ofAfrican American Superintendents from 1970-1997". Although the response I have received to date has been excellent, my records indicate that I have not received a reply from you. Your response is critical to the success of this research study regarding African American superintendents. I hope that I can count on your participation. Please send in your survey by March 14. You may also fax your response to (512) 463-9055. Thank you in advance. 
Howard K. Dunlop Doctoral Candidate University of Texas at Austin 
APPENDIXD 
IDSTORICALLY BLACK COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 

IDSTORICALLY BLACK COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 

Alabama 
Alabama A &M University Alabama State University Miles College Oakwood College Stillman College Talladega College Tuskegee University 
Arkansas 
Arkansas Baptist College Shorter College Philander Smith College University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff 
Delaware 
Delaware State University 
District of Columbia 
Howard University University of D.C. 
Florida 
Bethune-Cookman College Edward Waters College Florida A & M University Florida Memorial College 
Georgia 
Albany State University Clark Atlanta University Paine College Savannah State University Spellman College Fort Valley State University Morehouse College Morris Brown College 
Kentucky 
Kentucky State University 
Louisiana 
Dillard University Southern University Grambling State University Xavier University 
Maryland 
Bowie State University Coppin State College Morgan State University University of Maryland , Princess Anne 
Mississippi 
Alcorn State University Jackson State University Mississippi Valley State University Rust College Tougaloo College 
Missouri 
Harris-Stowe State College Lincoln University 
North Carolina 
Barber-Scotia College Bennett College Elizabeth City State University Fayetteville State University 
189 Johnson C. Smith University Livingstone College North Carolina A & T State University North Carolina Central University Saint Augustine College Shaw University Winston-Salem State University 
Ohio 
Central State University Wilberforce University 
Oklahoma 
Langston University 
Pennsylvania 
Cheney State University Lincoln University 
South Carolina 
Allen University Benedict College Claflin College Morris College South Carolina State University 
Tennsesee 
Fisk University Knoxville College Lane College LeMoyne-Owen College Meharry Medical College Tennessee State University Texas Huston-Tillotson College Jarvis Christian College Paul Quinn College Prairie View A & M University Texas College Texas Southern University Wiley College 
Virginia Hampton University Norfolk State University Saint Paul College Virginia State University Virginia Union University 
West Virginia West Virginia State College 
APPENDIXE 
INDIVIDUALCAREERPATHS 

INDIVIDUAL CAREER PATHS 
Symbols for Sequence of Positions 
TA= Teacher's Aide ET Elementary Teacher ST= Secondary Teacher 
C =Counselor SV =Supervisor AEP = Ass't. Elementary Principal 
ASP= Ass't. Secondary Principal EP =Elementary Principal SP= Secondary 
Principal D/C = Director/Coordinator HL/CO = High Level Central Office 
AS= Ass't. Superintendent Su= Superintendent 

Path Group A (16 Different Career Paths) 

