U.NlVl':~~rTY. PV'BLICATIONi Uoiversiry of Texas AUSTIN 12 UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS V niversity of Texas AUSTIN 12 UNlVEk~'TY f' i'Bi.ICA T IONS llrn\·:orsn· ,_,f Texas The University of Texas Publication No. 4544 November 22, 1945 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES By HENRY J. OTTO Graduate Professor of Elementary Administration and Curriculum The University of Texas PCBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY FOUR TIMES A MONTH AND ENTERED AS sEco;.;D-CLASS MATTER AT T HE POST OFFICE AT AUSTIN, TEXAS C:\DER THE ACT OF AUGUST 24, 1912. Lithoprinted in U.S.A. EDWARDS BROTHERS, INC . ANN ARBOR , MICHIGAN 1946 PREFACE The survey reported in this bulletin is the result of a cooperative enterprise sponsored by the Texas State Department of Education with the assistance of many indivi­duals and institutions in the state of Texas . For several years there had been a grow­ing need among the school people of the state for better criteria for the evaluation of elementary schools . In February, 1942, the Texas State Education Department called a meeting of its Advisory Committee on Elementary Education to discuss the po3sibility of a cooperative state-wide effort to produce a more usable handbook for the appraisal of elementary schools . The interest in such a project was general and the Committee lost no time in outlining a plan of action for its achievement . It was agreed that (1) the preparation of a handbook for the appraisal of ele­mentary schools should be undertaken as a cooperative task; (2) the participation of all interested persons in the state should be solicited; (3) the project sho~ld be planned on a three-to five -years basis; (4) the project should be used as a springboard for the in-service professional development of teachers; and (5) the proposed handbook should be oriented to the present conditions in Texas schools. In order to effect these basic agreements the project moved forward in accordance with the following plans: The year 1942 -1943: 1. All elementary school teachers in the state were invited and urged to prepare a diary describing "A typical child's day in my class or my school." About 4,500 such diaries were submitted to the State Education Department.l 2. Elementary school workers were urged to organize themselves into small local study groups and to address themselves to the question, "What are the Essen­tial Characteristics of a Good Elementary School?" At the conclusion of a period of study and discussion (for which a bibliography was provided), each local group was to put its agreements on paper and to submit its report to the State Education Department. About 250 such reports were received. 3. A survey was made of organizational and administrative practices in elemen­~ary schools . Tvo hundred reports were received from Texas school s . The year 1943 -1944: 1. All schools that did not participate in the project during 1942-1943 were ur­ged to engage in the activities outlined for that year. 2 . The State Advisory Committee on Elementary Education held several meetings at which the following agreements were reached: a . The handbook should be planned as a guide for the self-appraisal and im­provement of elementary schools. b . Because of the large number of elementary schools in Texas, it would seem impractical to follow the plan of the high school criteria in its use of an outside visiting committee . c. Evaluation of a given school be based on modern concepts in elementary ed­ucation rather than on "the average practice of schools in the area" A local school should be mirrored against the best modern thought and know­ledge in education rather than compared to its neighbors. 1. Henry J. Otto, "Curriculum Practices as Revealed by Diaries of Elementary Teachers." Texas Outlook, 27 (October, 1943), 19-21. iii ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES d. Evaluative criteria should be carefully oriented to the present status of schools in Texas so that there will not exist an "unreasonable gap" between schools as they are and the criteria. e. The criteria should be so organized that they will readily suggest direc­t ions and "next-steps" in making improvements. f. The criteria should be organized in such a way that they will be usable by the State Education Department for accrediting purposes. Here is an oppor­tunity for the school people of the state to develop evaluative criteria which they would like to have the State Education Department use for accred­iting. g. Abolish all forms of permanent accrediting of schools. Re-accrediting every two, three, or five years should be based upon improvements and progress made rather than upon any fixed counting of points. h. The evaluative criteria should comprise two publications, namely (1) A siz­a.ble bulletin (100 pages or more) setting forth the essential characteris­tics of a good elementary school, and (2) A brief scoring schedule. i. The criteria should be organized so as to be usable and applicable to all types of schools (city and rural) in the state. j. The content of the bulletin should be arranged into five levels ranging from the least acceptable to the best modern practices. k. An outline of topics or "Table of Contents" for the handbook was adopted. 3. In approximately twenty-five centers throughout the state, key persons were invited to organize "production committees", each committee to consist of five to twelve persons representing teachers, principals, supervisors, and superin­tendents in different types of school situations. If there was a college in the area, one or more interested college staff members were asked to join the production committees. Each committee was asked to select two of the topics from the outline and prepare the content for the handbook. This meant that one or more committees would be preparing content for each section of the handbook. 4. During the summer of 1944 college centers were asked to organize "synthesizing committees". Each committee took one or two topics from the outline. That committee vas then sent all of the materials on a given topic prepared by the "production committees". The function of the "synthesizing committees" was to synthesize all of the materials submitted on a given topic by the various pro­duction committees and to prepare the final copy for the handbook. The year 1944 -1945: 1. The handbook, in the form of a try-out edition, was published by the Texas State Education Department. 2. Copies of the try-out edition were distributed widely throughout the state. All persons interested in elementary education were urged to use the hand­book and to contribute towards its revision and improvement. 3. It is anticipated that a revised edition will be published during 1945-1946. The historical sketch just presented is pertinent to the present bulletin only in that it describes the setting within which the survey of organizational and admini­&trative practices was made. Previously it was stated that certain base-line data on present practices were desired in order that the anticipated evaluative criteria might be appropriately oriented to existing conditions. It was to this end that the survey re­ported in this bulletin was undertaken. The survey reported herewith was itself the result of cooperative effort. The survey-checklist (reproduced in the Appendix) was prepared by the writer with the assis­tance of two graduate students, Miss Blanche Loree Smith and Mr. Floyd W. Schiewitz. PREFACE The survey was sponsored officially by the Texas Elementary School Principals and Super­visors Association. The blanks were printed by the Texas State Education Department. Within the state of Texas the blanks were idstributed to the schools by the State Educa­ tion Department, during February and March of 1943 . The Research Institute of the Uni­versity of Texas provided a grant during each of three years to cover the cost of : (a) mailing the bl anks to schools outside of Texas (a business-reply envelope was used for return of the blanks); (b) the necessary clerical, secretarial, and statistical work; and (c) publication of this bulletin. The writer prepared the survey-checklist (with some help), directed the study in its general and specific phases, and wrote this report. Even though this bulletin is the result of extensive cooperative effort, the writer hastens to accept full responsibility for any we aknesses , errors, or omissions which this bulletin may contain. He also expresses deep appreciation for the assistance given by so many individuals. Clearly the study would not have been possible without the many hours of c~reful l~h0r given unselfishly by the elementary school principals in all parts of the country who reported the practices in their schools, the practices which constitute the body of this report . The names of those who cont~ibuted reports for their schools are given in the Appendix . Each was sent a complimentary copy of this bulletin. Chapters 16 and 17 are essentially a supplement to the study proper and represent historical sketches of elementary school organization from the colonial period to the present . The University of Texas H. J . O. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Page 1. The Schools Represented in the Survey .. 1 2 · Determinint: the Educational Status Within the School and the Community. 9 3. Organization of Program for Instruction 24 4. Classification, Promotion, Child-Study, and Adjustment Procedures 81 5. Safety Practices. 107 6. Library Service . 119 7. Relationships with other Schools. 125 8. Records and Reports 128 9. Textbook, Supplies, and Equipment Management. 140 10. Administration of Service Agencies. 149 11. Supervision and Staff Education 153 12. School and Community Relations. 165 13 . Office Practices 14. The Principal in the Organization for School Administration • 198 15. Summary and Comparisons ..... 205 16. A Historical Sketch -Elementary School Organization in The United States Prior to 1848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 17. A Historical Sketch -The American Graded School. 227 APPENDIX A 251 APPENDIX B 263 vii CF.APTER I THE SCHOOLS REPRESENTED IN THE SURVEY The general setting within which the survey reported herewith was made was described in the Preface. The chief motive in making the survey was to gain base-line and comparative data. which might be useful in the Texas Cooperative project for the development of a handbook for self-apprai­sal and improvement of elementary schools. Survey Procedure The questionnaire or "survey check­list" (see Appendix) was prepared during the summer and early fall of 1943. At first it was thought that the checklist should be sufficiently comprehensive and detailed so that each school's practices could be iden­tified qnd a fairly complete picture given of the more specific procedures used with reference to each of the practices. It soon became evident that such detailed in­formation would be impossible to obtain in a single study. The scope of the checklist was thus reduced to what was considered the minimum information consistent with the pur­poses of the study. Even with these re­ductions, the checklist turned out to be burdensomely long. No doubt the length of the checklist militated against a larger return. This factor, however, was thought­fully considered at the outset and it was finally decided that the purposes of the study would be served better if more com­plete data were received from each report­ing school, even if it meant that fewer schools would be included in the study. During March and April of 1943 a letter was sent to 684 members of the De­partment of Elementary School Principals of the National Education Association ex­plaining briefly the nature of the Texas project and inviting them to participate in the study. An enclosed return postcard pro­vided an opportunity for the individuals to express their willingness to cooperate in the study. Three hundred thirty-five cards were returned. In October and November of 1943 similar letters and cards were sent to 422 additional members of the Department of Elementary School Principals of the National Education Association. Two hundred thirty­four cards were returned. In these two mailings the number of cards returned (569 in all) represented 51.4 per cent of the letters sent out. In each mailing the number of letters sent to persons in each state was out of proporation to the number of members of the National Department of Elementary School Principals because the objective was to get more nearly the same number of schools per state than to obtain returns in proportion to population or to membership in the national organization. At each mailing, questionnaires were sent to each individual immediately upon receipt of the return card. Two hundred twenty-nine, or 40.2 per cent, of the questionnaires sent out to this group were returned. Oniy 225 of the blanks were received in time to be included in the study. Follow-up post cards were sent in the fall of 1943 to those of the spring mailing group who had failed to return the forms, but the response was so meager that no further follow-up cards were sent. In order to reach the small schools in rural areas, letters of invitation were sent to 184 county superintendents. Ninety­two return cards were received. Each county superintendent was sent two questionnaires and was requested to distribute them to the principals or head teachers in his two most representative schools. These letters and questionnaires were mailed in March and April of 1943. Only 22 forms were returned out of 184 sent out. In the spring of 1943 letters of invitation to participate in the study were also sent to 197 principals of campus de­monstration or training schools in teacher training institutions in all states. One hundred twenty-two return cards were receiv­ed, 117 of which indicated a willingness to participate in the survey. Forty-eight questionnaires were returned, 46 of which were received in time to be included in the tabulations. Without sending the letter of ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES invitation and waiting for the return card, questionnaires where mailed to 441 princi­pals whose names appeared in the membership list of the National Department of Elemen­tary School Principals. Only 39 question­naires were returned by this group. All the forms sent to principals in Texas were sent by the Texas State Educa­tion Department during March and April of 1943. Two hundred usable forms were re­turned. Altogether 532 questionnaires were returned in time to be included in the tab­ulations. These 532 froms were distributed as follows: from Texas schools, 200; from schools outside of Texas, 285; and from college campus demonstration schools, 46. Distribution and Size of Schools Tables 1 and 2 show the distribu­tion of the 532 schools by states, by num­ber of teachers, and by enrollment. The returns include at least one school from every state except Delaware and South Caro­lina. Nine states are represented by more than 10 schools. These states are Califor­nia, Illinois, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Texas. The 46 campus demonstration schools are located in 26 states; 12 states are re­presented by more than one school, usually 2 or 3, with 7 from Pennsylvania. It seems clear from Tables 1 and 2 that the smaller schools are not repre­ sented in proportion to their numbers in the country as a whole. Since there are no adequate national data on the distri­ bution of individual elementary school units according to size, there is no way of knowing to what extent the schools in­ cluded in this study are representative of all elementary schools in this country. The best that one can say is that the 532 schools do include schools of all sizes from all parts of the United States. The two states not represented are widely se­ parated geographically. One must also re­ member that not all small schools are in rural areas. Many cities have one or more small units in certain sections of their districts. Of the 46 campus demonstration schools, 26 per cent had an enrollment be­ tween 101 and 200, 38 per cent between 201 and 300, 9 per cent between 301 and 400, 4 per cent between 401 and 500, and 9 per cent between 501 and 600. Thus 86 per cent of the campus schools had enrollments which ranged between 101 and 600. In order to obtain a better picture of certain similarities and difference be­tween the 200 Texas and the 286 non-Texas public schools represented in the study, Table 3 was prepared. 1 The data show that the group of Texas schools contains a stat­istically significant higher percentage of small schools with enrollments of 100 or less and that the non-Texas group contains a statistically significant higher percent­age of schools with enrollments between 301 and 600. The other comparisons shown in Table 3 will be discussed later. Grades Composing the Elementary School Program Distinction should be made between the grades taught in a particular building and the grades which compose the program of elementary education in a community. Some­times a given building may house only a few grades even though the elementary school program consists of kindergarten through grade eight or nursery school through grade six, seven, or eight. The scope of elementary education in terms of the number of years of schooling emcompassed by it varies considerably among the reporting schools. The scope of elemen­tary education was represented by the follow­ing 12 different patterns: grades 1 to 5, grades 1 to 6, grades 1 to 7, grades 1 to 8, grades 1 to 9, kindergarten to grade 5, kin­dergarten to grade 6, kindergarten to grade 7, kindergarten to grade 8, nursery school to grade 6, pre-first to grade 6, and sub­primary to grade 8. Of the 532 schools, 29 per cent reported an elementary program con­sisting of grades 1 to 6, 29 per cent con­sisted of grades 1 to 8, 19 per cent con­sisted of kindergarten to grade 6, and 7 per cent consisted of kindergarten to grade 8. A nursery school was reported by only 2 schools. Kindergartens prevailed in 29 per cent of the school systems represented in the study. Only 10.5 per cent of the Texas 1. The statistical procedures and formulas used in calculating the critical ratios of the two sets of per­centages are described in Clarence T. Gray and David F. Votaw, Statistics Applied to Education and Psychology. New York: The Ronald Press c., 1939, pp. 129 -1)1. THE SCHOOLS REPRESENTED IN THE SURVEY TABLE I Distribution of Schools Included in the .Study According to States and Number of Teachers. State 1 2 3-5 6-10 Number of Teachers 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total Alabama 1 3 1 5 Arizona 2 1 3 Arkansas 2 1 2 5 California 2 7 8 4 1 22 Colorado 1 4 1 3 1 10 Connecticut 1 3 2 2 1 9 Delaware -­ Florida 2 1 2 5 Georgia 1 1 Idaho 1 1 Illinois 1 1 4 2 2 1 11 Indiana 1 3 3 1 1 1 10 Iowa 1 3 1 5 Kansas 1 4 2 1 8 Kentucky 2 3 5 Louisiana 1 2 1 4 M3.ine 1 1 M3.ryland 2 1 3 Massachusetts 1 5 1 2 1 1 11 Michigan 3 5 3 2 4 17 Minnesota 4 1 1 6 Mississippi ·1 2 1 4 Missouri 1 2 2 1 6 Montana 1 2 1 4 Nebraska 1 1 2 Nevada 1 1 New Hrunpshire 1 1 2 New Jersey 4 5 3 3 1 16 New Mexico 2 1 3 New York 1 4 4 4 3 2 4 22 North Carolina 4 4 North Dakota 3 3 Ohio 1 3 2 1 1 8 Oklahoma 1 2 2 5 Oregon 2 5 7 Pennsylvania 5 7 3 1 16 Rhode Island 1 1 2 4 South Carolina -­ South Dakota 3 1 4 Tennessee 1 1 2 Texas 18 21 30 59 45 17 3 1 6 200 Utah 1 1 2 Vermont 1 1 1 3 Virginia 1 1 2 4 Washington 1 3 4 West Virginia 1 1 3 5 Wisconsin 1 3 2 2 8 Wymoning 3 3 Washington, D.C. 1 1 2 Campus Schools 4 25 12 3 2 46 Totals 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 2 Comparison of 200 Texas, 286 Non-Texas, and 46 College Campus Demonstration Schools on Size of Enrollment 46 Col­ 200 Texas 286 Non­ lege Dem. Total Schools Texas Schools Schools No. No. No. No. % % % "' 1. 10 or less 1.5 3 3 2. 11 to 15 6 3. LO 3 1.79 3. 16 to 20 2.5 1 85 3 1.5 4. 21 to 30 8 4. 1 1.79 5, 31 to 50 2 8.5 2417 4.5 7 6. 51 to 100 12 6 2 21 18 5 3.3 7. 101 to 200 28 14 26 1213 37 15.077 8. 201 to 300 2031 15.5 38 103 55 17 19.3 21 46 9. 301 to 400 10.5 16 4 71 13.39 10. 401 to 500 44 8.5 2 417 15 11.863 11. 501 to 600 16 8 4 25 8.445 9 9 12. 601 to 700 22 6 8 2 43 5.630 4 2 13. 701 to Boo 8 21 2.43 13 6a le 2lb 14. 801 and over 2 283 5.27 20 15. Unclassified 10 2 4 5.8 9 3 31 Total 200 286 100 46 n.oo 100 100.0 Recapitulation: 532 16. 100 or less 25,5 651 2 19 1 71 13.3 17. 101 to 300 29.5 92 6459 1802933 33.8 4054 27 22 115 10 33.8 179 18. 301 to 600 d 19. 601 and over 18 60 36 21 6 12 102 19.1 a. 901 to 1000 pupils, 3 schools; 1101 to 1200 pupils, 1 school; 1201 to 1)00 pupils, 1 school; 1801 to 1900 pupils, 1 school. b. 801 to 900 pupils, 8 schools; 901 to 1000 pupils, 2 schools; 1001 to 1100 pupils, 3 schools; 1101 to 1200 pupils, 4 schools; 1201 to 1300 pupils, 1 school; 1)01 to 1400 pupils, 1 school; 1501 to 1600 pupils, 1 school; over 2000 pupils, 1 school. c. 1001 to 1100 pupils. d. Includes unclassified group. THE SCHOOLS REPRESENTED IN THE SURVEY Table 3 Comparison of 200 Texas and 286 Non-Texas Schools on Selected Characteristics 200 Texas 286 Non Texas S. E. Dif:t Diff. between Pl and P2 Crit­ical Ratio Is Difference Signiflcant. pl S.E.p1 P2 s.E.p2 1. Enrollment 100 or less 25.5 .035 6 .013 .033 .195 5.9 Yes 101 to 300 29.5 .031 33 .027 .042 .035 .8 No 301 to 600 27 .031 40 .029 .042 .13 3.0 Yes 600 and over 2. Grades housed in the report­ing school are the same as the grades composing the elementary 18 .027 21 .024 .036 .03 .8 No school program. 3. No special classes of any type hou.sed in the reporting 79 .5 .028 77.9 .024 .037 .016 .!,. No school 4. School has an auditorium or gym-auditorium. 91 .020 80 .023 .031 .11 3.5 Yes combination 5. School has gym. or gym-audi­torium combi­ 64 .033 70.9 .026 .043 .069 1.6 No natlon 6. School has neither gym. nor auditor­ 27.5 .031 51 .029 .043 .235 5.4 Yes ium facilities 7. Kindergfil'.tens not provided by the school 31 .031 26.5 .026 .041 0.45 1.0 No system 89.5 .021 41.6 .029 .035 .479 13.6 Yes ? ORGANIZATIONAL AND .ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES schools reported kindergartens (Table 3) whereas 58.5 per cent of the non-Texas group maintained kindergartens. School programs representing grades 1 to 8 were more pre­valent in the Texas than in the non-Texas group. Nineteen of the campus demonstra­ tion schools did not include any offering below the regular first grade. Grades Taught in the Reporting Schools In 80 per cent of the 532 schools the grades housed in the reporting schools coincided with the grades encompassed by the elementary school program in the re­spective communities. In the other 20 per cent of cases, the reporting school did not offer the complete program. A total of 20 diffe1•ent variations were recorded, such as grades 1 to 3 or 1 to 4, kindergarten to grade 4, grades 3 to 8, grades 4 to 6, grades 4 to 8, grades 5 to 8, or grades 7 and 8. Only 9 reports revealed a 5-year school program consisting of grades 1 to 5; 6 of the reporting schools housed the com­ plete program. Eighty-six per cent of the reporting schools which were housing only grades 1 to 6 were located in communities in which the elementary school program was limited to grades 1 to 6. Corresponding percentages for the other major groups were; kindergarten to grade 6, 83 per cent; grades l to 7, 87 per cent; and grades 1 to 8, 85 per cent. Special Classes Eleven different types of ·special classes were reported. The types of spe­cial classes housed in the reportineschools and the number of schools housing each were: corrective speech, 7; open-air, l; mentally retarded, 28; sight conservation, 7; hard of hearing, 5; physically handicapped, 5; opportunity room for mentally and soc~ally unadjusted, 4; auxiliary room, 3; nursery school, 2; nutrition center, l; and lip reading class, 1. No special classes were reported in any school with less than 6 teachers. No special classes of any kind were found in 90 per cent of the 532 schools. The special classes which did exist seemed to be evenly distributed among the different size schools with 6 or more teachers. Only 7 of the campus demonstra­ t ion schools operated special classes, all of which were for the mentally r·etar·ded. Gymnasium and Auditorium Facilities Approximately 70 per cent of the 532 schools have a gymnasium, an auditorium, or both, or a combination unit (Table 4). Au­ditorium facilities were noticeably more pre­valent than the gymnasium, the former being available in 69 per cent of the schools where­whereas the latter existed in only 44 per cent of the schools. One-and two-teacher schools are noticeably lacking in both of these features of school buildings. An in­teresting fact revealed by Table 4 is that gymnasium and auditorium facilities are about equally common in the various groups of schools of different sizes beginning with the 113 to 5 teacher" schools. The only sta­tistically significant difference between the auditorium and gymnasium facilities in the 200 Texas and the 286 non-Texas schools is that a higher percentage of the non-Texas group had a gymnasium or a combination unit (Table 3). All of the 46 campus schools had either or both of these facilities; all had a gymnasium but 3 had no auditorium. Kindergartens Table 5 shows the distribution of kindergartens among the reporting schools. Undoubtedly the kindergarten provisions in the two 1-teacher schools simply means that the district admits children of kindergarten age and some effort is made by the teacher to provide the ~upils with some types of kindergarten experiences. Only 39 per c~nt of the reporting schools were located in di­ stricts in which the kindergarten consti­ tutes an integral part of the program of el­ ementary education. In only 10.5 per cent of the Texas schools is the kindergarten provided by the school system; the corre­ sponding percentage for the non-Texas group is 58.4, a difference whichis statistically significant (Table 3). This difference be­ tween the prevalence of kindergartens in Texas and non-Texas schools is explained in part by the fact that in Texas state-aid funds cannot be used by local districts in financing free schooling for pupils under six years of age. Only 29 of the 46 campus schools operated a kindergarten. THE SCHOOLS REPRESENTED IN THE SURVEY Table 4 Gy:nnasium and Auditartum Facilities in Elementary Schools Size of School Accordin.g to Number of Teachers8 Type of Facility 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' No . "' Q;ymnasium-Auditorium Combination Separate gymnasium 2 8 12 27 49 27 37 28 17 26 8 31 3 43 3 15 131 25 but no auditcrium Separate auditorium but no gymnasium Separate gymnasium 2 8 6 25 1 20 2 38 6 42 3 23 2 41 2 38 1 25 2 38 1 4 1 14 4 20 10 145 2 27 and separate auditorium.* Qymnasium-auditorium. 3 6 23 13 18 14 17 26 10 38 3 43 9 45 83 16 cct!Wination & separate auditor­ ium No provisions No data 20 2 77 8 15 3 63 13 1 14 2 2 26 4 3 53 3 2 30 2 1 32 1 24 7 11 2 2 8 8 4 20 1 147 10 l 27 2 Total Number of Schools 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 1 20 532 100 aPercentages 1n each column are based on the number of schools in each size--group. *One school had combination plus separate gyI!lllasium and separate auditorium. Table 5 Kindergarten Provisions in Xl.ementary Schools Type of provision Size of School Accardine to Number of Teachersa Total 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. The district operates kindergarten but there is none 1n this buildine Kindergarten operated by district within this buildine Kindergarten not provided by the school system Kindergarten 1n buildine but not by district No data Total Illllllber of schools 2 23 l 26 "' 8 88 4 "' 23 96 1 4 24 "' "' "' "' "' "' 2 4 5 3 3 2 5 8 6 11 65 36 53 4o 28 42 18 69 4 57 44 83 98 55 73 56 32 48 1 27 3 43 3 2 l l 1 2 l 4 l 2 8 4 l 1 53 179 131 66 26 1 "' 15 75 5 25 20 "' 15 3 191 36 308 58 6 1 12 2 532 100 a Percentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size--group. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Treatment of Data In all of the original tabulations made in this study, the questionnaires from the Texas, the non-Texas, and the college campus demonstration schools were kept se­parate. Thus there were three complete sets of tables, or a total of somewhat over four hundred tables. The question arose immedi­ately as to whether the report of the study should be burdened with triplicate tables on each phase of the study. Would potential interesting findings be lost, or would there accrue some misrepresentation of facts if the data from the three groups of schools were combined into a single series of ta­bles? In order to reach a decision on these questions, several portions of the study were checked to determine the signi­ficance of the difference in the percentage of schools in the various groups which had reported certain practices. Replies to two kinds of items were used in reaching a decision as to whether the data from the three groups of schools could be combined safely without causing misrepresentation. The first group of i­tems (Table 3) pertained to features of school organization over which there are ex­ternal controls. This group includes such factors as size of enrollment, coincidence of the grades housed in the reporting schools with the grades composing the ele­mentary school program, accommodations for special classes, availability of gymnasium and auditorium, and kindergarten provisions. Five of the ten critical ratios shown in Table 3 are statistically significant. All five of the statistically significant dif­ferences reflect logical explanations. It is not surprising that the returns f1'Dm the 200 Texas schools should contain a higher percentage of returns from smaller schools and a smaller percentage from large schools; many more questionnaires were sent out in Texas than in any other state (in fact, as many were sent out in Texas as in all the other states combined) so that question­naires were sent to a larger percentage of the total number of schools in the state and the returns represented a larger per­centage of the total number of schools in the state. Since the returns from Texas schools very logically contain reports from a larger percentage of smaller schools and a smaller percentage of larger schools ex­plains most of the other statistically sig­nigicant critical ratios shown in Table 3. Kindergartens, gymnasiums, auditoriums, and special classes are not as common in smaller as in larger schools for a variety of reasons rooted in state legislation, size of school districts, financial capacity of the dis­trict, and size of enrollment. Logical ex­planations do not erase significant differ­ences, and there is no intention here to urge such an implication; the simple fact is that these differences are differences over which the individual school has very little con­trol, except perhaps over a long period of time. The second list of items on which comparisons were made between the three groups of schools pertained to aspects of organization and administration over which there would be a high degree of local con­trol; they were items more responsive to local educational planning and less subject to external controls. The items in this group pertained to sources of guidance in program making, the lowest grade in school in which departmentalized instruction is practiced, the number of subjects department­alized in each grade, and selected aspects of promotion practices. A total of 96 crit­ical ratios ..rere calculated, only 16 of which revealed statistically significant differences. These 96 comparisons are shown at various subsequent points in the report in connection with the treatment of the dif­ferent topics. It was on the basis of the critical ratios described in the preceding paragraphs that the decis.ion was made to combine the data for the three groups of schools into a single series of tables with reasonable confidence that no serious misrepresentation of facts would result. The basic data in this report are thus presented in a single series of tables based on reports for 532 schools. Wherever im~ortant differences between the three groups of schools were apparent they are mentioned in the narrative. At numerous points additional critical ra­tios were calculated to ascertain the stati­stical significance of apparent differences. In all, 119 critical ratios were calculated in the course of the study; only 26 of them revealed statistically significant differ­ences between the various groups of schools. Chapter 2 Determining the Educational Status Within the School and the Community An important factor in establishing a sound orientation for an educational pro­gram consists of the nature and extent oT the information available about the school and the community. Educational thinking in recent years has given added emphasis and new meaning to the old adages of "Know your school" and "Know your community". This chapter portrays the practices of schools regarding this phase of school management. Age-Grade Studies Age-grade studies represent a con­venient way of getting an over-all picture of the relationship of children to the school program. The prevelancy of use of age-grade studies is indicated by the fact that in 47 per cent of the schools such studies had been made since 1940, that is, within three years preceding the date of this survey (Table 6). It is equally sig­nificant that in 46 per cent of the schools no age-grade study was ever made or the question was left unanswered, the latter implying that it was not the practice to make age-grade studies. Perhaps it would be well at this point to make clear the meaning of the "no study" and "no reply" categories used in the variou.s tables. The "no study" item means that the respondent answered the particular question in the survey blank but stated de­finitely that such a practice did not pre­vail in his school. The "no reply" items mean that the respondent entered no reply whatsoever to the particular qdestion. Be­cause of the length of the questionnaire, the respondent was instructed very speci­fically on the front page of the blank to "select and reply to those practices in each section which applied to his school". To the extent that these directions were fol­lowed, the "no reply" category really means that the practice did not exist in the par­ticular school. It was merely for the sake of keeping the record straight that the two categories "no study" and "no reply" were retained. The frequency with which age-grade studies are made (Table 7) ranges from ''con­tinuously" or "once a month" to "once each 6 to 10 years 11 or "irregularly". The most common practice (including 30 per cent of the schools) was to make an annual age-grade study. Periodic surveys of the age-status of pupils are more prevalent in the larger (except the very largest group) than in the smaller schools; 84 per cent of the one­teacher and 59 per cent of the two-teacher schools report no use of this technique whereas only 31 per cent of the 16 to 20­t~acher schools, 16 per cent of the 21 to 25 teacher schools, and 14 per cent of the 26 to 30-teacher schools do not report the making of age-grade studies. Table 6 Date on Which Last Age-Grade Study Was Made in Elementary Schools Date Total No. % Continuous Study 1943-1944 Sem. I 1942-1943 Sem. II 1942-1943 Sem. I 1941-1942 194o-1941 1939-1940 1938-1939 5-10 years ago 10-15 years ago No study No reply Total number of schools 1 32 61 57 86 17 11 5 14 6 84 158 -6 11 11 16 3 2 1 3 1 16 30 532 9 I-' 0 Table 7 Frequency with which Age-Grade Studies are Ma.de in Elementary Schools Size of School According to Number of Teachersa Frequency of Age- Total 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Grade Studies 0 No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> . ~ 1. When need arises 4 13 2 1 1 H ~ 21 42. Each semester 1 4 3 13 4 2 3 2 4 6 2 8 1 14 3 15 t-3 H 162 30 2 8 5 21 14 26 43 24 52 40 27 42 ll 42 43 5 25 3. Annually ~ "' ~ 1 2 16 9 10 8 3 5 5 19 1 14 4. Biennially 36 7 Si 1 2 5 3 2 2 1 25. Every 3 years 9 2 t:J 4 16. Every 4 years 2 1 1 1 1 4 ~ 1 1 2 2 1 5 4 17. Every 5 years !;;j H t:ll 1 1 1 2 1 4 8. 6-10 years 3 1 ~ 1 4 2 8 4 6 12 7 4 3 10 15 2 8 1 14 1 5 9. Irregularly 37 7 t-3 1 1 2 1010. Continuously 3 1 ~ 1 - "O111. Once a month 5 ~ 12. Practice dis­ t-3 1 - H1 1 continued 0 trj t:ll 13. No study 4 15 3 13 9 17 36 20 22 17 1 2 1 4 1 14 1 5 78 15 14. No reply 18 69 ll 46 24 45 56 31 32 24 19 29 3 12 6 30 169 32 Total no. of schools 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 a Percentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size--group DETERMINING EDUCATIONAL STATUS WITHIN SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY There were no apparent differences between the Texas, the non-Texas, and the campus demonstration scho.Jls in the use or frequency of use of age-grade studies. Great diversity of practice is the outstanding feature revealed by Table 8 which lists the persons who participate in making age-grade studies. In most typical situation, including 94 schools, the princi­pal is the sole participant in making age­grade studies. One of the surprising find­ings is the fact that teachers participate in this activity in so few schools. Table 8 Persons Participating in the Making of Age Grade Studies in Elementary Schools Total Participants No. % 1. Director of Tests and Measurements 1 3 18 94 2. Principal does it alone 3. Teachers do it alone 4. Supervisor 1051 2 13 5, Teachers and principal 39 7 6. Supt., teachers, and principals 2 7, Supervisor and teachers 4 1 1 9, Supervisor -principal 8. Classification secretary 1 3 10. Dept. of Interior, Washington, D. C. 1 ! ­ 11. Supt. and Principal 8 I 2 29 5 12. Superintendent 1 ­ 13. P. T. A. 1 ­ 14. Home room teachers 15. State Dept. of Education 16. Extension Div. of a College or University 6 1 4 1 1 17. A college class 1 18. Board of Education 3 1 19. Teachers and head teacher 1 3 20. Supt. and faculty 21. Supt., supervisors, and principals 1 1 22. Adjustment teacher 23. Supervisor, Principal, 1 3 and teachers 24. Prin., Vice-Principal, Psychologist 1 Table 8 (Continued) Participants Total No. % 25. Dept. of Research 26. Clerk 27. Attendance Officer 28. Vice-Principal 29. Master's degree candidate 30. Statistician 31. No Study 32. No reply Total number of schools 7 2 1 1 1 1 95 150 532 1 -----18 28 The age-grade data gathered by schools were used in 26 different ways by the various schools (Table 9), Most of the uses listed in Table 9 imply some type of procedure to improve the educational serv­ices to individual pupils or groups of chil­dren. Items 2,3,9., and 22 suggest that the age-grade surveys were made primarily for the purpose of providing statistical data for administrative offices and that no imme­diate steps were taken to improve the educa­tional program for pupils. It is unfortunate that these four items ~epresent the replies from such a large percentage of the report­ing schools. Although the proportion of schools making periodic age-grade surveys is fairly large, the uses being made of the data so gathered leaves much to be desired in many situations. Apparently the survey data are not being used by administrators and teachers in the specific schools to ob­tain a better orientation for the educa­tional program. The respondents were asked whether a summary was made each year of the ages of pupils entering the first grade. In only 43 per cent of the schools were such summa­ries made. When asked to describe the gen­eral findings of such age-studies of enter­ing first grade pupils, only a few scattered replies were received. When asked to illu­strate the problems of school organizat~on arising from the variations in the ages of entering pupils, a variety of answers (Table 10) were given in approximately half of the questionnaires. "No problems" was the most common reply. Attention to grouping in terms of mental maturity, reading readiness, and social adjustment constituted the three ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES most frequently named problem areas, no one of which was named by a very large num­ber of respondents. The impression one gets in review­ing the data on age of entering first grade lar attention to school attendance is such that all eligible pupils enter school promptly when they should. If such condi­tions are implied by the "no problems" re­plies, the situation appears wholesome in Table 9 Uses Made of Age-Grade .Iata in Elementary Schools Uses Total No. 'f, 1. Partial reclassification of pupils as to age 46 9 2. Data i•ecorded in State Dept. of Education 41 8 3 .• Data recorded in City Supt. 1 s Office 34 6 4. Special study of over-age or under-age child 29 5 5. Basis for promotion or retardation policies 29 5 6. Partial reclassification of pupils as to ability 13 2 7. Basis for conferences between teachers and administrators 12 2 8. Aid in classification of pupils within grades 10 2 9. Data recorded in County Supt's. office 10 2 10. Comparative studies within school system from year to year 9 2 11. Comparison of findings with those of other schools 9 2 12. Statistical purposes, nature unknown to person reporting 8 2 13. Grouping to prevent social problems 7 l 14. Given to teachers 6 l 15. Discuss in faculty meetings 6 l 16. Basis for investigation of extremes by psychologist 6 1 17. Adjustment made in curriculum 5 1 18. Basis for parent-teacher conferences 4 l 19. Remedial work given 4 l 20. Determination of reading age 2 21. Changing entrance age for first-grade pupils 2 22. Data recorded in office of Director of Tests and Measurements 2 23. Used as aids for setting goals 1 24. Determination of kindergarten entrance trends l 25. Cards placed with permanent records l 26. Studied by class in administration--no changes l 27. No reply 91 17 28. No study 232 43 29. No changes 24 5 Total number of schools 532 pupils is that schools in general have not recognized the true significance of having all children start school when the permis­sive entrance age entitles them to admis­ sion or the nature of the instructional and adjustment problems created by wide variations in the ages of entering first grade pupils. It is possible, of course, that there are some communities or some schools within communities in which popu­ about one-fifth of the schools represented in the study. Grade-Progress Studies Ever since Leonard P. Ayres puplished his Laggards in Our Schools in 1909, grade­progress studies have been used by school people to obtain objective data on children's progress through the school. In 38 per cent DETERMINING EDUC.'.TIONAL STATUS WITHIN SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY of the school's included in this study grade-progress studies had been made within the past ten years (Table 11). Such studies had been made since 1940 in 32 per cent of all schools, in 30 per cent of the Non-Texas group, in 33 per cent of the Texas group, and in 28 per cent of the cam­pus demonstration schools. Once per year was the most common frequency for making grade-progress studies (Table 12) although a variety of other practices were followed by some schools. Sixteen different types of changes in school practices (Table 13) were reported as a re­sult of making grade-progress studies. Changes in the placement of pupils were un­dertaken in 49 schools and represented the most frequently named change. It is worth noting that no one change in school practice was reported by more than 9 per cent of the 532 schools and that no changes or no replies were found on the reports from 76 per cent of the schools. Table 10 Problems of School Organization and Jdanagement Arising from Age Variations Among Entering ~irst Graders Total Types of Problems No. % l. No problems 112 21 2, Children must be grouped according to mental age 61 11 3. Problem of placing beginners according to reading readiness 48 9 4. Social adjustments necessary because of varying ages 37 7 5. Wide age variation due to allowing children to enter 5,6 -5,11 chronogically. 17 3 6. Non-English speaking children 8 2 7. Lowering entrance age caused under-age lst. grade 7 l 8. Entering before 6 led to maladjustments in higher grades 6 l 9. Children of 5 by Oct. 15 and high mental age by test enter kindergarten 5 l 10. Children enter from 6 to 8, 10 or 12 years of age 5 l 11. 5-year olds admitted to lst. grade classroom but given kindergarten work 4 l 12. Set kindergarten entrace age eliminated problem 4 l 13. Range in age due to shifting population 4 l 14. Disciplinary problems 3 1 15. Playground interests vary greatly 2 ­ 16. Entrance at different times 2 ­ 17. All children 6 years of age, but placed where can do best work 2 ­ 18. Over-age pupils promoted during year, additional subject material provided for mature children 2 ­2 ­ 19. Lack of physical maturity 2 ­ 20. Problem of over-sized children 21. Lack of teaching staff for mid-term entrance 2 ­ 1 ­ 22. Seating 23. Standards of achievement difficult to determine l ­ l ­ 24. Problems ignored l ­ 25. Classroom interests vary greatly l ­No reply 26. Irregular attendance 212 40 532 Total number of schools ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 11 Table 12 Date on Which La.st Gra.de--Progress Study Frequency with Which Grade-Progress Wa.s Ma.de in Elementary Schools Studies Are Ma.de in Elementary Schools Date Total No. '!