TA ~ET ~ST ~ASP ~EP ~Su 
ET~EP ~Su 
ET ~AEP ~EP ~Su 
ET ~ST ~ASP ~SP ~Su ( 2) 
ET ~ST ~EP ~SP ~Su (2) 
ET ~ST ~EP ~Su 
ET ~ST ~AEP ~Su 
ET ~AEP ~EP ~Su (2) 
ET ~C ~ASP ~SP ~Su 
ST~C ~EP~Su 
ST~C~SV ~EP~Su 
ST ~SV ~EP ~SP ~Su 
ST~ASP~ SP~Su (4) 

ST~ASP~Su 
ST~ASP~EP ~SP~Su 
ST~ASP~ SP~Su (4) 
ST ~SP ~Su (5) 

Path GroupB (28 Different Career Paths) 
TA~ET ~ST ~SV ~ASP ~DIC ~Su ET~ST~C ~ASP~AS~Su ET~ST~C ~EP ~SP~AS~Su ET ~ASP ~EP ~HL/CO ~Su ET ~ASP ~EP ~AS ~Su ET ~ASP ~AEP ~SP ~AS ~Su ET~ASP ~EP~AS~Su ET ~ASP ~SP ~AS~Su ET ~EP ~DIC ~Su ET~EP~AS~Su (4) ET~C ~SV ~AEP~EP ~SP~Su ET~C~SV ~ASP~EP~HL/CO~Su ET~C ~AEP ~SP~AS~Su ET~C ~EP ~DIC~AS~Su ET~C ~EP ~AS~Su ET~DIC ~AS~Su ST~C~SV ~ASP~SP~AS ~Su ST~C ~SV ~EP~AS~Su ST ~C ~DIC ~Su ST~SV ~ASP~EP~SP~AS ~Su ST ~ASP ~EP ~SP ~AS ~Su ST ~ASP ~SP ~DIC ~Su ST~ASP~ SP~HL/CO ~Su ST~ASP~SP~As~su (11) ST ~ASP ~SP ~DIC ~AS ~Su ST ~EP ~AS ~Su ST ~EP ~SP ~HL/CO ~Su C~DIC~Su 
Group C (32 Different Career Paths) 
TA ~ET~EP~HL/CO ~AS~Su 
TA~ET~SV ~EP~SP~HL/CO ~AS~Su 
ET ~ST ~SO ~DIC ~AS~Su 
ET~ST~C~SV ~ASP~SP~DIC~HL/CO~AS ~Su 
ET ~ST ~SP ~DIC ~AS ~Su ET~ST~SV ~ASP~SP~HL/CO~AS ~Su ET~SV ~ASP ~DIC ~AS~Su ET ~SV ~DIC ~HL/CO ~Su ET~C ~EP ~DIC ~AS~Su ET~sv ~ASP~DIC ~AS~su ET~SV ~DIC ~HL/CO ~AS~Su ET ~AEP ~EP ~DIC ~HL/CO ~AS ~Su ET ~ASP ~DIC ~AS~Su ET ~DIC ~HL/CO ~AS ~Su ET ~EP ~HL/CO ~AS ~Su ST ~C ~ASP ~HL/CO ~AS~Su ST ~C ~SV ~DIC ~AS~Su ST ~C ~EP ~HL/CO ~AS~Su ST ~SV ~ASP~DIC ~AS~Su ST ~AEP ~SP ~HL/CO ~AS~Su ST ~AEP ~ASP~DIC ~HL/CO ~AS ~Su ST~ASP~EP ~DIC~HL/CO ~Su ST ~ASP~SP ~DIC ~AS ~Su (3) ST ~ASP ~SP ~HL/CO ~AS~Su ST ~ASP~DIC ~AS ~Su ST ~SP ~DIC~AS ~Su ST ~SP ~HL/CO ~AS~Su ST~SV ~ASP ~DIC ~AS~Su ST ~SV ~AEP ~EP ~DIC ~AS~Su ST ~SV ~ASP ~SP ~DIC ~HL/CO ~AS~Su Path GroupD (2 Different Career Paths) 
~Su ST~Su 
Total of 78 Different Career Paths 
APPENDIXF 
INDIVIDUAL RESPONSES TO QUESTION 32 

What are the perceived racial barriers facing African American seeking superintendency positions? 
003 	The number ofblack superintendents in Mississippi is growing rapidly. Therefore there are no racial barriers from my perspective. Ifthere is a barrier at all, it is a lack of preparation. Ifyou wish to become a superintendent, you must be willing to pay your dues starting in the classroom and working your way through the system. It is also important to stay in one school district and not move around. 
006 	The notion that African Americans can only manage urban school districts successfully. 
009 	None 
014 	Predominantly Caucasian districts do not actively seek qualified minority candidates to fill vacancies, and minorities are not seriously considered. Limited mobility for African American candidates is a reality because we are still unofficially confined to urban/majority black populated districts. 
022 	Lack of respect for African American candidates with the same credentials as those of other ethnic background. Responsibility and accountability with limited or no real authority. Pursued for visions and ideas as a candidates but prevented from exercising said qualities when hired. Not given opportunity to select, but accountable for team failure. The African­American male will find it difficult to be placed in districts where the student population is not predominantly African-American. 