> 1943 80 15 1942 78 15 1941 8 2 1940 9 2 1939 4 1 1938 1 -­ 1937 1 -­ 1934 3 1 Date unknown 9 2 Continually 2 -­ No study ma.de 82 15 No reply 255 48 Total number of schools 532 Frequency of Grade-Progress Total Studies No. % Ea.ch month Every 6 weeks Every 3 months Semi-annually Annually Every 2 yea.rs Every 3 yea.rs Under no time restrictions 'No study No reply Total number of schools 2 3 1 26 108 19 2 13 81 277 532 -1 -5 20 4 -2 15 52 Table 13 Changes in School Practices Ma.de a.s a. Result of Gra.de­ Progress Studies in Elementary Schools Changes in School Practices Total No. % 1. Changes in placement of children 49 9 2. No changes 44 8 3, Ability grouping within classrooms 15 3 4. Changes in subject matter placement in curriculum 14 3 5. Diagnosis of specific problems 13 2 6. Adaptation of work to meet individual differences 12 2 7. Data used in instruction a.nd promotion of pupils 8 2 8. Encouraging slow children 7 1 9. Change from 11 to 12 -grade system 5 1 10. Children tested more frequently 4 1 11. Special class organized 2 12. Rearrangement of first 4 grades 1 1). Weekly time allotment increased in certain fields 1 14. Grades divided into high a.nd low sections 1 15. Development of new report cards 1 16. lOCf;i promotion 1 17. Continuous adjustment 1 18. No study 80 15 19. No reply 283 53 Total number of schools 532 DETERMINING EDUCATIONAL STATUS WITHIN SCHOOL .AND COMMUNITY Determining Mental Abilities of Pupils In 55 per cent of the schools (Ta­ble 14) group mental tests had been given since 1940 while in 37 per cent of the re­ports there was no evidence that group emn­tal testing was an accpted school proce­dure. Group mental testing was more preva­lent in the larger than in the smaller schools. A comparison by groups of schools revealed that group mental tests had been given since 1940 in 67 per cent of the non­Texas and in 33 per cent of the Texas schools; this is a statistically signifi­cant difference, the critical ratio being 8.0. Comparison of the non-Texas group with the campus demonstration schools showed that 74 per cent of the latter had given group mental tests since 1940; this is not a statistically significant differ­ence, the critical ratio being 1.0. To the question, "How frequently are mental tests given to all pupils in the school?" the replies were distributed as follows: semi-an,>ually, 13 schools; annu­ally, 98 schools; biannually, 34 schools; every 3 years, 39 schools; and miscellane­ous intervals, 97 schools. Only 73 replies indicated, however, that the last group mental test had been administered to all pupils in the school. No doubt the normal conditions prevailing in 1943 made it ne­cessary for some schools to deviate from their usual practice. By far the largest proportion of the replies from schools that did engage in group mental testing showed that the most common practice was to test only cer­tain grades each year or to test all pupils every 2, 3, or 5 years~ The detailed tabu­lations which were made indicated clearly that the periodic testing of selected grades was the preferred method. Approxi­mately 90 different grades or combinations of grades were named. In some schools only pupils not previously tested were included in a particular year's testing program, whereas in other schools, new pupils and first graders, grades 1 and 2, grades 1 and 3, grades 1 and 4, grades 1, 3, and 5, grades 1, 5, l".nd 8, grades 4 and 8, grades 5 and 6, or some other combination seemed to be the groups included in a systematic program of mental testing. The question, "What is done with the mental test data after they have been secured?" elicited 12 different types of replies. These answers, with their respec­tive frequencies, were: results filed for teacher use, 83; data placed in cumulative record of child, 57; basis for classifica­tion, 56; information used in studying spe­cial cases, 35; data used for ability g~ouping, 32; used for comparison with achievement and actual placement, 25; basis for remedial work, 7; used in educational guidance of pupils in opportunity room for pupils with low I. Q.•s, 6; used to deter­mine promotion of bright pupils, 5; used as a guide in adaptation of instruction, 4; results tabulated on county basis, 2; data assembled in co-ordinator's office, 1. In general, these replies represent numbers of schools although in a few instances the same report listed more than one use for mental test results. Inquiry about the types of changes in the school which were made as a result of obtaining a survey of the mental abili­ties of the pupils brought replies from near­ly all schools that gave mental tests. Seventeen different types of changes were named; the most frequently mentioned ones, with their respective frequencies, were; changes in grade-placement of pupils, 62; in­formation used by teacher in adjusting work to individual differences, 35; pupils recom­mended for special classes, 34; changes in individual assignments, 32; special atten­tion given to those of low and of high I. Q., 21; remedial work given, 19; and changes in scope of curriculum, 19. Other modifications, each named fewer than 6 times, were: better teacher-pupil relations, class size reduced, change from an 11-grade to a 12-grade system, change in grading system, enrichment programs planned, changes in textbooks, change in equipment, and changes in classification procedures. Determining the Achievement of Children In 81 per cent of the 532 schools standardized achievement tests were given at one time or another (Table 15). In the other 19 per cent of the schools, no stand­ardized achievement tests were given, the practice had been discontinued, the tests were irregularly or seldom given, or there was no reply to the question, the latter suggesting the absence of the practice. In 66 per cent of the schools standardized achievement tests were administered once or twice per year. The most common practice I-' 0\ · Table 14 Date on 'Which Last Gt'oup Mental Test Was gi~en in Elementary Schools Date Size of Schools According to Number of Teachersa Total l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. ,, No. 'I> 1943 3 12 2 8 8 15 56 31 50 38 26 39 16 62 4 57 11 55 176 33 1942 1 4 6 11 42 23 28 21 17 26 4 12 1 14 3 15 102 19 1941 1 4 1 4 1 2 5 3 6 5 2 3 1 5 17 3 194o 1 2 7 4 6 5 2 3 16 33 1939 2 4 4 2 4 3 2 8 12 2 1938 1 1 1 .2 2 - 1937 2 l 1 2 3 1 1934 1 2 1 - 1933 1 5 1 - Testing Continuous No group mental 1 1 2 tests given 9 35• 2 8 10 19 18 55 12 9 4 6 3 12 1 14 59 11 No reply 13 50 18 75 25 47 44 25 24 18 11 17 l 4 1 14 4 20 141 27 Total schools 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 I 7 20 532 ~ H ~ 1-3 H ~ ~ § ~ ~ H to ~ 1-3 ~ "d ~ 1-3 H ~ to a Percentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size--group. Table 15 Frequency With Which Standardized Achievement Tests are Admiilistered in Elementary Schools ~ m H :21 ~ 8 ~ H ~ ~ ~ ~ Ctl ~ H 1-3 ~ ~ Ctl @ 0 0 t-< ~ I a H 1-3 kl I-' -.J ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES was the annual use of standardized achieve­ment tests; this practice prevailed in 45 per cent of the schools. Comparison of the three groups of schools showed that 55 per cent of the Texas and 73 per cent of the non-Texas schools gave standardized achievement tests once or twice per year; this is a statisti­cally significant difference, the critical ratio being 4.1. Among the campus demon­stration schools, 74 per cent gave stand­ardized achievement tests once or twice per year. The latter percentage, when compared to the percentage of the non-Texas group reporting a similar practice, shows a non­s ignificant statistical difference, the critical ratio being .7. A still more de­tailed comparison showed that 45 per cent ofthe campus group and only 20 per cent of the non-Texas group administered standard­ized achievement tests semi-annually. When schools of different sizes are compared (Table 15), it is worth noting that standardized achievement tests are used once or twice per year in about as large a proportion of the one-teacher and two-teacher schools as in the larger schools. In fact~ the percentages for ~n­nual or semi-annual use of achievement tests hover around 66 for all size-groups of schools, the latter percentage being the figure for the total of 532 schools. Seventy-nine different achievement tests were named as the ones used in the various schools. The frequency of mention of the different tests ranged from 1 to 156, the latter being the Stanford Achieve­ment Test. Comprehensive achievement tests such as the Stanford, the Metropolitan, and the Progressive, were preferred by ~ost schools; among the various subject-tests, only the Gates Reading Test was named by more than 20 schools. There appeared to be no consistency as to the grades in which the standardized achievement tests were ad­ministered; single grades or various combi­nations of grades were listed with no one grade listed sufficiently often as compared to other grades to suggest any preference or trend. The replies showed that the stand­ardized achievement tests were administered by teachers in 46 per cent of the schools, by the principal in 17 per cent, by super­visors in 6 per cent, by principal and teachers in 5 per cent, and by the superin­tendent in 4 per cent. Fourteen other practices were reported, no one of which was listed by more than 1 per cent of the re­spondents. In the latter group of schools such persons or agencies as a local college, a publisher's representative, research divi­sion, director of tests and measurements, curriculum director, classification depart­ment, school psychologist, psychometrician, visiting teacher, and critic teacher were designated as the ones who administered the achievement tests. As a rule the scoring of the tests was done by the same persons or agencies who administered the tests, except that classroom teachers played a somewhat larger role in scoring than in administering the tests. Teachers scored the tests in 58 per cent of the schools. In 77 per cent of the schools the teachers were provided with the results of the testing. This is a fairly high percentage if one remembers that stand­ardized achievement tests were given in only 81 per cent of the schools. When asked to illustrate the types of changes in teaching and in the organiza­tion of the school which were made as a re­sult of giving the achievement tests, 25 different kinds of changes were described (Table 16). The diagnostic use of test re­sults for remedial teaching was named most of'ten and was reported for 24 per cent of the schools. A majority of the 25 items pertain to changes in practice which would be effected mainly in the classroom since they deal with diagnosis of pupil difficul­ties, remedial assistance, curriculum adap­tation, changed emphasis in teaching, and changes in class organization and methods of teaching. Of special significance is the small number of schools which reported changes in organizational and administrative practices. Apparently the interrelationship between children's achievement and organi­zational matters is not yet recognized very widely. Community Data Recent years have brought forth in­creased attention to the importance of close relations between the school and its commu­nity. An important basis for school and community relations lies in the nature and scope of the facts about the community pos­sessed by the school. The respondents in this study identified 22 kinds of data (Table 17) about the community and its DETERMINING RDUCATIONAL STATUS WITHIN SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY Table 16 Changes in School Practices Resulting Surveys of Childrens 1 Achievement Changes in School Practices I Total No. '% 1. Diagnosis for remedial teaching 2. Adjustment within classroom 3. Increased emphasis on various fields of subject matter 4. Aid in pupil placement 5. Improvement of instructional methods 6. Change in scope of subject matter 7. Partial basis for promotion 8. Change in equipment and materials 9. Diagnostic use of test results 10. Determining class ability 11. Analysis of grade progress 12. Comparison with other schools 13. Improvement of supervision 14. Used by faculty study groups 15. Permanent Standardization 16. Developmental Reading Program 17. Tests given throughout yea·r as teaching service 18. Supervisory meetings held 19. Change to 12-year plan 20. Opportunity classes provided 21. Planning enrichment programs 22. Using data in guidance 23. Longer periods given for classes that needed them 24. Improvement made in basic study skills 25. Assignments varied 26. No reply 27. No surveys of achievement 28. No changes 127 51 72 69 29 24 30 17 18 4 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 3 1 1 1 1 144 26 37 24 10 14 13 5 5 6 3 3 1 1 -------1 -1 ----27 5 7 Total schools 532 people which were on file in the school of­fice or which were so well known that they could be tabulated on short notice. In only 5 per cent of the questionnaires were there no replies to this portion of the inquiry. Nine kinds of data about the commu­nity and its people were available in 50 per cent or more of the schools. These nine types of information, together with the percentage of schools reporting each, were: occupation of fathers, 89; occupation of mothers, 81; kinds of retail stores in the community, 71; kinds of other business establishments in the community, 66; traf­fic and other hazards in the district, 66; the churches attended by the people, 66; foreign languages spoken in the homes, 64; other educational institutions in the com­munity, 63; and socio-economic status of the homes, 59. Information about the places to which people go to do their shopping and their banking was available in a noticeably larger percentage of the smaller than in the larger schools; all other kinds of data were at hand in about the same percentage of sch>ols of different sizes. Equally sign.i­ ficant is the fact that less than 30 per cent of the schools possessed information about the educational needs and interests of adults and only 42 per cent o~ the schools had data on needed community improvements. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 17 Information about the Community and Its reople Recorded or Well-Known by the School Size of School According to Number of Teachersa Types of Information l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. '{o No. '{o No. '{o No. '{o No. '{o No. '{o No. '{o No. '{o No. '{o No. '{o l. Socio-economic status of the homes 2. If rural community, chief centers to which people go to do shop­ 13 50 14 58 31 58 105 59 85 65 35 53 14 54 4 57 13 65 314 59 ping 3. If rural community, the chief centers to which people go to do 19 73 21 88 35 66 59 " 26 20 13 20 l 4 7 35 181 34 banking 4. Kinde of retail stores 19 73 18 75 " 62 61 34 23 18 12 18 1 4 7 35 174 " ·in the community 5. Kinds of other buai­ness establishments 1n 16 62 18 75 43 81 120 67 102 78 44 67 13 50 3 43 16 8o 375 71 the cammmity 6. Other educational in­stitutions 1n the 13 50 17 71 40 75 116 65 95 73 43 65 13 50 2 29 13 65 352 66 community 7. Traffic & other 11 42 9 38 36 68 110 61 96 73 40 61 12 46 5 71 15 75 337 63 hazards 1n the district 11 42 16 67 35 66 113 31 109 83 45 68 15 48 3 43 12 60 359 66 8. Occupation of fathers 22 85 18 75 50 94 159 89 124 95 59 89 21 81 5 71 18 90 476 89 9. Occupation of mothers 10. Foreign languages 21 81 21 88 45 85 144 8o 110 84 52 79 18 69 4 57 14 70 429 81 spoken 1n the homes 111. The educational needs 17 65 17 71 41 77 116 65 82 63 37 56 12 46 5 71 16 80 343 64 of adults 12. The educational in­ 7 27 12 50 25 47 51 28 23 18 15 23 3 12 7 35 143 27 terests of adults 13. Needed community 1m­ 5 19 10 42 17 32 48 27 24 18 12 18 6 23 7 35 124 24 pro-teJOOnts 14. The churches attended 7 27 12 :;iO 27 51 80 45 46 35 29 44 9 35 3 43 9 45 221 42 by the people 115. Social agencies & relief agencies 116. Air raid information a.7. Relatives affected by war 118. Health needs and program 19. Map of roads, bus-routes, etc. 21 81 18 75 41 77 1 2 l 2 122 68 l l 81 62 2 2 l 1 l 1 l l l l 37 56 13 50 5 71 12 60 350 66 2 -­2 -­l -­3 l l -­ ~o. Life census g1. Family Physician g2. Political aspirations l 1 1 1 l 1 2 1 4 2 -­l -1 -­ No reply 5 19 2 4 8 4 3 2 4 6 2 8 l 14 l 5 26 5 Schools 1n each group 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 aPercentages 1n each column are based on the number of schools 1n each size--group. DETERMINING EDUCATIONAL STATUS WITHIN SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY Four significant observations were revealed by the replies to the request to describe the changes in the school program which were made as a result of the study of the community. Forty different types of changes were recorded (Table 18) by 30 per cent of the schools. No one modification of the school's services was recorded for more than 5 per cent of the schools. sev­enty per cent of returns implied that no efforts were under way to adjust the school program to community circumstances or that no adjustments were needed as indicated by thepercentage of respondents who did not enter a reply to this question or who said "no change". The various types of changes in school programs were reported with about equal frequency for the smaller and the larger schools. Table 18 Changes in School Programs Inaugurated as a Result of Study of the Community Size of School According to Number of Teachers Changes in School 21 6-10 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total 11-15 3-5 Progt'ama No. No. No. Jio. No. No. No. No. No. '1> INo. '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1>'1> '1> '1> 1. School contacts social agencies 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2. Safety hazards cared for 2 8 8 6 4 2 3. Recreational. programS organized 2 2 2 4 12 1 4 6 3 3 53 4. Occupational classes organized l 2 l l l l 5. School lunch program organized l 4 4 8 5 3 3 2 2 2 6. Day nursery established 7. Adjustment of work in the classroom 2 3 8 6 1 4 l 2 8. Adult education classes organized 2 2 1 l 5 8 9. Change in scope of subject matter fields 2 8 5 3 7 5 3 6 10. Addition of training in courtesy and etiquette to progt'Wll 1 2 2 4 2 l 4 6 4 3 11. Change in PTA progt"ama 12. New school districts organized 6 1 14 3 17 3 l 4 l 14 5 l l 14 14 :; 2 -­ 2 8 14 3 1 4 9 2 1 4 18 3 2 -­ l 5 1 4 13 2 1 -­ 1 4 ORGANI ZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 18 (Continued) Size of School According·t o Number of Teachers Changes in School Progra.ms l No. 'lo 13• Guidance pr ogram changed 14. Provision ma.de for children of war workers 15 . Enrichment of curri­cul um 16. Healt h program ex­t ended 2 8 17. Special classes for forei gn-speaking childred 18. Better Sunday School attendance 19. Emphasis on development of leadersh!p 20. Cooperation with churches in encouraging religi ous i nstructi on I 21. Additional building pro­ 2 No. 'lo 1 4 l 4 l 4 3-5 No. 'lo 1 2 2 4 1 2 6-10 11-15 16-20 No. 'lo l 7 11 5 l 4 6 3 2 1 No. 'lo 2 2 2 6 2 2 5 2 3 l 2 1 No. 'lo 1 2 4 l 6 2 1 2 2 3 21-25 No. 'lo 1 4 l 4 l 4 26-30 No. 'lo 31-up No. 'lo Total No. 'lo 6 1 l 14 l 3 2 5 15 10 11 27 15 2 5 3 l 14 1 5 5 4 2 l 1 -­ 2 -­ gram inaugurated 22. Administrative policies changed 23. Better libr ary facilities 24. P.T.A. started 25. No writ ten repor t cards 26 . More cooperation between pa.rents and teachers 27. Pr e-school meetings with mothers of enter­ing children 28, Insistence that chil­dren speak Engl ish exclusively 29. 15 minutes dally given to Bible Study 30. Adoption of a cumula­tive r ecord 31. Change of opening hour to one hour later 32 . More nature study .5.3· More student Govern­ment or Democracy 34. Classes organized in First Aid, Home Study, Conser vati on, Current Events, etc. 35. Library broadened 1 4 11 4 l 4 1 4 l 4 1 2 5 9 2 l l l 2 2 1 1 1 1 l 1 2 3 2 -­ 2 -­ l -­ l -­ l -­ 8 2 l 5 1 -­ 2 -­ l -­ l -­ l -- l -­ l -­ 3 1 l -­ l 4 3 13 l 2 ~ Table 18 (Continued) i ~ H ~ Q Size of School According to Number of Teachers Changes in School Programs 36. Change in .method of teaching 37. Library made avail­able for swmner 38. Visual aid program begun 39. Organization for patriotic purpose-scrap drive, etc. 40. Club work -4H, etc. 41. No ~eply 42. No •hanges Total schools 1 No. 1i 19 73 l 4 26 2 No. "' 12 50 24 3-5 No. "' 2 4 1 2 3 6 27 51 10 19 53 Q_-10 No. ;, l l l 1 2 1 2 103 58 30 17 179 3 ll-15 No. "' 1 1 68 52 20 15 131 16-20 No. "' 36 55 13 20 66 21-25 No. ;, 13 50 5 19 26 26-30 No. ;, 2 28 2 28 7 31-up No. ;, 13 65 1 5 20 Total ,, No. l -­1 -­4 1 l -­ 7 1 293 55 82 15 532 ~ ~ 8 H 0 ~ t" C/.l ~ ~ C/.l ~ H ii H ~ C/.l 0 6 0 t" § 0 ~ ~ H ~ I\) CHAPTER 3 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION No doubt the instructional program and how it is organized and administered constitute the most important aspect of any school. Basic to the quality and eff·ectiveness of the program are the size and organization of classes. The size of classes in the schools studied ranged from 10 or less to nearly 50 (Table 19). In 59 per cent of the schools, average class size ranged between 26 and 35. Class­es of 10 or less were found in 27 per cent of the one-teacher and 33 per cent of the two-teacher schools. Although the data show a general tendency toward grea.ter similarity in "average class size" in the larger schools, neither very small nor very large classes are limited to either the smaller or the larger schools. As to the percentage of each of the three groups of schools having average class sizes between 26 and 35, there was no statist­ically significant difference between the non-Texas and the college campus groups; in the Texas group, however, a statistical­ ly significant smaller percentage of the schools had average class sizes between 26 and 35 than the non-Texas group, the critical ratio being 3.1. This difference between the latter two groups is accounted for by the fact that a larger percentage of the Texas returns were from smaller schools. When asked to indicate howmucb above the average class size to which they try to Table 19 School Policy Regarding Average Size of Classes a Size of School According to Number of Teachers Size of 1 Classes No. ;, 1-10 7 27 11-15 16-20 21-25 1 4 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 No reply 4 15 No set numbers 3 12 No data 11 42 26Total schools a 2 6-10 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total 11-15 3-5 No. ;, 8 33 1 4 1 4 1 4 13 54 24 No. ;, 8 15 4 8 4 8 4 8 13 25 8 15 3 6 1 2 4 8 1 2 3 6 53 No. ;, 1 1 5 3 27 15 68 38 45 25 22 12 7 4 4 2 179 No. ;, 2 2 8 6 38 29 59 45 21 16 1 1 2 2 131 No. ;, 1 2 2 3 23 35 22 33 15 23 1 2 2 3 No. ;, 13 50 7 27 3 12 1 4 1 4 26 No. ;, Mo. ;, No. ;, 23 5 12 4 4 2 2 3 2 1 29 43 29 14 2 8 2 2 2 1 2 10 40 10 10 10 5 10 42 160 152 69 5 1 20 6 37 8 30 29 13 1 -­4 1 7 7 20 532 Percentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size--group. 