028 	The color ofour skin, the lack of opportunities to gain experience. The feeling that we can't handle it. We are not often given the chance, because of attitudes held by others. This attitude is helped by many, many whites and too many Blacks. 
029 Imbalance in boards of education: Mostly white males, Racism. A lack of 
diversity on boards of education. 
030 	Our options are limited to small rural African American school districts. We have to be male or very fair skinned. We are willing to work for less. We are not knowledgeable of optimal packages and how to get them. 
033 	Black superintendents are primarily hired only in predominately black school districts. 
036 	African American are generally shut out of the superintendency until district is heavily minority with declining test scores, funding, and community support. 
043 	Not enough people with open minds! 
044 	The limited number of African American accepted for superintendency positions is a clear indication of reservation on the part ofcontrolling Boards ofEducation. Consequently, the perception would be that African Americans lacks experience at the various levels. A further perception is that African Americans must be overly prepared to perform as Superintendent. 
056 	African American aren't capable ofbeing CEO's. White males make strong leaders. Most boards ofeducation are made up of white males who select superintendents like themselves. 
057 	Communities appear to want educational leaders that look like them. Many feel that African American superintendents competence is suspect; yet most advanced degrees are awarded from predominantly Caucasian graduate schools. African American superintendents are small in number which affects the networking or any semblance of the "good ole boy" syndrome, thus thwarting opportunity for movement. They are basically considered for minority dominated districts. 
059 	It has been my experience that most barriers are "gender" related rather racial. 
064 	Large percentage of Boards still predominantly white male. Fewer African American entering the profession. Old networks do still exist. Professors in school administration (Educ.) still influence decisions. Lack of support from colleagues. Too few role models. Lack of desire to move (often have strong community ties church, family, etc.). Some salaries are not financially beneficial. 
065 	In my opinion some ofthe barriers facing African American seeking superintendency positions are: Lack of support base. No access to the Good old boy/Girl network. Majority school boards usually do not support African American superintendents. 
066 	Majority white Board are not hiring African Americans. Majority white communities are not interested in African Americans supt. regardless of academic prep. Perception African Americans are not equal with the tools address high achieving children. Search firms are not pushing African Americans. 
069 	Usually we are selected to serve districts with financial problems. Often we are expected to obtain miracles. We are often given little support or inadequate support to achieve objectives. Minorities often feel we can overcome years of inequities to serve their personal needs. We have to guard against having unrealistic expectations of ourselves. Being superhuman!! 
071 	The major barrier is that most predominately white districts do not consider hiring non-white superintendents. 
073 	Lack of support from people in position power and influence; perceptions that African Americans candidates are not experienced-ready to take on the superintendency in certain locations; biased attitudes by certain school boards; inability to handle politics and finances (budget). 
075 	Mobility/marriage issues; lack of mentors and advocates; opportunities to serve as an assistant superintendent or deputy superintendent (white males go easily from high school principalship, but women and African American must touch all bases to be considered seriously for superintendent positions); not readily considered in non-diverse districts; Boards of Education. 
081 	There are a lack ofqualified interested candidates for central offices positions of the supt.'s position. In N.Y., I conducted supt. searches for districts in Saratoga ... not one African American out approx. 350 candidates. Ifyou go to Hampton University to recruit you will see education majors recruited off into other professions. 
082 	Unrealistic expectation on the part of African American community coupled with a lack of support on the part-when the "Tire meets the road." 
083 	I am not aware of any perceived racial barriers. 
086 	There are barriers facing African American superintendents in the realm of control of media tends to concentrate on publishing negative image news and creating images for the public or magnify ills of urban areas. Also in trying to create a legitimate network to ... other superintendents, it is normally artificial and frequent interactions don't occur on a local level. Frequency ofcontact and supportive information is crucial in the initial steps of creating leadership strength and imagery. 