24 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION adhere they permitted classes to get before additional sections are organized, the re­plies reflected great diversity of practice. Some said "no set limit" or "additional sections never organized" while others said "no increase permitted" or they gave the approximate numbers of pupils which were permitted above the established "average class size practice" before additional sec­tions were organized. The latter figures ranged from 8 to 60, with one-fourth of the reports showing some figure below 40 and about one-seventh of the reports showing some figure over 45. In 54 per cent of the 532 question­naires no class groups which represented a combination of grades were reported. The various grade and half-grade combinations which were reported are well summarized in the following percentages of the 532 schools: Primary Intermediate and Grades Upper Grades 1. Upper and lower divi­sions of con­tiguous half­grades 12'% 15% 2. Two or more contiguous grades in the same room. 2r:Jf, 2gf, In only 11 schools were there any class groups composed of two or more non­contiguous grades. Practically all of the data on grade combinations came from schools other than the one-teacher and two­teacher schools so that the information which has been presented on this q11estion applies to schools of three or more teacher and more particularly to schools of 6 or more teachers. Apparently the practice of combining grades so as to reduce the number of different classes to be met each day has hot been adopted widely in the smaller schools represented in this survey. In the larger schools the existence of class groups composed of two or more contiguous grades or half-grades is undoubtedly an administrative adjustment to an unequal distribution of pupils among the several grades or a non-correspondence between the number of teachers and the number of grades taught in a given school. Thirty per cent of the respondents stated that the number of pupils in atten­dance fluctuated considerably during the year but in only 10 per cent of the schools was the seasonal variation in attendance large enough to cause the employment of ad­ditional teachers during the peek-attendance periods. Ten different causes were named as being responsible for the seasonal vari­ations in attendance. The cause posited most frequently (by 16 per cent of the re­spondents) was "defense and war work"; other closely associated causes were "tran­sient population" and "army camps". Among the less frequently named causes were ele­ments of a mo·re permanent nature, such as "tenant farmers", "seasonal labor", "tour­ ists", "illness", and "weather". Of special interest were the replies pertaining to the grades in which the larg­est seasonal variation in enrollment occurs. The most typical reply was "no grade in par­ticular". Others did name one or more spe­cific grades but when the replies were ta­bulated each grade from kindergarten through the eighth had been identified with approxi­mately equal frequencies. Part-Ttme Teachers In some schools the situtation is such that the part-time services of one or more teachers are needed. The use of part­time teachers was reported for 28 per cent of the schools (Table 20). The number of part-time teachers per school ranged from 1 to 20. Not enough supplementary informa­tion was given to clarify the reasons why so many part-time teachers were used in some schools. The use of part-time teachers was quite evenly distributed among the several grades (Table 21). Music, physical training, and art were the subjects most commonly taught by the part-time teachers, the impli­cation being that special teachers in these fields distributed their time among several schools in the district. Part-time teachers were used in 28 different subject fields (Table 21). Teaching Space Table 22 presents some interesting facts about the way in which elementary school programs are housed. In every size­group of schools there is a noticeable per­centage of schools in which the total number ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 20 Number of Persons Doing Part-Time Teaching in Elementary Schools a Size of School According to No. of Teachers Number of Part­ 2 1 16-20 21-25 Total 6-10 26-30 31-up 11-15 3-5 Time Teachers No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> None 10 38 12 60 12 50 24 45 256 48 13 50 29 44 5 71 78 44 73 56 One 2 8 3 12 2 8 24 13 18 14 10 15 1 5 65 12 5 9 Two 2 8 1 5 6 5 32 6 15 11 3 6 5 8 Three 2 3 1 14 18 3 4 3 4 15 7 4 Four 1 14 14 3 2 6 5 4 6 3 Five 2 1 2 3 1 4 11 2 3 15 3 2 Six 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 Seven 1 1 1 -­ 2 -­ Eight 1 1 1 2 ·Eleven 1 1 1 -­ Fourteen 1 2 1 -­ Twenty 1 4 1 -­ No reply 20 38 11 42 10 42 46 26 20 15 12 18 127 24 5 19 3 15 24 Total schools 26 20 26 131 66 179 532 53 7 aPercentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size--group. or rooms available ror use by elementary school pupils exceeds the number or teach­ ers in the school. Some or this excess or rooms over teachers is accounted ror by the special rooms such as gymnasium, auditorium library, playroom, shops, and lunchroom, but there are many schools in which there are unused classrooms. Table 23 shows that only 74 per cent or the schools have no un­ used rooms and that 20 per cent or the schools have unused classrooms. The number or unused rooms (Table 23) ranged rrom one to 10 in the schools having unused rooms. The data (Table 22) also show that only 38 per cent or the one-teacher schools consist or only one room and that only 29 per cent or the two-teacher schools consist or only two rooms. In practically every size-group or schools, except the one-teach er and the two-teacher schools, there are some schools that have rewer rooms availabl ror children's use than the number or rull­time teachers employed in the school. The implication is that over-crowding and halr­day sessions prevail in the latter schools. Birth rate trends and shirts in population, especially during the war years, probably explain the maladjustment existing in some schools between enrollment and space ror teaching. The nature or the overcrowded conditions was described in 50 or the re­ports. These conditions represented the us­ual array or circumstances ramiliar to ed­ucators. The methods used to adjust to the over-crowded conditions also covered the us­ual procedures, such as halr-day sessions, use or halls, cloakrooms, auditorium, gymna­siums, portables, and private residences as classrooms. The rollowing speciric lim­itations in unsuitable rooms now used ror teaching were listed: curtains in poor condition, poor ventilation, poor heating, desks too small or in poor condition, walls in poor condition, rooms too small, poor lighting, chalkboards too high or in poor condition, insurricient chalkboard space, 26 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION overhead heating pipes in basement rooms, I soundproof', insuf'f'icient storage space, and f'loors 1n poor condition, band room not building in general need of' repair. Table 21 Grades or Subjects Taught by Persons Doing Part-Time Classroom Teaching Total Grades Taught No. 'f, Kindergarten 18 3 First 22 4 Second 20 4 Third 18 3 Fourth 30 6 Fifth 32 6 Sixth 38 7 Seventh 20 4 Eighth 20 4 Unclass if'ied 36 7 Jr. High 1 No reply 403 Total Subjects Taught No. 'fo 1. Household Arts 23 4 2. History 7 1 3. Music 79 15 66 12 4. P. T. and Health 5. Art 59 11 2 6. Bible 41 8 7. Band or Orchestra 6 1 8. Spelling 8 2 9. English 12 2 10. Social Science 8 2 11. Writing 12. Reading 17 3 16 3 13. Arithmetic 20 4 14. Speech 21 4 15. Manual Arts 6 1 16. Science 17-Lip Reading 5 1 4 1 18. Hearing 2 19. Literature 2 cO. Library 10 2 21. Unclassif'ied 22. College Instruction 5 1 23. Spanish 5 1 1 24. Agriculture 3 1 25. Latin 1 26. Commerce--high school 2 27. French 1 28. Industrial Arts No reply 358 Total schools 532 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 22 Total Number of Rooms in Each Building Available for Use by Elementary School Pupils Number Distribution of Schools According to Number of Teachers of 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total Rooms No. % No. ,, No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % 1 10 38 10 2 2 5 19 7 29 1 2 1 1 14 3 3 3 12 7 29 2 4 12 2 4 3 12 3 13 5 9 2 1 13 2 5 3 13 12 23 4 2 19 4 6 1 4 3 13 10 19 4 2 18 4 7 1 4 7 18 5 3 2 2 15 3 8 1 4 5 9 15 8 21 4 9 1 4 6 11 20 11 2 2 29 6 10 23 13 1 1 24 5 11­ 2 4 22 l? 4 3 28 5 12 25 14 7 5 32 6 13 1 2 13 7 3 2 1 2 18 3 14 14 8 9 7 23 4 15 4 2 17 13 3 5 24 5 16 3 2 15 11 2 3 20 4 17 5 3 10 8 5 8 20 4 18 2 1 16 12 5 8 1 5 24 5 19 2 1 10 8 9 14 21 4 20 2 1 15 11 5 8 1 14 23 4 21 2 1 4 3 6 9 2 8 14 3 22 3 2 6 5 7 11 1 5 1 17 3 23 1 1 2 ? 6 9 1 5 10 2 24 1 1 2 3 4 15 7 1 25 1 1 3 5 4 15 1 14 1 5 10 2 26 2 2 1 4 1 5 4 1 27 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 8 2 10 8 2 28 3 5 1 4 4 1 29 2 3 2 - 30 2 10 2 - 31 2 8 1 14 3 1 32 1 1 5 19 1 5 7 1 33 3 12 1 14 4 1 34 1 1 1 4 2 29 4 1 35 2 10 2 - 36 1 1 1 2 2 - 37 1 1 1 - 38 1 :? 1 - 42 1 5 1 - 43 1 2 1 - 44 1 14 1 5 ¢ - 40 1 4 1 - 50 1 2 1 2 1 5 3 1 64 1 5 1 - No reply 2 8 1 2 3 2 2 ? 1 2 1 5 10 2 Total schools 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 aPerceno~es in each column are based on the number of schools in each size-group. ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 23 Number and Types of Available Rooms Not Being Used Types of Rooms Size o f School Accordin g to Nu mber of Teachers l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. ;, Classroom Auditorium Library Wood Room Storage Special Either classroom or special No rOOllLB not used No reply Total Schools 9 l l 2 12 4 26 5 l l 17 l 24 6 l 2 l 39 4 53 32 2 14 125 8 179 29 l 5 92 5 131 7 6 2 51 l 66 8 17 l 26 2 5 7 6 l l 10 2 20 104 29 l -­4 l l -­l -­31 6 4 l 368 69 26 5 532 Number of ROOllLB Not Used Total No. ;, l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 Varying Number No rOOllLB not used No reply 5 2 2 l 12 4 5 2 17 7 3 l l 39 2 23 14 8 2 l l l 125 4 16 11 l 3 l 2 l 92 4 7 3 2 l l l 51 l 3 2 l l l 17 l l 5 2 2 l l l l 10 2 66 22 38 7 18 3 11 2 4 l 5 l 2 -­l -­l -­2 -­368 69 16 3 Total schools 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Special rooms of one kind or an­other have become very common in elementary schools. Only 16 per cent of the reports indicated no reply to ~~is item or no spe­c-ial rooms (Table 24) . The number of spe­cial rooms in the schools which had them ranged from l to 4o. Approximately 4o per cent of the one-teacher and 70 per cent of the two-teacher schools had one or more special rooms. Schools reporting a large number of special rooms were the platoon or other extensively departmentalized units. Forty-nine different types of special rooms were named. Some of these include service rooms such as the office, the bookroom, storeroom, teacher's rest room, and in a few instances dead-end halls equipped for educational functions. General Time Schedule Historically, schools have adjusted their opening and closing hours to the pre­vailing pattern of life in the communities served by the schools. The adjustment of the school's opening and closing hours to the peculiar circumstances in certain com­munities as well as the degree of stand­ardization of this phase of school practice are reflected in Table 25. More than half of the schools start the morning session between 9:00 and 9:14 A.M.; 87 per cent of the opening hours come between 8:30 and 9:14 A.M. The closing hour comes between 3:30 and 4:14 P.M. for 70 per cent of the schools. The length of the school day (including the lunch period) varies by only 30 minutes 1n 72 per cent of the schools (Table 26). Of special interest are the deviations from the most common practice in Tables 25 and 26. General information about the length of the school day is apt to be mis­leading unless it is supplemented with data showing the age or grade groups for which the school day is shorter than the full­length session. Every grade in school from kindergarten throught the eighth is repre­sented (Table 27) in the summary data show­ing the grade groups for which the school day is less than the full-length session in some school or other. Of course all the grades do not have shortened school days in the same school unless it happens to be a place where the entire school is on half­day sessions, but in some schools one or more of the primary grades whereas in other places one or more of the intermediate or upper grades are on a shortened schedule for one reason or another. A school day shorter than the full­length session was reported most frequently for the primary grades, with approximately equal frequencies for each of grades 1, 2, and 3. The most frequently mentioned amounts that the school day is shortened for certain groups were: one hour, 253 schools; 30 min­utes, 205 schools; 45 minutes, 159 schools; 15 minutes, 108 schools; and 90 minutes, 102 schools. In schools served by school buses there is always the problem of how to care for the children whose school program ends before bus-leaving time and those whose bus­ses bring them to school before the morning session opens. This problem did not prevail in a large proportion of the schools included in this survey (Tables 28 and 29), Although primary grades were named most frequently as the groups dismissed sufficiently before bus­leaving time so that special provisions were made for their care during the interim, each of the other grades was also named by some of the respondents. Twenty-six different procedures were described (Table 28) to pro­vide interim care for pupils dismissed before bus-leaving time; the two most common prac­tices were to have the teacher remain with the pupils and to provide supervised play for the children. Twenty-five different devices (Table 29) were in use for looking after pupils who arrive before the opening of the morning session, the most common practice being "to have the teachers arrive early". Sources of Guidance in Program Making Program making is an extremely im­portant aspect of school management. In preparing the general schedule whereby the school carries forward its work, persons are likely to consult various sources for ideas or plans which might be feasible in the local school. Last year's program was named by 83 per cent of the respondents (Table 30) as a source of guidance in program making. Five other sources of guidance were named for more than 50 per cent of the schools. These five, together with the percentage of schools using each, were: suggestions from classroom teachers, 75; professional books, 67; recommendations from the county or city superintendent's office, 67; programs ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 24 NUJDl>er and Types of Special Rooms NUJDl>er of Special Rooms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 17 21 40 No special roans No reply Total Schools Types of Special Roans 1. Roam far remedial work 2. Burse ' s room 3. Activity roam. 4. Lunchroom 5. Cafeteria 6. Shop 7. Gymnasium 8. Auditarium 9. Visual education room 10. Library 11. Museum 12. Playroom 13· Music or band-piano studio 14. Office 15. Book room 16. Kitchen 17· Nursery Distribution of Schools According to NUJDl>er of Teachersa 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. 3 8 14 27 12 7 2 3 5 11 37 22 14 4 3 4 2 2 10 39 23 9 8 1 1 2 3 19 27 5 3 3 3 8 11 3 4 1 7 6 10 3 9 6 2 1 2 3 1 4 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 5 6 14 7 1 1 1 8 2 5 9 8 5 1 3 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 2Q 4 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 8 2 1 l 2 7 17 38 27 13 5 2 2 1 11 14 8 5 1 1 5 17 15 9 6 1 2 11 42 26 18 9 3 3 6 18 55 50 25 16 4 6 2 7 10 4 2 2 1 2 2 12 58 56 21 13 2 5 2 l 2 22 19 4 4 l 1 1 8 26 32 18 6 2 2 1 2 10 10 5 3 1 2 4 6 2 1 3 4 15 8 4 1 1 2 1 Total No. ;, 73 14 103 19 94 18 63 12 29 5 27 5 23 4 7 1 8 2 6 1 4 l 5 1 1 -­2 -­1 -­1 -­1 -­43 a 41 8 532 Total No. ;, 4 1 8 2 13 2 118 22 41 8 55 10 113 21 180 34 28 5 171 32 3 l 53 10 95 18 31 6 15 3 37 7 3 1 aPercentages in each column are based on the nUJDl>er of schools in each size--group. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 24 (Continued) lumber of Special Rooms Distribution of Schools According to lumber of Teachersa 1 2 3-5 6-10 ll-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. lio. No. ;. 18. P. :s. or health 19. Kindergarten 20. Hana nursing .21. Club room 22. Science room or lab. 23. Art • craft room 24. Stare room 25. Hane economics 26. Testing room 27. Clinic 28. Teacher's work room or lounge 29. Conference & guidance room 30. Reference room 31. Mechanical drawing 32. Sight-saving 33. Speech room 34. Locker room 35. Mentally handi~ capped 36. Dark room 37. First-Aid roam 38. Printing shop 39. Assembly hall 40. Cafeteria, audit­arium. & gym. 41. Cloak room 42. Hall 43. Roam far wood storage 44. water room 45. Living roan 46. Patio 47. Study hall 48. Beat roO!li 49. Dressing room 50. No special rooms No reply 1 1 8 ll 9 3 2 5 4 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 1 1 3 3 2 1 1 1 3 14 ll 9 2 1 2 1 9 1 2 2 1 8 5 7 5 2 4 1 5 ll 5 2 1 3 11 7 5 2 1 7 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 5 6 14 7 1 1 1 4 10 32 30 20 4 1 8 14 3 10 2 3 1 10 2 ll 2 42 8 16 3 31 6 1 -­27 5 26 5 19 4 3 1 2 -­1 -­2 -­1 --1 -­1 -­1 -­1 -­2 -­i -­8 2 2 -­1 -­1 -­1 -­1 -­2 -­4 1 1 -­43 8 120 23 Total schools 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 OBGANIZA~ION OP PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 25 The School-Day Opening Hour and Closing Hour Opening Hour Total No. if, Closing Hour ....._ Total No. :£ 8:00-8:14 8:15-8:29 8:30-8:44 8:45-8:59 9:00-9&14 9:15-9:29 9:30-9:44 9:45-9:59 10:10-10:14 No reply Total schools 6 l 7 l 78 15 91 17 291 55 18 3 21 4 6 l 8 2 6 l 532 11:30-11:45 2:00-2:14 2:15-2:29 2:30-2:44 2:45-2:59 3:00-3:14 3:15-3:29 3:30-3:44 3:45-3:59 4:00-4:14 4:15-4:29 4:30-;4s44 4:45-4-59 l -l -l -7 l 3 l 58 11 42 8 152 29 75 l.4 142 27 20 4 12 2 4 l 5:00-5:14 5 l Ro reply 9 2 -­ Total schools 532 Table 26 Length of School Day Total Length of Day 1n Hours and Minutes No. l --"' 2 hours 45 minutes 5 hours 2 -­ l -­5 hours 15 minutes 2 -­ 5 hours 30 minutes 6 l 6 hours 5 hours 45 minutes 35 7 6 hours 15 minutes 35 7 6 hours 30 minutes 119 22 6 hours 45 minutes 101 19 7 hours 166 31 7 hours 15 minutes 30 6 7 hours 30 minutes 17 3 7 hours 45 minutes 6 1 8 hours 2 -­ No reply 9 2 Total schools 532 Table 27 \.N +o" Grade Gr'oups for Which the School Day Is Shorter than the Full-length Session Amount that aGr-ades Special school day shortened is Kgtn. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Classes Total No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' No. '1> No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' ~ 15 minutes 6 6 18 18 24 22 30 28 13 12 8 7 7 6 1 1 - - 1 1 108 100 ~ 30 minutes 12 6 47 23 63 31 49 24 22 11 8 4 4 2 - - - - - 205 100 l;:j 45 minutes 10 6 44 28 45 28 38 24 10 6 6 4 4 3 1 1 1 1 - - 159 100 ~ 1 hour 11 4 LO! 40 78 31 46 18 9 4 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 - - - 253 100 H 1 hr. 15 min. 2 3 32 43 27 36 9 12 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - 75 100 ~ 1 hr. 30 m:l.n. 4 4 45 44 34 33 16 16 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - 102 100 1 hr. 2 hr. 45 min. 2 7 5 17 19 17 49 42 14 11 35 26 2 6 5 14 -1 -2 1 - 3 - 1 - 3 - -- -- -- -- -- -- 39 42 100 100 § 2 hr. 2 hr. 2 hr. 3 hr. 15 min. 30 min. 45 min. 2 8 1 11 11 44 17 39 9 5 2 11 50 28 32 39 5 4 1 4 28 22 17 15 2 1 1 2 11 6 17 7 ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- --1 - ---- 18 18 6 28 100 100 100 100 ~ H !;;:: H 3 hr. 15 min. 9 100 -­ -­ -­ -­ -­ -­ - - - - - - - - - - - - 9 100 ~ 3 hr •• 30 min. 3 hr. 45 min. 4 hr. 8 5 5 50 38 33 5 2 3 31 15 20 2 2 3 13 15 20 1 1 1 6 8 7 -1 1 -8 7 -1 1 -8 7 -1 1 -8 6 --- --- --- --- --- --- 16 13 15 100 100 100 s 4 hr. ·15 min. 5 37 3 21 3 21 3 21 - - - - - - - - - - - - 14 100 ~ 4 hr. ;,o min. 4 hr •• 45 min. 5 hr. Shortened but 8 2 3 57 29 50 3 3 1 22 43 17 2 1 1 14 14 17 1 1 1 7 14 16 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 14 7 6 100 100 100 t-:3 H 0 l::i:j t/.l amount not given 2 6 9 29 8 25 7 22 2 6 2 6 1 3 1 3 - - - - 32 100 Not shortened - - - -­ --­ --­ - - - - - - - - - - - - 29 No reply - - - -­ --­ --­ - - - - - - - - - - - - 94 Total 123 379 332 218 62 32 23 6 2 2 1302 aPercentages were calculated across each row. ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 28 Grade Groupe Dismissed Sufficiently Before Bus-Leaving Time so That Special Provisions are Made for Their Care During the Interim Total Total Provisions Made for Their Care **· Groupe Dismissed larl.y * .,. .,. Jio. Jio. Kgtn. 6 1 30-minute recess periods 1 ­ 24 5 Play outside 1n fair weather Seat work 1n bad weather 1 7 1 3 1 2 ­ 1 ­ Play 1n basement 9 2 .. 1-2 18 3 Roam. kept warm 2 ­ 42 8 Stay 1n auditorium 1-3 Permitted to use grm. 1-4 11 2 5 1 6 1 Permitted to use other play equipmant 6 J 1-5 2 ­ 12 2 Rest period 1-6 44 8 Supervised play 1-7 5 1 62 12 Teacher remains vith pupils 1-8 13 2 2 ­ Art classes 1 ­ 6-8 6 1 18 3 Gemes, stories, films Jio special grades Bue sheds used :iro children ride busses 3 1 97 18 Teachers on hall and playground dut;r Jione 155 29 3 1 4 1 Special group inetruction 144 24 Jio reply Librar;r period 7 1 1 ­ Remain 1n halls 1n bad weather Total number of schools 532 4 1 Stud,y Ball 16 3 Hane-rocn indoor activicy 4 1 Ji. Y .A. students used 12 2 Jio special provisions 2 - Bue rocns provided Claesrocn activities 13 3 14 3 Playground activities Student patrol at bus stop 3 1 1 ­ Bus leaves early with primar;r children 152 29 None dismissed early No children ride busses 97 18 109 20 No reply Total number of schools 532 *Some schools reported ** A number of schools reported the use of several groups dismissed several provisions. early. OF>GANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATNE PRACTICES Table 29 Provisions Made fCll:" Pupils Who Arrive Early by Bua Provisions * Total No. "' ~lay outside in fair weather Play in basement Building kept warm Stay in auditorium Permitted to use gym Permitted to use other play equipment Supervised play Teachers arrive early on duty Play on playground Games, stories, films One room for early pupils Room for boys & one for girls, supervised Remain in halls Special group instruction Library period St udy hall or study period Indoor activity, home room No special provisions Odd jobs--getting roam ready No children arrive early Supervised by principal Conference period Janitor present Admitted to building Work in classrooms Play in playroom Bus driver stays until teacher arrives No children ride busaes No reply Total schools 16 3 4 1 4 1 2 -5 1 4 1 18 3 80 15 10 2 1 -6 1 2 -9 2 4 1 3 1 10 2 22 4 25 5 2 -72 14 6 1 1 -4 1 13 2 14 3 6 1 1 -97 18 143 27 532 *In some cases several provisions were made. ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 30 Sources of Guidance in Progr-am Making Size of Schools Acccrding to Bumber of Teachers 9 Sources 1 2 3-5 6-10 ll-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total Jio. No. " No. " No. " No. " .lo. ~ No. " No. " Bo. " No. " " 1. Last year's progr-am 21 81 21 87 38 72 148 83 llO 84 55 83 24 92 6 86 16 8o 439 83 2 • Progr-ams in other nearby schools 10 38 12 50 ll 21 56 31 54 41 27 41 14 54 4 57 6 30 194 36 3. Progr-ame recC11111Bnded in a. State courses of study 20 77 22 92 40 75 126 70 70 53 4o 61 ll 42 3 43 10 50 342 64 b. County course of study 5 19 5 21 13 25 18 10 9 7 8 ~ 2 8 1 5 61 11 c. Local course of study 222 42 3 12 2 8 13 25 73 41 70 53 36 55 15 58 4 57 6 30 4. BecC111111Bndations :f'rClll supt.'s office (co. cr city) 17 65 14 21 31 58 122 68 93 71 42 64 17 65 4 57 14 70 354 67 5. Professional books 14 54 18 75 31 58 123 69 88 67 45 68 16 62 5 71 15 75 355 67 6. Suggestions tr<111 class­room teachers 10 38 9 38 33 62 140 78 105 80 57 86 23 88 7 100 15 75 399 75 7. Suggestions tr<111 super­viscrs 8 30 9 38 29 55 89 50 57 44 38 58 15 58 3 43 12 60 260 49 8. Suggestions frClll parents 7 27 4 17 10 19 40 22 44 34 17 26 7 30 2 ~9 5 25 136 26 9. Your own experience in other schools 22 85 21 87 32 60 103 58 74 56 38 58 13 50 5 71 10 50 317 60 10. Professional magazines 3 13 2 4 2 1 1 2 8 2 11. Summer school & college courses 1 4 2 4 6 3 2 2 7 ll 1 5 19 4 12. Local needs 1 4 1 1 3 2 2 3 1 4 8 2 13. Suggestions by experts 5 3 2 2 1 4 8 2 14. Suggestions tr<111 cr needs of pupils 14 3 3 2 6 5 2 3 3 12 15. Wcrkshops er professional :meetings 3 2 2 2 2 3 7 1 16. The war effort 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 8 7 1 17. Curriculum studies 4 2 1 1 1 4 1 5 7 1 18. Time allotments made by supt. 1 1 1 4 1 5 3 1 19· School Board 1 2 1 ­ 20. State & local safety organizations 1 1 1 ­ 21. Bulletins 1 2 1 ­ 22. Lectures 1 1 1 ­ 23 • .B.I.A. Progr-am. 1 1 1 ­ 24. Suggestions tr<111 Teachers College 1 1 1 ­ 25. Present conditions 1 2 1 ­ 26. Band director l 1 1 ­ 27. Demands of college 1 2 7 4 1 1 9 2 .lo reply 2 4 2 1 2 2 6 1 Total schools 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 a Percentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size~gr-oup. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMlNI.STRATIVE PRACTICES recommended in state courses of study, 64; and the faculty's own experience in other schools, 60. Suggestions from supervisors, local courses of study, and programs in ~ther near-by schools were the only other sources of guidance named by more than 30 but less than 50 per cent of respondents. In the 9 most frequently named sources or guidance in program making, as well as in the other 18 items, one recog­nizes four major factors. There is the bond of tradition as represented by "last year's program", "programs in other near­by schools", 11own experience in other schools", and "suggestions from classroom teachers". There is the influence of state county, and local courses of study. A third factor consists of 11suggestions from classroom teachers" which gives an insight into the role of teachers in this phase of school management. The role of the super­intendent is likewise reflected in the large percentage of reports which listed the superintendent's recommendations as a source of guidance. The fourth factor to which attention is directed is the minor roles played by professional magazines, college courses, suggestions from experts, and local needs. Some of the less frequ­ently named sources of guidance may, of course, exert their influence through one or more of the more frequently used sources. Sources of guidance in program mak­ing used by a larger percentage of the smaller than by the larger schools are " "state course of study" and the "teacher's own experience in other schools"; the lat­ter item reflecting greater individual teacher autonomy in the small schools. Items named more frequently for larger than for smaller schools are "local courses of study", "professional books", "suggestions from classroom teachers", and "suggestions from supervisors". Last year"' s program was a source of guidance in program making in about the same percentage of schools of all sizes. Forty-two per cent of the question­naires showed no major differences between last year's and this year's program (Table 31). On the remaining blanks were des­cribed 86 different ways in which this year's (the year in which the blank1s were filled out) programs difeered from last year's programs. Several significant facts are revealed by Table 31, apart from the large number of types of changes. No one change was mentioned in more than 14 per cent of the reports, indicating widespread di­versity in the program changes. "Activities connected with the war" ranks highest in frequency of mention among the total of 86 different items and ranks highest among the phases of school work to which greater em­phasis was being given. Equally significant in the group reflecting "greater emphasis" is the wide range of items named and the high frequencies accorded the fundamentals and physical education and health. The most significant fact about the group of items added is the small number of them and the few schools which reported each. The impli­cation is that such changes in the instruc­tional program as were undertaken were mostly by way of changed emphasis rather than by adding or dropping selected subjects or acti­vities. The changes which are more admini­ strative in character show a wide range but no common or predominant trend. Extensive comparisons were made of the Texas and non-Texas schools on sources of guidance in program making. Table 32 shows these comparisons for schools of all sizes. Only 3 of the 11 comparisons reveal statistically significant differences be­tween these two groups of schools. A signi­ficantly higher percentage of the Texas group obtained guidance in program making from recommendations in the state course of study than did the schools in the non-Texas group. This difference may be due to the fact that the Texas group was composed of a larger per cent of smaller schools (on the assumption that smaller schools make more use of a state course of study than do the. larger schools) and there may have been re­flected a certain halo effect favorable to the State Lepartment of Education since in Texas the questionnaires were mailed to the schools by the State Department and the school people knew that the results would be used in a project sponsored by the State Department. The same explanations may also be applicable in part to the fact that a significantly higher percentage of non-Texas schools secured guidance in program planning from local courses of study and from super­visors. There is also the fact that the larger schools find themselves in adminis­trative units in which supervisors and lo­cally prepared courses of study exist. The differences between the Texas ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 31 Major Ways in Which This Year's Program Differs from Last Year's Programs Total Program Changes ,,, No. 1. Greater emphasis on: Activities connected with war program 75 14 Character and personality training 6 1 Science and conservation 13 2 Art 5 1 Physical education and health 43 8 Social Studies 8 2 Pan .America 4 1 Mathematics 5 1 Individual differences 6 1 Needs of Locality 1 Creative activity 5 7 1 Fundamentals 27 5 Playground supervision 7 1 Morettime allowed for music 9 2 Increased time far library period 3 1 2 ­ Greater stress on citizenship Additional activities 3 1 1 ­ Attention to "Texas School of the Air" Elementary Spanish added 15 3 1 ­Regular study periods Chapel or assembly program 1 ­ 2 ­ Care-area idea 1 ­ Additional opportunity classes 1 ­ More visual aids used 1 ­More auditorium programs Instrumental music added, orchestra 1 ­ 2. :&n.phasis changed (direction not indicated) 3 1 3. Added; Elementary science 3 1 6 1 Grades 7 and 8 Extra-curricular activities 1 ­Pre-flight study 3 1 4 1 Shopwork Public school music 3 1 Home-making 1 ­ 1 ­Speech correction class Bible study 1 ­ 4. Dropped or »n.phasis reduced: Curtailed extra-curricular activities 1 Visual aids used less frequently 5 1 ­ 4 1 Oral reading dropped in Grade 8 Ability grouping dropped 1 ­ ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 31 (Continued) Progc-am. Changes Added Grade 8 Athletic contests dropped Interscholastic League events dropped Spanish taken from curriculum 5. Changed from departmental to one-teacher class 6. Less departmental work 7. Departmental plan introduced or extended 8. Teacher load increased 9. Increased correlation 10. Increased unification 11. Shorter Periods 12. Longer periods 13. Fewer teachers 14. Combination of groups 15. Social studies coordinated 16. Intermission periods shifted or changed in length 17· More enriched and flexible curriculum 18. Time of beginning and/ or dismissing changed 19. Teachers shifted from one subject to another 20. Personnel changes in faculty 21. Changes in routine management 22. Grades 2 and 3 taken off platoon 23. Change in teaching methods 24. Modified PTA program. and assemblies 25. Changed promotion schedule 26. Lunch program. reorganized 27. Smaller groups 28. Additional equipment 29. Additional rooms in use 30. Health, Civics and Agriculture added 1n upper grades 31. Play periods before 11 a.m. for all small children 32. Enrollment decreased, fewer teachers, few classes 33. Principal does more teaching 34. Survey of community affairs 35. No record of last year's program. 36. No librarian, teachers take care of it 37. Twelve-grade plan introduced 38. Playground divided as to games and age 39. Free preparation period for each teacher 40. Open at 10:00 a.m., 5 middle months 41. Sectioning done on age-basis 42. Grade 1 taken off platoon 43. Decreased teacher load 44. Greater supervision 45. Better· personnel records 46. Fewer special teachers 47. Changes in home room organization No reply No changes Total number of schools Total No. 3 1 1 1 1 5 1 10 2 7 1 5 1 4 1 8 2 2 13 2 2 3 1 3 1 4 1 14 3 15 3 2 4 1 5 1 2 1 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 4 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 84 16 139 26 532 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 32 Comparison of 200 Texas and 286 Non-Texas Schools of all Sizes on Sources of Guidance in Progr-am Making Sources of Guidance 200 Texas Schools Pi S.E.p1 286 non-Tex. Schools P2 S.E.p2 S. E. Diff Diff. between p 1 and p2 Critical Ratio Is Diff. Significant? 1. Last Year's progr-a.m 84 .025 83 .022 .034 .01 .3 No 2. Progr-ams in other nearby schools 38 .034 38 .029 .055 .oo .o No 3. Progr-a.me recommen­ ded in state course of study 81 .027 54 .029 .040 .27 6.7 Yes 4. Progr-am recOlll!llBnd­ ed in county course of study 12 .022 12 .019 .029 .oo .o No 5. Progr-a.m recommend­ ed in local course of study 35 .033 51 .029 .044 .16 3.6 Yee 6. Recam1111:mdation from superintendents office 66 .033 73 .026 .042 .07 1.6 No 7. Professional books 62 .034 71 .026 .043 .09 2.0 No 8. Suggestions from classroom teachers 72 .031 79 .024 .039 .07 1.7 No 9. Suggestions frcm supervisors 36 .033 57 .029 .044 .21 4.7 Yes 10. Suggestions from parents 22 .029 27 0.26 .039 .05 1.2 No 11. Your own experiences in other schools 65 .033 57 .029 .044 .08 1.8 No and non-Texas schools of all sizes which have been described and interpreted in the preceding paragraph are substantiated fur­ther in the 22 comparisons shown in Table 33 and 34. Note that in Table 33 item 5 does not show a significant difference be­tween the two groups of 11-to 15-teacher schools and that in Table 34 only item 3 shows a difference between the two groups of 6-to 10-teacher schools which is sta­ tistically significant. In the 11 comparisons between the non-Texas schools and the campus demonstra­tion schools (Table 35), only items 5 and 6 attain differences which are statistically significant. Larger percentages of the non Texas schools than campus schools obtain guidance in program making from local courses of study and from superintendent's recommendation. G.uiding Principles Used in Program Making Some schools have developed or a­dopted certain guiding principles which the schools endeavor to follow or not to violate in the arrangement of daily classroom sche­dules. To the question, "Are any such guid­ing principles used in your school?", 34 per cent of the non-Texas, 40 per cent of the Texas, 52 per cent of the campus, or 38 per cent of all 532 respondents answered in the affirmative. When asked to name the guiding principles used in program making and to describe how each was applied in the making of classroom schedules, 68 different kinds of replies were recorded. A careful perusal of this wide array of answers suggested sev­eral impressions. In the first place, Oflly 38 per cent of the 532 respondents indicated affirmatively that guiding principles were ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 33 Comparison of Eleven-to-Fifteen-Teacher Texas and Non-Texas Schools on Sources of Guidance in Program !eking 74 non-Te:x. Diff. 45 Texas Iscritical Sources of Guidance S.E. Diff betweenSchools schools difference ratio :p1 and :p 2 s.E.:p 1 S.E.:p2 significant? :p 2 Pi. 1. Last year's :program .046 .044 .064 1.1 82 .07 No 89 2. Programs in other near-by schools 42 41 .01 .1 No .073 .093 .057 3. Programs recommend­ed in state course of study .067 42 .088 .29 Yes 71 .057 3.3 4. Program recommend­ed in county course of study 2 .020 2.2 11 .041 .036 .09 No 5. Program recommend­ed in local course of study .2.074 .02 .057 .094 No 53 55 6. Recamnendations from su:perinten­dent's office .067 .02 .2 71 .051 .085 No 73 7. Professional books .072 62 .o8 .089 70 .053 No .9 8. 81J8gestions from classroom teachers 82 81 .044 .01 .1.057 .065 No 9. 81J8gestions frcm supervisors 20 .082 .059 4.6 .057 .38 Yes 58 10. 81J8gestion from :parents .067 29 .086 .06 .6 .055 No 35 11. Your own experience in other schools .073 .oo .o .057 .093 No 58 58 used in program making; 20 per cent said "No", while the rest skipped the question, thus implying a negative answer. Most or the arrirmative replies came rrom schools with more than 5 teachers. The types or guiding principles which were listed lert much doubt as to the meaning attached by the respondents to the phrase "guiding prin­ciples used in program making". The data rrom this portion or the study lert the writer with the impression that program making in a majority or the schools is a combination or "doing as we did last year" plus making adjustments to current conveni­ences and inconveniences rather than a pro­cedure designed to give errective applica­tion to sound educational and psychological principles. This impression is substanti­ated by the details reported in the para­graphs which rollow. Only 5 or the 68 dirrerent statements listed as guiding principles in program mak­ing were recorded on 20 or more or the re­ports. These rive, together with their re­spective rrequencies or mention, were: sub­jects alternated with periods or physical activity and relaxation, 87; rundamental sub­jects taught early in the day, 39; program kept elastic to allow ror teacher and pupil initiative, 40; program suited in both length and arrangement to age and development of children, 20; and schedules arranged to fit time of special teachers or teachers who come rrom other buildings, 20. Although the various statements list­ed as guiding principles in program making appeared to be a scattered array or items, a certain grouping or statements was evident. It is significant that the largest number of dtrferent statements related to various ORGANIZATION OP PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 34 Comparison of Six-to-Ten-Teacher Texas and Non-Texas Schools on Sources of Guidance in PrOgr"am Making Sources of Guidance 59 Tex. Schools S.E.p1pl 95 llon-Te:x. Schools S.E.p2p2 S.E. Diff Diff. between p1 and P2 critical ratio Is difference significant? L Last year's prOgr"am 88 .042 81 .04 .058 .07 1.2 No 2. PrOgr"ams in other nearby schools 41 .064 31 .047 .079 .10 1.2 No 3. Programs recC111111ended in state course of stu4 90 .039 65 .048 .062 .25 4.o Yes 4. PrOgr'am recamnended in county course of stu4 12 .044 12 .033 .055 .oo .o No 5. PrOgr"am recamnended in local course of stu4 41 .064 51 .051 .082 .lOq 1.2 No 6. Recamnendations :f'rcm superintendents office 68 .060 82 .039 .072 .14 1.9 No 7. Professional Books 64 .062 75 .044 .076 .11 1.4 No 8. Suggestions :f'rcm classrocm teachers 85 .046 79 .041 .062 .06 .9 No 9. Suggestions f'rcm superviscrs 36 .062 59 .050 .080 .23 2.8 No 10. Suggestions f'rcm parents 19 .051 23 .043 .066 .04 .6 No n. Your awn experience in other schools 63 .062 55 .051 .080 .08 LO No concerns for children's health. The fol­lowing statements are illustrative of the longer list: "subjects alternated with pe­ iods of physical activity and relaxation"; "rhythmical activities conducted at times when relaxation is necessary"; "activity periods spaced widely"; "muscular activi­ties precede physical education periods"; "mid-morning lunch period"; "corrective gym· gymnastics emphasized"; "light subjects taught directly before lunch or recess pe­riods"; "no lessons requiring muscular co­ordination ai'ter strenuous play"; "rest pe­riod following noon recess"; "exercise when children become restless"; "sufficient rest and play periods provided"; "physical ed­ucation is the last class in the afternoon"; "physical education for all classes"; "phy­sical education placed as far from lunch period as possible"; "music must not follow physical education class"; "physical educa­tion periods not to precede or follow recess periods"; "no strenuous physical activities at lunch time"; "play or rest period as near middle of' half-day as possible"; and "smal­lest and largest children not on playground at the same time". Concern about children's attention span was reflected in the following state­ments: "length of period"; "consider atten­tion span"; "program suited to age group"; and "alternate longer recitation periods with shorter periods". Concern f'or curriculum interrelation­ships was evidenced by such comments as: "use of weekly rather than daily schedule"; "most activities centered around social sciences"; "alternate reading and writing subjects"; "fewer but longer periods for creative activities"; "study period follows ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 35 Comparison of 286 Non-Texas and 46 College Campus Demonstration Schools on Sources of Guidance in Program Ma.king Sources of Guidance 286 Non-Tex. Schools P1 S. E. P1 46 Camp. Demons. schools P2 S.E.p 2 s. E. Diff Diff. between Critical p and p Ratio l 2 Is difference Sign:tficant? 1. Last year 1 s program 83 .022 74 .064 .068 .09 1.3 No 2. Programs 1n other nearby schools 38 .029 24 .062 .061 .14 2.2 No 3. Programs recammended 1n state course of study 54 .029 57 .072 .078 .03 .4 No 4. Program recommended 1n county course of study 12 .019 4 .028 .034 .08 2.3 No 5. Program recanmended 1n local course of study 51 .029 :;_3 .049 .057 .38 6.6 Yes 6. Recanmendations from superintendent'e office 73 .026 28 .066 .071 .45 6.3 Yes 7. Professional books 71 .026 63 .071 .076 .08 1.0 No 8. Suggestions from classroom teachers 79 .024 63 .071 .075 .16 2.1 No 9. Suggestions from supervisors 57 .029 52 .073 .079 .05 .6 No 10. Suggestions from parents 27 .026 35 .070 .075 .08 1.0 No 11. Your own experience 1n other schools 57 .029 54 .073 .079 .03 .3 No the re.citation"; "integrated so that sub­jects contribute to a unit of work"; "his­tory and geography taught consecutively"; "form and content subjects follow one an­other"; "combine classes to provide longer periods 11 ; "alternate subjects to provide longer periods 11 ; "prevent consecutive double periods in the same grade"; "integrated so­cial studies"; "longer periods for related subjects"; "general grouping of subjects in­to language arts, skills, and social stud­ies"; "music and art on alternate days"; and "home room teacher has the class the first period in the morning". The fact that some principals still believe that there is a "best" time of day for some subjects or that some subjects are "harder" than others was reflected by such statements as: "number work placed early in the day"; "subjects requiring most in­ tensive studj: scheduled in the forenoon"; "study reading early in the day in the low­er grades"; "never have arithmetic the first period"; "physical education in the after­noon"; and "reading should have 'best' time". External Controls Governing Program Making In many instances program making in individual schools must be adjusted to ex­ternal factors over which the staff of the school has little or no control. It was somewhat of a surprise to find that 60 per cent (Table 36) of the schools included in the study enjoyed complete freedom in pro­gram making. The percentages for the three groups of schools which had complete free­dom in program planning were: Texas schools, 70; non-Texas schools, 53; and the campus demonstration schools, 37. The difference ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 36 External Controls Governing Program Making Frequency by Size of School According to Number of Teachers External Controls I. Complete freedom in pro­ gram making Yes No No reply Total schools II· Controls: 1. Supervisory visits of principal 2. Feriodic visits of: special teachers general supervisors special supervisors 3. Children from other bldgs. use facilities 4. Same of pupils spend part-time in another bldg. 5. Time allotments pres­cribed by central office 6. Suggestions from state course of stuey 7. Subject to apprpval of Co. School Board ar Cammissioner 8. Follow county plan in some core-areas 9. Schedule must fit that of another school, BO al! may ride bus 10. Student teaching 11. Standards set up by State Dept. of Educa­tion 12. Follow city course of stuey 13. Teachers spend part-time in another school 14. Departmental plan fol­lowed in same grades 15. Must use buildings with others aFer cent based on 532. 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 No. No. No. No. No. No. No. 26-30 21 4 1 26 20 1 3 24 36 13 4 53 94 68 17 179 83 44 8 131 40 25 1 66 14 7 5 26 1 1 1 1 5 1 5 3 4 38 6 34 13 4 18 6 16 8 15 3 8 8 8 2 7 3 25 21 8 3 1 3 24 29 14 5 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 8 2 3 2 1 4 1 5 8 1 bFer cent based on 171. 8 2 1 1 1 1 3 No. 5 2 7 1 1 1 1 1 31-up No. 10 9 1 20 6 1 5 1 7 1 1 Total No. ;. 321 171 40 532 60a 32 7 10 6b 93 20 79 33 54 12 19 60 35 83 49 5 3 1 3 1 2 5 16 3 9 7 5 20 2 4 3 12 1 5 3 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 36 (Continued) External Controls 16. Teacher's Union 17. Same grade units are followed 18. Observe same holidays as another school be­cause same bus carries children 19. Periodic visits of deputy state super­visors 20. Try-to conform to other schools in regard to time allotment 21. Try to adhere to state course of study 22. Part-time teachers 23. Coordination of pro­gram vith two other elementary schools 24. Opening, noon, and closing uniform due to bueses Total schools Freque ncy by Size of School According to Bumber of Teachers 1 2 3-5 6-10 ll-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. No. 1 1 No. 1 ... 1 Bo. 1 1 No. Bo. Bo. Bo. !lo. 1 1 1 2 1 No. 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 5-­171 .,, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 betveen the percentages for non-Texas and the campus schools does not have statistical significance {the critical ratio being 2.0) but there ls a statistically significant difference betveen the percentages for the Texas and non-Texas groups {the critical ratio being 3.9). On 32 per cent of the returns {re­presenting 171 schools) the respondents i­dentified the external controls vhlch must be taken into account in program making in the local school. Of the 24 different ex­ternal controls vhlch were listed {Table 36) only 6 were named by 10 per cent or more of the respondents. The six most frequently named external controls, together with the per cent of the 171 respondents naming each, were: periodic visits of special teachers, 54; time allotments prescribed by central office, 49; some pupils spend part-time in another building, 35; children from other buildings use our facilities, 19; periodic visits of special supervisors, 12; and teachers spend part-time in another school, 12. Internal Controls Governing Program Making Internal controls ave~ program making were much more common than the external con­trols. Only 13 per cent of the reports (Ta­ble 37) failed to contain one or more inter­nal factors affecting pro~am planning. Of the 35 different internal controls mentioned in the questionnaires, only 5 vere named by more than 10 per cent of the respondents. These five items were: (1) staggered use of specialized equipment and facilities in science, art, music, shop, and home econom­ics; (2) staggered use of gymnasium, library, and auditorium; (3) part-time teaching by principal or vice-principal; (4) size of lav­atories requires staggered recess periods; and (5) size of playground requires staggered recess periods. ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 37 Internal Controls Governing Program Making Internal Controls Size of School According to Number of Teachersa 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. '/, No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii 1. Part-t:tma teaching by principal or vice- principal 2. Size of playground requires staggered 1 4 2 8 8 15 64 36 46 35 8 12 2 4 l 14 l 5 133 25 lunch periods 3. Size of lavatories requires staggered 3 6 13 7 23 18 18 27 6 23 3 43 5 25 71 13 recess periods 4. Staggered use of: 4 8 45 25 45 34 22 33 5 19 2 29 5 25 128 24 Gym 8 15 61 34 45 34 33 50 13 50 3 43 8 40 171 32 Auditorium 5 9 37 21 34 29 33 50 10 38 4 57 6 30 133 25 Library 5. Staggered use of specialized equip­ment and facilities in: 1 4 11 21 55 31 49 37 26 39 11 42 2 29 10 50 165 31 Science 2 8 4 8 17 10 19 15 13 20 6 23 2 29 5 2",, 68 13 Art 3 6 36 20 23 18 16 24 8 31 2 29 7 35 95 18 Music 12 23 72 40 61 47 31 47 9 35 4 57 10 50 199 37 Shop 4 8 16 9 15 11 17 26 13 50 1 14 4 20 70 13 Hane Kconamics 6. Overcrowded con­ 4 8 15 8 9 7 14 21 6 23 l 14 6 30 55 10 dition 7. Mast arrange for lower grades to be dismissed early 8. Saneone must pre­pare lunch 9. Staggered play pe­riods on playground 10. Staggered use of visual or auditory l 4 l 4 l 4 1 2 7 4 3 2 9 5 10 8 1 l 10 8 10 15 3 5 1 4 2 29 l 14 3 15 l 5 34 6 5 1 1 -25 5 aids 11. Cafeteria too 61DB.ll 1 2 3 2 4 3 1 2 9 2 to accommodate all 12. Staggered use of playrocm 13. Departmental teaching 14. Routine affairs-attendance, etc. 15· Use of city library 16. Religious education classes 17. Use of special acti­vity rooms 18. Lack of adequate equipment 19. Leck of ll:nglish­speaking background in homes 20. Too few teachers for 1 4 1 4 1 2 9 5 l l 2 l l 1 l l 1 1 9 7 3 2 2 2 3 2 4 6 l 2 2 3 l 4 1 5 l 5 25 5 5 1 7 1 l -1 -l -3 l l 2 l - no. of classes 1 4 1 2 2 - ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 37 (Continued) Size of School According to Number of Teachers a Internal Controls l No. '1> 2 No. '1> 3-5 No. '1> 6-10 No. '1> 11-15 No. '1> 16-20 No. '1> 21-25 No. '1> 26-30 No. '1> 31-up No. '1> Total No. '1> 21. Convenience of de­partmental teachers in regard to home room program 22. Staggered use of drinking fountains 23. Platoon plan of organization 24. Band 25 . Home economics is taught in H. S. 26. Bus schedule 27. Schools of the Air 28 . Visiting Library 29 . 4-H Club 30. Alternation of use of playground and classrooms 31. Allocation of sub-ject-student teacher load 32. ~tronoscope 33. Difference in size of children in primary and upper grades 34. Part-time teachers 35. Availability of supervisors l 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 l l l 1 l 1 1 1 1 2 1 l 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 14 1 5 l l l 1 1 2 l 1 1 1 1 l 2 l 1 --------------- None No reply Total schools 5 5 26 19 19 4 2 24 17 8 5 10 53 9 19 4 14 179 2 8 5 5 131 4 4 l 3 66 2 5 2 1 26 4 4 ]. 7 14 l 2 20 5 10 27 43 532 5 8 a Percentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size--group. ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Several interesting features are re-1 time teaching by the principal, the various vealed by the data of Table 37. Practical­ly all of the interna l controls governing program making pertain to multiple use of facilities OT personnel. Although the in­ ternal controls are limited to factors in­ herent in the situation within the individ­ual school, as distinct from the external controls, only a small percentage of schools was entirely free of internal controls. If internal and external controls are viewed together, one gets a more complete picture of the handicaps with which schools must contend in their efforts to achieve class ­room schedules that are in harmony with sound educational principles. Only 8 of the 35 different internal controls were reported for one-and two­teacher schools, thus implying greater free­dom in program planning in these smaller schools. In the medium sized schools (those having from 6 to 20 teachers) a lar­ger number of diff-.srent internal controls wer·e operative than in either the smaller or the larger schools. Part-time teaching by the principal was a controlling factor in a significantly higher percentage of schools with 6 to 15 teachers than in smal­ler or l arger schools. Except for the part-internal controls named most frequently were given for approximate ly the same percentage of schools of various sizes except the one-and two-teacher schools. Program Planning The external and internal controls affecting program making should be borne in mind as one studies the data to be presen­ted on program planning. When asked, ''Who in your school plans the general over-all program for the school as a whole so that all phases operate smoothly, that all events occur at properly scheduled times, and that there are no conflicts?", 14 different re­plies were given (Table 38). The role of the ~rincipal stands out clearly in this function, his name a lone being mentioned in 57 per cent of the reports and his name plus the names of others appearing in an ad­ditional 16 per cent of the blanks. The role of t eachers in this administrative function appeared in 12 per cent of the questionnaires. In only 8 per cent of the schools were daily classroom schedules prepared by the princi­pal and handed to teachers. Table 38 Program Planning Procedure Total A. Persons who do the general planning of the over-all program No. ~ 1. Superintendent 37 8 14 3 2. Superintendent and principal 3. Supervisor 3 l 4. Principal 301 57 5. Principal and supervisor 9 2 6. Principal and t eachers 42 8 7. Tea chers 30 6 4 1 8. Cooperative planning 4 l 9. Principal, supervisor, and teachers 10. Superintendent, principal, teachers 3 1 14 3 11. Director 1 ­ 12. Principal and firector l ­ 13. Area Committees 2 ­ 14. Superintendent and teachers No reply 67 13 Total number of schools 532 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 38 (Continued) B. Da ily cla ssroom schedule prepared by principal and handed to teachers Yes No No reply Total number of schools C. Procedures followed in preparation of daily schedules when principal does not provide schedules for each teacher 1. Teachers organize programs 2. Teachers organize programs around specia l teachers• program 3. Teachers organize programs; submitted to principal for approval or suggestions 4. Teacher prepares schedule ~ccording to time allotment provided by principal 5. All teachers, administrators work together 6. Principal plans departmental program 7. Teachers follow suggestions sent out by Superintendent 1 s office 8. Supervisor makes plans 9, All teachers except special teachers organize programs 10. Teachers and principal work together 11. Teacher follows suggestions of state course of study 12. Teachers and supervisors plan 13. Teachers make plans, superintendent approves 14. Made as a group project 15. Departmental teachers plan together 16. Teacher prepares own schedule, discusses with principal, submits to county supervisor for approval 17. Departmental tea chers plan schedule in conference with principal and supervisor 18. Teachers make schedules for lower grades; principal makes schedule for upper grades 19. Principal makes general schedule; teachers plan remainder 20. Superintendent and teachers plan together 21. Superintendent makes schedule 22. Teacher's suggestions followed where practical 23. Copy of each teacher 1 s schedule filed in office 24. Time allotment prescribed by central office 25. Director and supervisor cooperate 26. Teacher makes program; subjec.t to revision by superintendent or principal 27. Planned cooperativeiy by students, teachers and administra~ tors No reply Total schools Total llJo. '/, 45 8 397 75 90 17 532 172 29 61 16 18 5 3 3 13 66 l 3 l l 2 l 2 25 22. 4 l 3 l 2 3 4 2 2 68 532 32 5 11 3 3 l l l 2 12 l 5 4 l l l l 13 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION In the schools in which teachers have a part in planning the dally classroom schedules, 27 different procedures were re­ported (Table 38), only 3 of which were named by more than 10 per cent of the re­spondents. The various degrees of teacher freedom in program planning are reflected in Table 39. Note that conformance with time allotment prescriptions ls the most frequently mentioned factor limiting teach-planning ls clarified further by the data assembled in Table 40. Although the percent­ages in the various t abulations which have been presented are not identical, yet the data in general show that in somewhat over three-fourths of the schools teachers enjoy varying degrees of participation in planning their own classroom schedules and, by the same token, exercise varying amounts of free­dom regarding their own dally or weekly Table 39 Extent of Individual Teacher Freedom in Making Dally Schedules Practices Total No. 'f, 1. Teacher has complete freedom 2. Teacher prepares schedule, but must be approved by supervisor, principal, or superintendent 3. Time allotment must be considered 4. Program ls very flexible 5. Teacher has considerable freedom 6. Arrangements for special subjects the only restrictions 7. Departmental plans the only restriction 8. Intermission period arrangements not in teacher's hands 9. Must comply with state, city, or county course of study 10. No freedom 11. Building use the only restriction 12. Procedure democratic; originality of teachers encouraged 13. Teacher's suggestions considered 14. Teachers check schedules together 15. Teacher makes schedule for lower grades; principal for upper 16. Teacher works with principal 17. Principal makes schedules; subject to adjustment by teachers 18. Some freedom 19. Almost no freedom 20. Schedule planned entirely by principal No reply Total schools 92 17 46 9 111 21 12 2 65 12 47 9 12 2 8 2 5 l 1 -12 2 2 -2 -6 l 25 5 5 l l -2 -1 -l -75 14 -­532 er freedom in schedule making. It should be understood that degrees or extent of teacher freedom in this matter operate with­in the bounds set by external and internal controls over program making which exist in a given school. The existence of the lat­ter factors ls reflected in the wording of the items in Table 39 as well as in the per­centages shown opposite the various cap­tions. The role of the principal in program schedules. Within this general framework of teacher participation and freedom, one re­cognizes the supervisory relationships of the principal. In 72 per cent of the schools the principal has an established policy (Ta­ble 40) of checking each teacher's classroom schedule. The regularity with which this ls done varies considerably since 24 different practices were reported. The 24 different practices do fall into 3 convenient gro'lips: (1) In 61 per cent of the schools the ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES principal reviews teachers schedules at re­gular long-term intervals such as '~t the beginning of the school term", "twice year­ly", and "at beginning of each semester"; (2) 5 per cent of the principals keep in very close contact with teachers' schedules by checking them "each month", "each week", or "each morning"; and (3) In 21 per cent of th3 sc~ools informal and less systematic methods are used, such as "occasionally", "when changes are made", and "on occasion of classroom visits". There is clearly some overlapping in the percentages just quoted since some principals use a ~ombina­ tion of several procedures. Table 40 Principals' Supervisory Procedures Relating to Teachers' Daily Schedules A. The principal checks ea ch teacher's classroom schedule Yes No No reply Total schools B. Times at which classroom schedules are reviewed by the principal 1. Each month 2. No set time 3. When convenient 4. At beginning of school term 5. Occasionally 6. Periodically 7. Twice yearly 8. Once each week 9. When changes are made 10. When need arises 11. At teahcer's request 12. On occasion of classroom visits 13. Every 2 weeks 14. Three times each year 15. Principal does not check schedules 16. At a 11 times 17. Each year 18. Each semester 19. Beginning of each semester 20. Frequently 21. After first 2 weeks 22. When submitted 23. Each morning 24. Quarterly No reply Tota1 schools Total No. 'f, 385 72 67 13 80 15 532 7 l 25 5 5 1 106 20 10 2 10 2 45 8 11 2 32 6 8 2 10 2 4 1 1 -1 -­67 13 1 -6 l 79 15 9 2 2 -1 -5 l 1 -3 1 106 20 -­532 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 40 (Continued) C. Features of schedule checked by principal 1. Time allotment 2. Subject matter 3. To see that no conflicts exist 4. Sequence of classes or blocks 5. Location of classes 6. Flexibility to suit needs of class 7. Adherence to guiding principles, objectives 8. Special subjects or facilities for spacing and 9. Arrangements for special teachers 10. All features 11. Continuity of yearly program 12. Lesson plan 13. Rest periods 14. Coordination 15. Correlation of subjects and activities 16. To see that all core-areas are cover ed 17. Questionable points 18. General objectives 19. Subject placement, alternation.. of periods 20. General plan 21. General pla cement, opening, closing, recesses 22. Plans for intermission periods-lunch, etc. 23. Grouping 24. Health and Physical education 25. Music and library 26. Principal does not check schedules No reply no confl~cts Total No. !f> 221 53· 22 4& 42 10 4 9 2 9 2 2 12 4 2 l 1052 l 3 6 7 9 l l l 2 211 l 4 28 13 9 l 5 2 2 l l l 6 6 7 l 67 111 13 21 Total schools 532 Twenty-five different items were listed as the features of teachers' sched­ules which elicit special attention by the principal (Table 40). The question of time allotments again loomed large; it wa s listed in 42 per cent of the reports. No other feature of teachers' schedules was named by more than 10 per cent of the re­spondents. An effort was made to get detailed information on program planning procedures followed at the beginning of the school term. The questionnaire provided a space in which the respondents were requested to describe in sequental order the steps taken ~t the beginning of the year or semester in preparing an instructional program for the school. Only 40 per cent of the reports reflected an effort by the respondents to provide this type of information. The an­swers which were given were usually too brief to be very useful in portraying a clear picture of the procedures followed. The most satisfactory replies were found in the re­ports from the Texas group; these are sum­marized in Table 41 and are fa irly represent­ative of all replies to this portion of the study. In many schools programs planned at the beginning of the term need subsequent modification as circumstances change. Two­thirds of the r espondents i n this study af­firmed the fact tha t program changes during the year were needed by describing the steps to bring about such changes (Table 42). Although 30 different procedures were re­ported, only one of them was named by more than 5 per cent of the respondents; "princi­pal and teachers confer on the change to be made" was entered on 27 per cent of the blanks. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 41 Sequence of Steps Taken at the Beginning of Term in Preparing an Instructional Program for the School Sequence of Steps -Texas group Frequency Set up objectives and construct program to carry out objectives. l Needs of community and individual pupils studied. 8 State course of study followed; all core areas covered; length of periods established for certain types of work. 7 Program based on County course of study and needs of pupils. l Teachers meet by grade levels and plan general program. l Before close of school teachers are asked to make program for following year. l Principal and teachers outline program together in faculty meeting. 9 Each teacher plans schedule which is approved by principal and superintendent. l Principal plans over-all program; each teacher plans own schedule; principal checks schedules; adjustments made at faculty meeting. 28 Teacher makes own schedule; experiments for about three weeks. l Teachers given assignments; daily schedules planned with teachers; guide sheets and scopes given each teacher; unit planning discussed with each teacher. l Courses listed (tool subjects first); principal assigns duties and gives time schedule to each teacher with instructions in regard to work to be taught, teaching equipment arranged. 11 Study of newest state bulletin; discussion with teachers; reference to program for last year; study of needs for this year; making of tentative program; trial, correction; trial. 5 Consider training and experience of teachers, number of teacher's enrollment, availability of equipment, time allotment, course of study based on needs of pupils. 7 Schedules made before children are enrolled; given to teachers at beginning of year; class rolls made from membership of previous year; interesting work planned for first day. 2 Principal sees that no conflicts exist. 2 Principal and Superintendent prepare Pl'ogram; principal and teachers modify program. l Superintendent and teachers plan program to fit needs. 3 Superintendent and high school principal plan program and meet with teachers to check for conflicts. l Superintendent gives general outline to each teacher. l Superintendent plans instructional program and presents it to teachers at beginning of semester. 2 Principals' meeting, general teachers' meeting, school faculty meeting. l Area committee makes recommendations for approval of superintendent and principal. 1 Schedules largely same each year; changes discussed and tried. 2 Subjects chosen to conform to other schools. l No reply 101 Total schools 200 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION 55 Table 42 Steps Taken in Ma.king Program Changes During the Year Steps taken Total No. 1> 1. Changes made by teacher at her own discretion 2. Principal and teachers confer on changes 3. Principal and teachers confer on changes, then publish in faculty bulletin 4. General or special notice given as to details 5. Principal makes changes 6. Teachers make changes with consent of principal 7. All teachers and administrators concerned are consulted 8. 9. 10. 11. Superintendent makes changes Superintendent, Director of Pupils and parents notified Principal and teachers make approval Education, and teachers confer of change changes with superintendent's 12. Teacher, principal, and superintendent confer 13. Principal, supervisor, and teacher confer 14. Faculty meetings 15. Teachers make changes, supervisor approves 16. Committee studies need and makes changes 17. No steps necessary 18. Changes discussed with pupils, principal, and supervisor 19. Few changes made 20. No changes made 21. Teachers discuss changes and plan together 22. Teachers of grade groups make tentative outline for six weeks 23. Faculty committee makes changes; patrons sometimes consulted 24. Conference of teacher and superintendent 25. Teacher seeks permission of superintendent 26. Superintendent and principal discuss needed changes; principal meets with teachers to effect changes. 27. Changes made to flt existing conditions 28. Changed program tested before adoption 29. Conferences between teachers and director 30. Supervisor and director make changes No reply Total schools 20 4 141 27 6 l 4 l 19 4 26 5 15 3 4 l 2 -4 l 8 2 13 2 9 2 11 2 4 l 9 2 5 l l -8 2 12 2 12 2 l -l -3 l 5 l 2 -9 2 2 -8 2 l -173 33 -­532 Program Flexibility Certain phases of program flexlbl­lity were evident in the data of the pre­ceding section, especially in practices re­lating to teacher freedom in program plan­ning. In Table 43 are shown the various special occasions which merit temporary schedule adjustments. In only 4 per cent of the returns was ·no mention made of any schedule adjustments due to special occasions. Of the 40 different occasions which merited temporary schedule adjustments, only 7 were reported for more than 20 per cent of the schools. The high frequency of mention of class excursions, use of important speakers, and visits by school health personnel indi­ cate significant features of current school programs. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 43 Program Flexibility -Occasions Which Merit Occasional Schedule Adjustments Occasions Total No. 1' 1. A class goes on an excursion 2. Presence at school of an important speaker or entertainer 3. Visit by a school or public health nurse 4. Visits by school physician or dentist 5. Absence of a teacher 6. use of building by adult groups 7. Athletic contests 8. Club meetings: 4-H, Community, etc. 9. War effort projects 10. Teachers meetings 11. Red Cross work 12. Relig1ous services or education 13. Programs or parties 14. Visual education or radio programs 15. Testing program 16. P.T.A. Meetings 17. Fire drills, air raid drills 18. Play days 19. Rationing and registration 20. Exhibits in building or nearby 21. Situations in classroom requiring more time 22. Visit by supervisor 23. Conferences 24. Inclement weather 25. Visits by other classes 26. Music program by all city schools 27. Special community programs 28. Arising of unexpected interest 29. Visits by librarian and bookmobile 30. Funeral 31. Observance of special days and holidays 32. Special childrens programs in city 33. Assemblies, auditorium activities 34. Elections 35. Need for special emphasis on some field of study 36. Contests between classes 37. Group work in music, dramatics, etc. 38. Observation by education classes 39. Demonstration for student teaching 40. No variations No reply 382 463 381 335 201 117 153 15 13 6 3 4 49 52 3 11 4 8 14 4 16 7 l 2 3 l 5 l 3 l 11 l 6 2 l l 8 4 13 l 21 72 87 72 63 38 22 29 3 2 l l l 9 10 l 2 l 2 3 l 3 l l l l l 2 l 2 l 2 4 Total schools 532 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION The Curriculum to be Programmed In this portion of' the study an ef'­f'ort was made to get a picture of the scope and organization of' the educational pro­grams which were being administered in the schools. It is common knowledge that schools differ widely in their viewpoints and practices regarding what subjects or activities are to have their own time and place on the teaching schedule, what subject fields are to be merged into broader teach­ing or curriculum areas, and what co-curri­cular activities are to f'ind a place in the program of' school life. Table 44 portrays the subjects, by grades and percentage of schools, which were accorded their own time allotments and separately designated class periods. Sev­eral striking facts are revealed. Tha t 45 different subject titles should be reported suggests the breadth of the elementary school curriculum as conceived in some com­munities even though quite obviously all 45 subjects were not found in any one school. The breadth of' curriculum content as re­flected by the 45 dif'f'erent ~itles implies the changing nature of' the curriculum, es­pecially as one's attention is directed to some of the less frequently mentioned items. The long list of' separate subjects (and the list seems to grow longer decade by decade) will be somewhat disconcerting to those who are unenthusiastic about "subjects taught in isolation". On the other hand, only 4 subjects (arithmetic, English or language, reading, and spelling) were listed by more than 50 per cent of' the schools f'or any one grade. The latter f'act suggests the trend toward integration of' related subject fields, about which more will be said a little later. The f'act that neither geog­raphy nor history were reported as separate subjects in any grade by as many as 50 per cent of the schools is some evidence of the trend toward integration. Additona1 evi­dence on the same point is afforded by the fact that about 25 per cent of' the schools reported "social studies" for grades 3 through 8. The teaching fields which stand out predominantly as "separate subjects" in all gr&des are the conventional subjects of' arithmetic, art, language, geography, hand­writing, health, music, reading, science, and spelling. The prominence attained by health and science is also significant. In reality the data of' Table 44 can be interpreted adequately only in relation to the replies given to the next portion of' the inquiry in which the respondents were re­quested to name the broader areas into which subjects had been combined, to list the sub­jects which had been combined, and the grades in which the practice prevailed. The replies were so varied as to practically defy any kind of tabular summary. The most signifi­cant finding was the fact that 52 per cent of' the 286 non-Texas, 44 per cent of' the 200 Texas, and 63 per cent of the 46 campus demonstration schools had developed one or more "broader areas" in each of' which two or more subjects had been brought together. It was possible to discern certain groups of' "broader areas" into which the various replies seemed to fall. Various stlb­ject combinations resulting in broader cur­riculum areas were reported with about equal frequency f'or the language arts and the social studies fields. The subjects which were combined to produce a more integrated language arts program ranged all the way f'rom spelling and writing to almost complete curriculum integration. In fact, the lan­guage arts area, as conceived by the vari­ous schools, may be thought of in stages, each succeeding stage representing an inte­gration of a larger number of' subjects. In such a conceptual formulation the first stage would be represented by a combination of' only 2 subjects, spelling and writing. Succeeding stages would be represented by such combinations as language-literature, language-spelling-penmanship, spelling-Eng­lish-reading, spelling-writing-peading-lPng­uage, reading-English-speech-library, Eng­lish-art-music-reading, and reading-writing­spelling-language-literature-science-social studies. The most frequently occurring com­bination was that of' spelling, writing, read­ing, and language. As a rule, whatever com­bination a given school had developed was applied in all the grades taught in that school. The various combinations in the so­cial studies field also reflect stages of' the type described for the language arts, except that the stages are fewer in number. The first stage representing extent of' in­tegration cons j_sts of' the combination of' history and geography. Other stages of ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 44 Subjects Having Separate Tillie Allotments and Designated Clase Periods * Subjects l. Activity 2. Agriculture 3. Arithmetic 4. Art 5. Assembly 6. Auditorium 7. Band 8. Bible 9. Chorus 10. Citizenship 11. Civics 12. Clubs and Hane Room 13. Current Events 14. English or Language 15. Fire Prevention 16. First Aid 17. Formal Grammar 18. Geogl"aphy 19. Guidance 20. Handwriting 21. Health 22. History 23. Hane and Vocational Arts 24. Junior Hane-Making 25. Language Arts 26. Library 27. Literature, Story Hour 28. Music 29. Nutrition 30. Phonics 31. Physical Education 32. Pre-Flight 33. Printing 34. Public Speaking 35· Readiness 36. Recreative Arts 37. Reading 38. Safety 39. School of the Air 40. Shop 41. Science or Nature Study 42. Social Studies 43. Spanish 44. Spelling 45. Typing 46. All subjects taught Grades No. l 5 19 l l l 9 4 6 l 4 27 16 l 7 2 5 7 4 1 K 1> l 3 12 l l l 6 3 4 l 3 17 10 l 4 1 3 4 3 l l .Ho. 1> 3 l 220 43 219 43 3 l 8 2 2 -2 -3 l 7 l l -2 -155 30 2 -11 2 192 37 131 25 8 2 l -21 4 9 2 23 4 244 47 2 -24 5 128 25 l -l -9 2 301 59 112 2 l -94 18 95 18 133 26 11 2 2 No • 1> 3 l 289 56 228 44 3 l 10 2 2 -3 l 3 l 7 l l -3 l 191 37 4 l 12 2 207 40 143 28 8 2 1 -23 4 13 3 23 4 247 48 2 -22 4 134 26 4 l 9 2 302 59 15 3 1 -106 21 102 20 251 49 11 2 3 .Ho. 1> 3 l 329 64 229 44 3 l 12 2 3 l 3 l 3 l 8 2 l -3 1 243 47 4 l 2 -71 14 207 40 163 32 21 4 l -25 5 21 4 25 5 191 37 2 -18 3 139 27 5 l 8 2 308 60 14 3 l -127 25 129 25 12 2 261 50 1 -11 2 4 .Ho . 