088 	The lack of a viable network of African Americans for recruiting and advocating for African American candidates to the superintendency appears to be a hurdle. Further, the rapid turnover in urban superintendencies, the numerous "buy out" has created a glut of African American superintendents who are less marketable for whatever reason. After their buyouts they-the superintendents-become history. 
089 	Lacks communication skills; not well ground in fiscal management; inability to make sound decisions under pressure; lacks vision; doesn't keep board informed; not part of the Good old Boys' Network; lack of acceptance in predominantly white communities with diverse student populations; lack of experiences in central office and building level. 
093 	By the fact that you are African American the playing field is not level. 
096 	All ofthe barriers that I have faced have been racial or political. 
099 	NIA 
103 	Most Boards appear to be more concerned about how to satisfy the business community and those that do not have children in school. If supt. can satisfy the upper-class parent and power leader and can relate. That in their experience and interview they may have a chance, otherwise Board members regardless of color will be very hesitant to hire. 
105 	African American tend to be limited to school district with a majority African American. School boards are still made up primarily of white males. African American superintendents do not have as efficient a safety network to help them obtain a second superintendency after having their first as white superintendents do. 
107 	African American are still largely employed in districts with a high occurrence of proverb and limited financial resources these districts also are among those that perform the lowest on academic tests. 
108 	Search process; good old boy/girl network; lack of experiences; lack of degree (professional); lack of interest; lack ofbeing selected, recruiting; lack of being kept on the job; stress from white parent(s) business, newspaper, T.V.; just plain old racism. 
118 	Urban versus suburban; majority white school boards; majority white community, majority white student population. 
120 	A reluctance by some boards and communities to consider elevating a minority to the top position. Also, a fear of doing something not previously done. 
126 	Difficult to be part of the good old boys' network. 
132 	Preparedness, opportunity. No matter what other considerations you throw into the equation it all comes back to one and two above. 
137 	Generally when African Americans assume the superintendency with a few exceptions the district has deteriorated to unacceptable conditions we are then expected to perform miracles and to restore excellence within a very short time. Demands and expectations are often unrealistic. 
139 	The number one problem which African Americans face is the perception that they will not be well perceived by a majority white population. This barrier prohibits many excellent and highly capable persons from securing good positions. 
145 	Accessibility to district classified as white is limited. You're apt to secure a "Black" District than non-Black. Black Districts are more likely to have poor achievement, financial problems, and a high indigency. 
147 	Networking, knowing where the jobs are, race, preparation advanced degrees. 
150 	I served as an elected superintendent, the first African American ever elected to the post. The voting population in our county is approx. 82% white. 
151 	As a African American superintendent I am constantly "second guessed" about decisions that have been well thought out. The media is much quicker to exploit any situation in our district and analyze happenings more closely. 
152 	Pervasive racism that says we will not be led by blacks no matter how competent. Southern whites fear blacks in leadership positions especially when they can't control the person. The control of education through politics is another factor. In the south, both black and whites are more concerned about jobs than they are about preparing our children. 
153 	Opportunity 
156 	Few opportunities to network with sitting superintendents. No direct link to information regarding vacancies. Few opportunities to join "good old boy" network. 
168 	That Blacks can't be or make good CEO's. That we can't handle people or money ... 
170 	There is a perception that an African American can only be the superintendent of a district that is primary "minority. 
174 	Blacks (African Americans) are only effective in all African American or predominately African American systems. Lack of a true sense of educational philosophy. Poor budget skills. Will not plan thoroughly for long range planning, budgets, curriculum, facilities, etc. A non-minority population will respond positively to African American leadership, a fear of a backlash from the community. Prevailing fear that the quality of services will decline. Social prejudice, African Americans will not be a great spokesperson for a majority district. There is fear of poor speaking, writing, and general communication skills. Fear ofnot making tough decisions in crisis situation. Lack of vision for the district. Will not involve themselves with majority organizations and therefore the district will start to look African American. Note: Many of these issues fall into prevailing stereotypes of how the majority view African Americans. Keep in mind, when a board employs a superintendent they are employing a person to lead the district. An African American credential often times gets buried in the prevailing stereotypes situations. 