1> 3 l l -346 67 243 47 3 l 14 3 6 l 4 l 3 l 9 2 2 -5 l 254 49 4 1 3 l 151 29 l -209 40 187 36 61 12 4 1 5 1 29 6 30 6 25 5 260 50 3 l 6 l 151 29 l -5 l 10 2 360 70 14 3 7 l 145 28 143 28 21 4 272 53 l -11 2 5 .Ho. 1> 3 l l -347 67 248 48 3 l 14 3 7 l 4 l 4 l 9 2 5 1 6 l 253 49 6 l 4 1 160 31 l -199 38 207 40 106 21 6 l 10 2 35 7 32 6 26 5 260 50 3 l 5 1 160 31 1 -5 1 10 2 193 37 14 3 l -17 3 155 30 140 27 21 4 267 52 l -11 3 6 No• 1> 2 -l -342 66 237 46 3 l 15 3 9 2 3 l 4 l 10 2 9 2 2 -7 l 149 29 5 1 l -5 l 157 30 l -193 37 110 21 147 28 8 2 15 3 36 7 31 6 30 6 257 50 3 l 4 l 156 30 2 -5 l 9 2 273 53 14 3 l -24 5 157 30 145 28 21 4 260 59 l -11 2 7 .Ho • 1> l -2 l 18o 76 97 41 3 l 5 2 5 2 l -l -6 3 16 7 2 l 7 3 137 58 2 l l -4 2 93 39 86 36 101 42 94 39 11 5 21 9 20 8 8 3 20 8 119 59 2 1 l -69 29 2 l 3 l 3 l 125 53 7 3 1 -25 11 81 34 64 27 18 8 137 58 1 -10 4 8 Bo • l 5 138 71 3 5 4 l 7 32 2 6 105 2 l 3 83 1 59 75 72 12 21 15 6 19 81 2 l 53 l 2 2 2 89 5 l 23 71 49 13 94 7 1> l 3 78 40 2 3 2 l 4 18 l 3 60 l l 2 47 l 34 43 41 7 12 9 3 11 46 l 1 30 1 1 l l 51 3 l 13 40 28 7 53 4 Total schools 159 514 514 517 518 517 518 238 176 *Percentages in each column are based on the number of ·replies to this question and the number of schools in which each of the grades was being taught. ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION integration vere represented by such combi­nations as history-geography-citizenship, history-geography-economics-social relation­ships, history-geography-civics-current events, history-geography-language arts, history-geography-art, social studies-lang­uage arts-reading-art, and social studies­language arts-science. The most frequently reported combination vas that of tiistory and geography vhile the second most fre­quently mentioned group vas composed of his­tory, geography, and citizenship. Whatever combination a given school had developed vas applied in all grades, just as vas the case vith integration in the language arts field. For Grade 3 some form of integratio in language arts vas reported for 86 schools and some form of integration in so­cial studies for 106 schools. The corre­sponding figures for Grade 6 were 106 and 175, the difference betveen the two sets of figures probably being due to the fact that some schools do not offer social studies in the primary grades. Integration of separate subjects into broader areas vas also found, but to a much smaller extent, in the health and sci­ence and in the fine arts fields. No one combination in the health and science field vas reported for more than 5 schools. Health-science, health-physical education, health-safety, health-science-physical edu­cation, and health-safety-citizenship were the more common types of combinations. In the fine arts field the most common types of combinations were arts-crafts, music-art~ art-music-literature, and art-music-liter­ature-dramatics. No one of these combina­tions in the fine arts was reported for more than 5 schools. In addition to the subjects or in­structional areas of the curriculum, most school programs include one or more co-cur­ricular activities. On only 2 per cent of the 532 reports was the comment made that no co-curricular activities were sponsored (Table 45). An additional 15 per cent of the respondents omitted a reply to this sec­tion of the blank, thus implying that co­curricular activites vere not a part of their school programs. From the remaining schools 42 different types of co-curricular activities vere reported, only 1 of which vas found in more than 50 per cent of the schools, only 3 of which were found in more than 40 per cent of the schools, and only 6 of which were reported for more than 10 per cent of the schools. Although the total of 42 different activities sounds impressive, the percentages revealed in Table 45 lead to the conclusion that co-curricular activities are not very extensive in the schools stud­ ied. Other generalizations available from Table 45 are that the largest variety of dif­ferent activities was found in the medium­sized schools, that one-and two-teacher schools had about the same number and the same types of activities as schools with more than 25 t eachers, and that clubs are the only co-curricular activity found in as large a percentage of one-and two-teacher schools as in the schools having more than 5 teachers. In only a small percentage of schools were co-curricular activities con­ceived as extra-curricular in the sense that their meeting time was outside of the regu­larly scheduled school day. In the schools in which the co-curricular activities met outside of regularly scheduled school hours, fewer types of activities were named than for the schools in which the co-curricular find expression as regularly scheduled fea­tures of the program. Special inquiry was made about three other features of the general program. One of these was concerned vi.th the instruction­al uses made of the data gathered by the health service activities. For a number of years various leaders interested in the school health program have urged that the data gathered on individual children and groups of children through medical and den­tal examinations, periodic weighing and measuring, and daily ins.pections should be utilized to put vitality and reality into health instruction and the correction of de­fects. When asked to describe the methods whereby the data gathered by the health de­partment were utilized in the health instruc­tion program, no reply was obtained for 39 per cent of the campus demonstration schools, 47 per cent of the non-Texas group, and 60 per cent of the Texas group. The implication is clear that the type of integration be­tween instruction and health services called for by this query had not permeated school practice very widely. No doubt the absence in many schools of well developed health services was at the basis of the data just reported. The conclusion stated in the preced­ing paragraph was substantiated by the kinds ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 45 Co-Curricular Activities Which Are Regularly Scheduled Feature of the Program Activities 1. Assemblies 2. Athletic events 3. Student council 4. Safety patrol or council 5. Clubs 6. General programs 7. Junior Red Crose 8. School Improvement League 9. Chcral Singing, Glee Club 10. Playground activities 11. Orchestra, band 12. Hane roan activities 13. Library activities 14. Play days 15. War projects 16. BrOVIiles, Cubs, Scouts, Camp-Fire, Bluebirds 17. School paper 18. Visual education 19. Collections and E:l:hibi­tions 20. R.O.T.C .u. 21. Religious education 22. Mid-morning Lunch 23. No co-<:urricular activities 24. Speaking·acti~ities 25. Iencing 26. Ccmmmity Council me meetings 27. Rhythm band 28. School-of -the Air programs 29. School ground and school roan patrols 30. Health and physical education 31. First-Aid classes 32. County M9et Literary Events 33. Safety and fire drills 34. Fire prevention, fire patrol, air raid 35. Dramatic programs 36. Interscholastic League work 37. Auditorium 38. Nutrition 39. Physical fitness program 40. Forum 41. Hall guide program a Size of School According to Number of Teachers l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> 2 l l 9 l l 2 8 4 4 35 4 4 8 6 5 2 2 13 1 2 25 21 8 8 54 4 8 29 10 5 6 27 2 8 l l 2 2 l 55 19 9 11 51 4 15 2 2 4 4 2 94 37 32 62 63 6 19 2 12 6 8 6 l 3 6 53 21 18 35 35 3 11 l 7 3 4 3 l 2 3 73 56 29 22 20 15 62 47 61 47 2 2 23 18 13 IO 3 2 11 8 4 · 3 5 4 8 6 40 13 12 35 28 12 2 4 4 4 l l . 2 61 20 18 53 42 18 3 6 6 6 2 2 3 18 6 7 13 10 l 2 2 2 6 2 1 l 69 23 27 50 38 4 8 8 8 23 8 4 4 3 6 12 3 2 7 2 1 11 8 8 6 4 1 l 6 2 2 l 4 4 l l 1 2 l l 1 l l l 1 .1 l 2 2 2 8 4 l l 2 1 l 2 2 l 2 1 4 l 4 2 8 l 2 2 4 2 .l 4 3 1 2 1 2 l 4 11 4 2 4 2 2 1 l l l 1 l l 2 l 4 l 2 3 2 2 l l l l 2 2 l l l 1 2 l l l 1 l 2 7 7 2 5 l l l 14 29 29 71 14 14 14 10 4 2 9 8 l 1 l 2 50 20 10 45 40 5 5 5 10 2 10 2 10 l 5 Total No. 'I> 279 52 107 20 80 15 192 36 224 42 13 2 68 13 6 l 35 7 18 3 33 6 15 3 8 2 4 l 16 3 30 6 12 2 6 l 4 l 2 - 2 - 3 l 12 2 l - l - 1 - 12 2 l - l - 6 1 4 l l - 1 - 5 l ·2 - 2 - 2 - l - 2 - l - l - ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 45 {Continued) a Size of School According to Number of Teachers Activities Total No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up No. '1>'1> '1> '1> '1> '1> 'I> 'I> '1> 'I> l ­l 2 42. Radio Io reply 78 15 Total number of schools 15 58" 6 25 9 17 24 13 14 11 6 9 l 4 3 15 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 Total Activities meeting outside of regularly scheduled school hours No. '1> L Assemblies 5 l 2. Athletic events 58 11 3. Student council 15 3 4. Safety patrol or council 33 6 5. Clubs 34 9 6. Brownies, Cubs, Scouts, Camp-Fire, Bluebirds 55 10 16 7. Junior Red Crose 3 8. School newspaper 3 l 9. War progJects 3 l 10. General programs 3 l 4 l11. Choral singing, Glee Club 6 l 12. Orchestra, band 11 2 13. None meet outside of school hours 12 2 14. !lo co-curricular activitites 2 ­15. Lunchroom committees l ­16. Dancing classes 2 ­ 17. Dramatic activities l ­18. COllllllllility council meetings 19. Rhythm band 3 l l ­20. Organized games l ­21. Programs l ­ 22. Library work by students l ­23. Ball guide program 302 57 Total number of schools No reply 532 aPercentagea 1n each column are based on the number of schools in each size--group. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES of answers given by those who did reply to the question. Although 55 different pro­cedures for utilizing health service data in the instructional program were described, no one method was named for more than 10 schools. Many of the asnwers merely identi­fied features of their health services; "nurse comes once a year for check-up", "county health unit checks several times a year", "immunizing children and holding dental clinics", "drives for immunizations", "health round-up each year", and"pre-school examinations" are illustrative of this type of reply. The majority of the replies did, however, refer to teaching practices. "Health talks by teachers", "work on indivi­dual health problems", "nutrition and care of teeth and bod·y taught", "dentist asked to address children and parents", "charts, pictures, and posters used", "health in­struction fitted to needs of community", 11diet study for those who are underweight", and "supervision by teachers of food selec­-tion in cafeteria" are illustrative of the replies reflecting educational use of health data. Efforts of some kind were made in 59 per cent of the schools to relate the noon lunch program to classroom instruction. Only 13 pel' cent of the reports contained definite statements to the effect that no effort was made to relate classroom instruction to the lunch program. No direct inquiry was made as to whether the school did or did not have an organized school lunch program, but by indirect calculation it seemed evident that lunch programs were sponsored in at least 72 per cent of the schools. Although many of the 46 different methods used in relating the noon lunch pro­gram to classroom instruction (Table 46) are superficial and no doubt not very effective, it is significant that the idea of using the lunch program as a laboratory related to health instruction should have taken hold in some degree or other in 59 per cent of the schools. The true educational significance of this relationship varies, of course, with the genuineness and educational merit of the metho_ds used. Equally significant is the fact that nutrition was studied in the class­rooms in 28 per cent of the schools. Table 46 Methods Used in Relating Noon Lunch Program to Classroom Instruction Methods Total No. '/, l. Nutrition studied in classroom 120 28 2. Not related 70 13 3; Health habits taught 58 11 4. Good manners and proper conversation taught 51 10 5. Improvement in social relationship or good citizenship stressed 45 8 6. Supervise~ lunch period 38 7 7. No cafeteria or lunch room 36 7 8. Correlation with health instruction 14 3 9. Pupils help prepare and serve lunch, clean up afterwards 11 2 10. Teacher supervises 11 2 11. Conservation taught and practiced 7 l 12. Health classes ·plan and arrange meals 5 l 13. Washing hands before eating 5 l 14. Indirectly related 4 l 15. Instructing pupils to chew food well and to eat slowly 4 l 16. Related to science program 3 l 17. Posters made by pupils 3 l 18. Nurse checks lunches and advises 3 l 19. Health rules made regarding lunch 3 l 63 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 46 (Continued) Methods 20. P. E. classes study all of this 21. Washing, drying, and putting away dishes 22. School garden 23. Art classes decorate lunch room 24. Cost of lunches is figured in arithmetic 25. Unclassified, but related 26. PhysicRl fitness 27. Study of growth, weights, etc. 28. Visual education 29. Study lunch problems 30. Served in classrooms 31. Class discussion 32. Radio broadcasts 33. Discussing, writing, and dramatizing into about food-habits 34. Making simple tests for fats, starches, and sugar 35. Rest after meals 36. Homemaking and victory corps cooperation 37. Lunchroom keepers 38. Discipline and hygiene 39. Attention to rationing adjustments 40. Incidentally 41. Vegetables sold to cafeteria by children from classroom victory gardens 42. Talks by nurse 43. Supervision of grounds by teachers. Games learned in P. E. are used 44. Home Economics department sends girls into elementary 45. English, Art, Social studies 46. Radio heard during lunch hour No reply Total number of schools Total No. "' 3 l 3 l 2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -l -149 28 --­532 That education should be a genuine force for societal improvement is an old­time basic concept which lies at the very root of the system of compulsory free public schooling established in this country. That school programs should contain projects in which children could learn active citi­zenship through personal participation in local community improvement enterprises is a more recent concept. It was therefore of special interest to inquire about the com­munity improvement projects in which chil­dren had engaged under the auspices of the school. It is significant, therefore, that 40 per cent of the respondents (Table 47) made no reply to this phase of the study and that an additional 12 per cent said that no community improvement projects were under­taken. The 49 different types of community improvement projects reported for the re­maining 48 per cent of the schools appear like an imposing array until one examines more carefully the real educational potential in each of the types of projects. The real educational value of an activity lies as much in the way it is handled as in the na­ture of the undertaking, but one may seri­ously question whether such projects as seal sales, salvage, scrap, and chest drives, singing for civic clubs, and school publicity ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES have the same educational potential as vic­tory gardening, garden and yard beautifica­tion, conservation of wild flowers, refore­station, repair of roads, and park develop­ment. Although one may question the extent of educational merit in some of the activi­ties listed in Table 47, it is significant that so many of the projects named appear to have the broader and deeper educational potentialities and that the latter type of projects have found their way into so many schools. The data reveal an encouraging trend even though most of the most frequent­ly reported projects were those of lesser educational value. Table 47 Community Improvement Projects Engaged in by Pupils under the auspices of the School Projects 1. Clean-up campaign--care of property, weeds, etc. 2. Salvage drives, scrap drives 3. None 4. Victory gardening 5. Red Cross activities 6. Stamp and bond sales 7. Garden and yard beautification 8. Fire prevention campaign and safety campaign 9, War projects, unclassified 10. Community health: food, diet, insects, rats 11. Organizations of service; Scouts, Camp-fire girls, etc. 12. Aid to underprivileged 13. Development of community park 14. Community Chest drive 15. Helping keep playground and playground beautification 16. Farm improvement 17. Sanitation 18. 4-H Clubs 19. Removal of hazards (fire, etc.) 20. Reforestation 21. Recreation program 22. Tuberculosis society (seal sales) 23. Victory book campaign 24. Courtesy to visitors, etc~ 25. Paralysis fund (March of Dimes) 26. City Library 27. Help repair roads 28. Sewing, knitting, care of clothing 29. Home-making, home demonstration 30. Victory concerts 31. Education and music weeks 32. Flower show and preservation and care of flowers and shrubs 33. Block leader movement 34, Promotion of poultry raising 35. Civilian defense Total No. 'f, 132 25 89 17 63 12 52 10 37 7 36 7 35 7 30 6 20 4 18 3 16 3 13 2 12 2 10 2 9 2 5 l 5 l 5 l 4 l 3 l 3 l 3. l 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - l - l - ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 47 (Continued) Projects 36. Salvation Army collections 37. Book week 38. Thanksgiving offerings 39. All community drives 40. Production of fruit 41. Preserving foods 42. Numbers by choral club for civic 43. Rationing 44. Publicity for school affairs 45. Traffic control 46. Conservation of wild flowers 47. Immunization program 48. Testing for tuberculosis 49. Taking materials home to parents 50. Schools at War program No reply Total number of schools clubs Total No. l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l 215 -­532 'Ii ---------------40 Special Program Features Classroom teaching and the daily management of schools move forward within the framework of the general features of curriculum and program scope and organiza­tion, but within that broad framework a huge multitide of more specific activities takes place. In Table 48 are portrayed some of the more specific practices which were reported by schools as special program features. The various percentages in Table 48 are less significant than the general picture presented by the data. It is signi­ficant to know that the home-room idea has found its way into a sizeable proportion of elementary schools but that its application is limited quite largely to Grade 7 and 8 and that planned and systematically sched­uled home-room programs prevailed in only about 10 per cent of the seventh and eighth grades. Of equal interest is the fact that in nearly 50 per cent of seventh and eighth grades and in about one-third of the grades below the seventh pupils have a free period each day which may be used for individual help and independent work, that co-opera­tive teacher-pupil planning was reported for about one-seventh of the schools, that radio programs are listened to regularly in about one-fourth of the schools, that motion pictures are used frequently in about one­third of the schools, that slides are used on a smaller scale than motion pictures, and that class periods more than 60 minutes in length prevail in less than 10 per cent of the schools. Time Allotment Practices In a previous section of this report (Tables 39 and 40) evidence was presented which showed that conformance with time al­lotment prescriptions was the most frequent­ly mentioned control over teacher freedom in schedule making and that checking time allotments was the most frequently named spe­cific feature of classroom schedules inspect­ed by the principal. In view of this stated concern for the administration of time allot­ments, both interest and wonder abound in relation to the next 6 Tables to be present­ed. When asked to name the sources from which the school obtains its recommendations on time allotments, 29 different replies (Table 49) were given, the 2 most frequently named sources referring to the state educa­tion department and no one source being ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 48 Special Program Features * Progr-am. Features Gr ades in w hic4 practice prev ails K No. l No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. "' 6 No. "' 7 No. 8 No. "' Un C No. 1. Hane-room system used in gr-ades which are depart­mentalized 2. Planned bane-room pro­gr-ams: a. Lastill8 at least 15 min. each day b. Two or three times a week .3· Each day a f'ree period which pupils may use for individuai work, extra help f'rom teacher, etc. 4. Each day a period set aside for cooperative teacher-pupil planning 5. Sane class periods over 60 min. long 6. Radio programs listened to regularly 7. Instruction supplemented f'reqll!'ntly with motion pictures 8. Instruction supplemented f'requently with colored or black and white slides 9. Subjects alternated by 48.ys, weeks, semesters, ar year 1Il rooms where teachers handle several gr-ades 10. Assembly program. prepared at regular intervals 11. Civic Club activities 12. Mornill8 exercises · 13. Groupill8 regardless of gr-ade name 14. 