175 	Being prepared to deal with perceptions that others have ofyou. Prepared educationally with the knowledge to run a good school, look for new and better ways to improve student achievement. 
176 	Opportunities are very limited especially where the board majority is non­African American or student body is not majority African American. More often than not school boards tend to hire people who look like them. 
178 	Unfortunately boards are usually made up of whites! They tend to consider African American candidates either when racial problems exist or the district is minority. Getting the experience as assistant superintendent can also be hampered by the same factors. 
179 	Excet Exam. Continuously being under the microscope. 
180 	There are too few opportunities for African American educators to assume high level positions in educational organizations where they can develop the experiences required for effective performance in the superintendency. Boards perceive that African American candidates are only appropriate when the majority of students in the systems are African American. 
181 	None 
191 	One becomes a messiah or scapegoat. 
196 	African American superintendents seem to always become supt. in school dist. that are in financial and academic trouble. 
199 	The idea that African Americans can only run a school district after there is an economic and educational decline in the school setting. In my area black superintendents are hired only after the whites have drained everything out, supposedly. Then there is the general feeling ofthe community and staff that you will fail, so you are watched a lot closer than a white superintendent. 
214 	A lack of strong Board members who are willing to openly provide employment opportunities for African Americans. 
217 	Perceived lack of competence by white and African American board members. 
220 	The obvious ones come from Anglo Americans who do not yield control of million dollar budget school systems until the system is headed for financial disaster. The other obstacle thrown by African Americans who do not respect the opinions of the authority of black superintendents. The crab syndrome operates here in a vicious way. The black superintendent can NEVER relax completely because of the enemies who fight without race. The color oftheir skin may be black or white. 
221 	Opportunity to work in suburban areas; restricted to majority minority; racism. 
222 	Racism still plays a major factor in Board selection. They fear the reaction ofthe majority community to African American leadership. But ifgiven a chance Afro-American superintendents prove to be excellent choices. Superintendent are good or bad depending on their leadership and management skills. Race is not a prohibiting factor. More Afro-American superintendents must dare to lead majority districts. 
223 	I'm not convinced that there are racial barriers opposing Black-Americans seeking superintendency positions. 
230 	You can only become a superintendent in a majority African American community. There are exceptions, but this is the general rule. 
231 	Preparation and experience. 
234 	Prepared and racial makeup of the school community to be served. 
235 Lack of internal networking and inside knowledge. Community readiness. 
Lack of support mechanisms. Very few opportunities in small communities...usually not as diverse. 
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Vita 
Howard Kevan Dunlop was born in Akron Ohio, on February 12, 1954, the son of Mary Jean Thomas Dunlop and Howard Arnold Dunlop. His childhood was spent in historic Tuskegee Institute, Alabama. He attended high school in three states, graduating from Titusville High School, Titusville, Florida in 1972. He entered Lane College, Jackson where he was a scholar/athlete, graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in 1977. Upon graduation, he enrolled in the University ofNorth Texas (then, North Texas State University), Denton, Texas, where he earned a Master's ofEducation degree in 1978. 
Following graduation, he taught science and coached athletics in the Lewisville Independent School District, Lewisville, Texas from 1978-1981. He also taught science and coached athletics in the Everman Independent School District, Everman, Texas from 1981-1985. Beginning in the fall of 1985, he was employed in the Fort Worth Independent School District, Fort Worth, Texas for ten years. He taught science and coached athletics at Eastern Hills High School during the 1985-86 school year. In the summer of 1986, he was appointed assistant principal at Stripling Middle School. In May 1990, he became principal of Como Elementary School. 
In June 1995, he was accepted as a fellow in The University of Texas at Austin Cooperative Superintendency Program, Cycle XI. His residency was in the Division ofNon-Traditional School Accountability, Texas Education Agency. 
He is married to Patricia Lynn Dunlop and they have one child, Kevan Patrick Dunlop. 
Permanent Address: 	3305 Country Creek Lane Fort Worth, Texas 76123 
This dissertation was typed by the author.