45...mnute periods for larger subject areas 15. Instrumental music daily 16. Flexibility 17· Picturol 18. Field Trips 19. Weekly sale of bonds and stamps 20. Programs and social gatherings 21. Combination of subjects in core areas 22. One f'ree period per week "' 1 1 l l 11 7 9 6 l l 3 2 25 16 15 9 18 4 34 7 29 6 143 28 89 17 12 2 62 12 143 28 85 17 21 4 l -l -"' "' b 21 4 34 7 29 6 150 29 91 18 13 3 65 13 147 29 85 17 21 4 l -.1 - "' 30 6 34 7 31 6 159 31 93 18 14 3 70 14 152 29 95 18 32 6 l -l - "' 67 13 35 7 43 8 183 35 95 18 20 4 90 17 173 33 102 20 58 11 l -l -1 -l - 98 19 30 6 46 9 200 39 93 18 33 6 112 22 181 35 107 21 77 15 1 -l -l -l -l - 120 23 28 5 46 9 200 39 101 20 38 7 116 22 175 34 106 20 81· 16 l -1 -1 -l -l -1 - "' 103 43 23 10 24 10 109 46 35 15 17 7 59 25 90 38 46 19 56 24 l -l -l - 83 17 19 85 26 13 54 68 37 45 1 l 1 47 10 11 48 15 7 31 39 21 26 --- "' 52 28 27 98 56 38 79 124 87 67 2 1 l l l 1 2 l l l *Percentages in each colUDlll are based on the number of replies to this question and the number of schools 1Il which each of the gr-ades was beill8 taught. ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION named for more than 16 per cent of the schools. It is possible that for a given school, regardless of the sources of the time allotment recommendations, the pre­scription may be quite speciflc and highly dlrective in its influence, but ~he variety Futher queries are raised about the way local school persoIUlel interprets and administers time allotment recommenda­tions by responses given to questions per­taining to the detail in which time allot­ment recommendations are given in the Table 49 Sources Used by Schools to Obtain Recommendations on Time Allotments Sources 1. State course of study 2. State Department of Education 3. Superintendent (local) 4. Course of study (local) 5, Supervisors (local) 6. Central office 7, Professional literature 8. Principal 9. Experience 10. Teachers 11. Research 12. Programs of other schools 13. Pupils' needs or interests 14. None 15. General school policy 16. Central committee 17. Board of Education 18. School Law 19. Teacher-principal conference or judgment 20. Tradition 21. Director of curricuLum 22. State curriculum committees 23. Experiment 24. Knowledge of facilities 25. Group discussion 26. College schedule 27. Divided equally among core areas 28. Curriculum committee 29. Opinion of experts No reply Total No. '/, 86 16 84 16 58 11 37 7 29 5 24 5 25 5 18 3 14 3 12 2 11 2 10 2 9 2 8 2 8 2 7 l 6 l 6 l 5 l 4 l 4 l 4 l 3 l 3 l 2 -l -l -l -l -139 26 Total number of schools 532 and character of the items listed in Table 49 do raise the question as to whether the sources of guidance on this phase of school organization are really as directive and restrictive as they are interpreted by the schools. sources used. Most of the 32 captions in 11 11 part a of Table 50 suggest considerRble flexibility rather than a high degree of 11b 11 prescriptive detail. In part of Table 50 only 20 per cent of the respondents said that their time a llotment recommendations ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES provided detailed daily schedules. Table 51 summarizes the methods used in determining the amount of time to be devoted to each subject or activity in schools in which no particular outside source of guidance on time allotment is used. The replies summarized. in Table 51 are mostly from schools tabulated in the "no reply" item in Table 50. The various captions in Tables 50 and 51 thus represent replies from 2 different groups of Bchools, the former group using time allotment re­commendations containing varying degrees of detail while the latter group does not rely on outside guidance but makes its own deci­sions. Most of the 31 procedures itemized in Table 51 reflect the informality that one might anticipate in local faculty decisions. The data do not reveal any trends or common threads in the form of guiding principles, unless it be that of adjustment to local conditions in terms of the best judgement of the local staff. Table 50 Nature of the Sources Used by Schools in Obtaining Recommendations on Time Allotments A. Detail with which time allotment recommendations are given in sources used by schools 1. General, flexible 2. Number minutes per day or week 3. Fairly definite 4. Time for each subject suggested 5. Proportional weekly allotments 6. Full detail 7. No detail 8. Length of periods given 9. Never dictatorial, suggestions are given 10. Meager 11. Minimum and maximum time for each subject 12. Minimum time requirement 13. Course of study 14. Few details given 15. For special classes or platoon 16. Varies 17. General pattern for core areas 18. Sequence and time allotment given 19. Guiding principles set up 20. None, except per grade 21. Work listed for each grade 22. Large blocks of time suggested 23. According to subject matter and class 24. Program worked out 25. Where practical 26. County supervisor approves schedule 27. Sample schedules and discussions 28. Written reports 29. Sufficient 30. Bulletins or pamphlets 31. Recommended schedule 32. Suggested schedule; required time for P. E. No reply Total number of schools Total No. 'fl 65 36 25 19 16 16 15 9 8 7 7 6 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 l 1 1 1 l 1 l l 1 l 1 268 532 12 7 5 4 3 3 3 2 2 l l l l l l l l 50 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 50 (Continued) B. Do the sources used in obtaining recommended time allotments provide detailed daily schedules for each grade? Yes No No reply Total number of schools Table 51 Methods Used in Determining Time Allotments When No Specific Sources or Guides are Utilized Total No. "' 105 224 203 --­ 20 42 38 532 Total Methods Used No. 1' 1. Specific sources are utilized 74 14 2. Individual pupil needs or class needs 47 9 3. Teacher's judgment 22 4 4. Number of subjects to be taught 17 3 5. Personal judgment, experience 17 3 6. Priority of use (tradition) 7. Relative importance of subjects 16 3 15 3 8. Committee or faculty discussion 7 l 9. Professional literature 8 2 10. Subject matter to be covered 6 l 11. Consult others: supervisor, principal, etc. 5 l 12. Amount of time available 4 l 13. Principal's judgment 3 l 14. Experiment 3 l 15. Study of many situations 16. Ability of children 17. Grade level 18. Research work 19. Difficulty of subjects, nature of materials 2 2 2 2 2 2 20. Pupil interest 21. Consult with teachers and principals 2 22. Size of classes l 23. General policy of the school l l 24. Number of teachers l 25. Achievement tests 26. Conferences with parents l 27. Supervisor makes decision l 28. Prorated time for subjects l 29. Number of pupils l 30. Use all time needed l 31. Alternate subjects if time limit is below 15 min. l No reply 292 55 Total number of schools 532 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES In only about one-seventh of the schools studied do general and special su­pervisors (Table 52) exercise a close rela­tionship to time allotment practices in the schools. These small percentages are in part due to the fact that many of the schools are in districts not favored with the services of general and special super­visors. Flexibility and freedom by the local school in time allotment practices are again reflected by the list of conditions (Table 53) under which schools are permitted to deviate from general city-wide policy. The 7 most frequently mentioned conditions in­dicate that almost complete responsibility lies with the faculty in the local school. The high frequency in the "no reply" item results in part from the fact that so many of the schools in the study are not members of large city school systems. Conditions under which individual teachers may deviate from the general pol­ icy on time allotments were mentioned in 71 per cent of the reports. Only 2 of the in deviating from those plans. Such changes as teachers are permitted to make are usually associated with extenuating circumstances. This reflected restriction on individal teachers is not a contradiction of data re­ported earlier in this chapter in which it was shown that there was considerable teach­er participation in program planning. It simply means that, once a program has been adopted, deviations from it by individual teachers are the uncommon rather than the common practice. Such restriction on indi­ vidual teacher deviation from general policy may be justified in the interest of a smooth­ ly working program. Another important factor in time allotment practices and program making is the time interval used in calculating time allotments. If time allotments are calcu­lated on a daily basis the restrictions on individual classroom schedules are much greater than if time allotments are calcu­lated on a weekly or monthly basis. Only 25 per cent of the replies (Table 55) showed that time allotments were figured on a daily Table 52 Relations of Supervisors to Time Allotment Practices A. Do special supervisors check time allotments Total No. '/, in your school? Yes No No reply 83 269 180 16 51 34 Total number of schools 532 B. Do general supervisors check time allotments in your school? Yes No No reply 77 251 204 --­ 14 47 38 Total number of schools 532 32 conditions reported (Table 54) were named for more than 10 per cent of the schools, thus indicating great variety in practice and suggesting that, once a general plan has been adopted for the school, the indi­vidual teacher has relatively little freedom basis. All the other answers revealed a longer interval as the basis for adminis­tering time allotments. The various kinds of data which have been presented on time allotment practices leave a puzzling picture. There seems ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 53 Conditions under Which Schools are Permitted to Deviate from General City Policy in Time Allotments Conditions Total No. "' 1. Free to do so; no regulations 70 13 2. When need arises 28 5 3. Allotment very flexible 27 5 4. Special permission of superintendent 19 4 5. Principal and teachers make decision 17 3 6. Free to make changes within reason 15 3 7. Allowed to meet own needs 15 3 8. Are all alike; no deviations 12 2 9. Decision made by principal 13 2 10. Only one school 8 2 11. Few deviations 8 2 12. Allotment subject only to minimum requirements 6 1 13. Subject to approval of principal, supervisor, superintendent 5 1 14. For special events 5 1 15. For remedial work 2 - 16. Only when necessary due to emergency 2 - 17. Schools not closely connected 1 - 18. Time allotment about same in all elementary schools 1 - 19. Teacher uses discretion; principal decides time for dismissal 1 - 20. Superintendent informed of changes 1 - 21. For special citizenship and war bond programs 1 - 22. Follow school calendar 1 - 23. To meet bus schedule 1 - 24. Change in enrollment 1 - 25. Central office determines opening and closing time; other allotments left to school 1 - 26. Determined by grade combinations 1 - No reply 270 51 --­ Total number of schools 532 Table 54 Conditions under Which Individual Teachers May Deviate from General Policy Regarding Time Allotments Conditions Total No. % 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Free to make changes To meet needs of chLldren To meet individual problems or situations May make changes if reasons warrant them Teacher and principal or supervisor deem necessary 87 86 36 31 29 16 16 7 6 5 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 54 (Continued) Conditions Total No~ 'f, 6. Special occasions -assemblies, field· trips, etc. +8 3 7. Permission from principal 12 2 8. To complete a given unit or area of work 10 2 9. Not permitted to deviate 8 2 10. No regulations 7 l 11. When necessary to attain certain objectives 7 l 12. When effective instruction demands 6 l 13. For experimental or remedial work 5 l 14. Must conform to state regulations 4 l 15. Depends on size of class, room etc. 6 l 16. To any extent if improvement is made 4 l 17. As teacher sees fit. (If changes do not interfere with others, if she cooperates in school program). 4 l 18. With permission from central office 4 l 19. When principal advises 3 l 20. Few deviations 2 - 21. Teacher discusses proposed change with director 2 - 22. After consultation with principal and superintendent 2 - 23. Supervisor makes changes l - 24. For inclement weather l - 25. By special request of teacher or supervisor l - 26. Principal changes policy if there is a need l - 27. To take care of change in enrollment l - 28. Enrollment and grade level considered l - 29. At teacher's discretion if subjects are successfully taught l - 30. In case of' a retarded class l - 31. Use of visual aids l - 32. Provided all subjects are included l - No reply 153 29 --­ Total number of schools 532 I little doubt but what time allotments bear an important relationship to education­al outcomes but there is little evidence in this study or in previous research that there are fundamental principles for gui­dance in determining or administering time allotments. Time allotments constitute an important factor in program planning but it cannot be said that this relationship is thoroughly understood. The data of this study snow evidence that the respondents, most of whom are elementary school princi­pals, were much concerned with the issue, but were definitely groping in their proce­dures to meet the .problem. The fact that in most portions of this section of study many failed to respond is in itself indica­ tive of the absence of clear conceptions and straightforward policies. The data which have been presented portray a cross section of present practices and by their very nature reaffirm the urgent need for fundamental re­search on the issue. The principal's supervisory role re­garding time allotments is detailed in Table 56. Note that 67 per cent of the principals examine each teacher's schedule to check on time allotments, that 43 per cent of them.do it at the beginning of each semester or school term, that conferences with teachers . and actual scrutiny of tha teacher's schedule are the two procedures most frequently used, that on occasion 55 per cent request teachers~ to change their time allotments, that only ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 55 Time Intervals Used in Calculating Time Allotments Total Time Intervals No. "' 1. Weekly 154 29 2. Daily 134 25 3. Daily and weekly combination 29 5 4. Monthly 24 5 5. Flexible 7 l 6. Daily, weekly, monthly combination 6 l 7. Method or calculation varies 6 l 8. On semester basis 4 l 9. On yearly basis 4 l 10. On 6 weeks basis 2 ­ 11. Daily and yearly combination l ­ No reply 161 30 Total number or schools 532 Table 56 Relations or Principals to Time Allotment Practice 1. Does the Principal examine each teacher's schedule to check on time allotments? Yes No Supervisor or superintendent examines No reply 2. Procedures used by principals in checking time allotments in teachers' schedules: a. Time or year when checks are m.ade 1. Beginning or each semester 2. .At beginning or school ter·m 3. Daily 4. Each month 5. Periodically 6. Twice a week 7. Semi-annually or annually 8. Weekly 9. Each 6 weeks 10. When altered n. At teacher's request 12. Irregularly 13. Frequently 14. Quarterly 15. Regularly Total No. "' 357 61 2 112 115 110 l 7 6 l 32 5 3 23 7 21 3 2 2 67 15 -­12 22 21 -­l l -­6 l l 4 l 4 l -­-­ ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 56 (Continued) Total 2. Procedures used by principals in checking time allotments in teachers' schedules: 16. Before each visit 17. Prihcipal does not examine No reply b. Specific procedures used: 1. By lesson plans 2. Conference with teacher 3. Examination of each teacher's schedule 4. Compared with state allotment 5. Classroom visitation 6. Schedules filed in office of principal 7. Faculty meetings 8. Recording and tabulating data 9. Teacher's request 10. Comparative study of subjects and time 11. Checks programs 12. Checks by grade achievement 13. Principal does not examine 14. Compared with specified time allotment 15. Based on needs of pupils 16. Number of pupils in sections 17. Planning together in study of plan with teacher 18. Work with teachers, tentative program, study before programs are used. 19. Results ohtained; information from achievement test 20. Does not try to make schedule check 21. Checks time allotment for week 3. Does the principal ever request teachers to change their time allotments? Yes No No reply Total number of schools 4. Frequency of reports to central office of those making such reports 1. Schedule on file in central office 2. Semia.nnually 3. Annually 4. Monthly 5. When changed 6. When called for 7, Occasionally 8. Four times a year 9. Every 6 weeks 10. When needed No. 1 61 139 2 70 98 12 39 53 2 3 1 4 2 1 20 1 1 1 4 3 2 1 2 292 73 167 532 1 28 44 3 8 2 2 1 1 5 1' 15 26 13 18 2 7 10 1 1 4 1 1 55 14 31 5 8 1 2 1 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 56 (Continued) 4. Frequency of reports ·"o central office of those Total making such reports No. ,,, 11. No reports made to central office 273 51 12. Biennially l -­ No reply 163 31 --­ Total number of schools 532 19 per cent make periodic reports on time allotments to the central office, and that very few principals are requested to send time allotment reports to the central of­fice oftener than once or twice a year. Departmental Instruction The extent of departmental instruc­tion is shown in Table 57. In part ''A" of the table the percentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size-group; in parts "B" and "C" the per­centages in each column are based on the number of schools which housed or operated each of the grades. Since the same number of grades were not taught in each of the schools represented in the study, it was thought that a more accurate picture would be obtained if the percentages in each col­umn were calculated in terms of the number of schools in which each grade was actually being taught. Departmental instruction in some degree was reported for 66 per cent of the 532 schools. The grade level at which de­partmentalization begins ranges from the kindergarten to grade 8. In 55 per cent of the schools reporting departmentalization, (or 36 per cent of all schools) such depart­mental teaching begins in the first grade. Some departmental teaching was found in 16 per cent of the 2-teacher schools. In schools of 3 or more teachers size of school appeared to be unrelated to the grade level at which departmental work is begun or to the proportion of schools practicing depart­mentalization. The number of subjects taught on the departmental plan increases somewhat from kindergarten to grade 8 but it is sig­nificant to note that in 2 schools as many as 4 subjects are taught by special teach­ers in the kindergarten, and that in a few schools as many as 7 or 8 subjects are taught by special teachers in the first and second grades. Schools which reported more than 7 or 8 subjects departmentalized in any one grade could probably have been clAssi­fied with the schools that reported "complete departmentalizatio::i". In schools in which specialization in teaching is limited to 1, 2, or 3 subjects there is no statistically significant difference in the percentage of school·s practicing this amount of department­alization in the various grades. In other words, except for the kindergarten, about as many schools departmentalize l subject, 2 subjects, or 3 subjects in each of the pri­mary grades as in each of the upper grades. It is largely when the extent of department­alization reaches 4 or more subjects that one finds a greater amount of departmental work in the upper than in the lower grades. Complete departmenta l i zation is restricted largely to grades 7 and 8 and is found in about one-half of the schools operating grades 7 and 8, although there are from 20 to 30 per cent of the schools which approx­ imate complete departmentalization in grades 5 and 6. The various subjects taught on the departmental plan include the entire offering in the elementary school. Some schools have a special teacher of music in certain grades but not in others while other schools have departmental work in speech or Spanish in certain grades but not in other grades. That is the reason why many of the percentages shown in part "C" of Table 57 are so small. This heterogeniety of practice brings out more clearly in part "c" than in parts "A" ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 57 The li:rlent of Departmentalized Instruction A. The grade level in each school in which departmentalization begins, 1.e., the grades below which there is no departmentalization Qi-ade It l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 No departmental instruction No reply Total schools 1 No. 'Ii Size of School According to Number of Teachers 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii 26-30 No. 'Ii 31-up No. 'Ii Total No. 'Ii 5 21 26 19 81 l l 1 l 4 16 24 4 4 4 4 17 67 9 6 5 6 3 3 7 17 53 17 11 9 11 6 2 13 30 4 42 14 13 17 17 10 3 1 32 24 179 2 23 8 7 9 9 6 2 1 18 13 4 29 1· 18 21 13 4 5 20 9 131 3 22 5 14 17 10 3 4 15 7 2 11 3 9 9 6 5 5 8 8 66 3 17 5 14 14 9 8 8 12 12 l 6 l 3 3 5 2 1 2 2 26 4 23 4 12 12 19 8 4 8 8 1 1 2 1 1 l 7 14 14 29 14 14 14 l l 2 l l 3 1 1 2 3 20 5 25 10 '5 5 15 5 5 10 15 13 2 105 20 28 5 50 9 58 11 52 10 26 5 15 3 5 1 79 15 101 19 532 B. The number of subjects departmentalized in each of the various grades No. ·of subjects .1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ! 8 9 10 11 12 :!ntirely departmentalized No reply Total Schools in each group * Grades K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7· 8 No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. ~ No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii 5 3 5 2 4 4 4 2 56 32 17 4 2 l 1 2 20 12 6 l l --l 58 37 19 8 2 4 ':i. 2 21 14 7 3 1 1 -l 67 49 29 10 6 5 1 1 2 24 18 ll 4 2 2 --l 66 51 36 17 11 12 6 5 l 12 24 19 13 6 4 4 2 2 -4 56 44 39 26 22 16 ll 7 1 31 21 16 14 9 8 6 4 3 -11 33 43 39 38 28 15 10 9 2 2 l 46 12 16 14 14 10 5 4 3 l l -17 15 22 15 24 18 9 6 4 6 3 1 51 13 19 13 21 16 8 5 4 5 3 l 45 14 21 ll 22 10 11 8 5 3 i l 1 48 16 24 13 26 12 13 9 6 3 l l 1 56 126 277 274 276 275 278 277 114 86 ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION c. The subjects that are departmentalized in each of the gt"adee. Table 57 (Continued) Grades K l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 lllo. 'Ii 1110. 'Ii 1110. 'Ii No. 'Ii 1110. 'Ii lllo. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii No. 'Ii l • .Agt"iculture 2. Arithmetic 3. Art 4. Auditorium 5. Band 6. Chorus 7. Bible 8. Citizenship Club 9. Civics and Current lil'lente 10. Club activ1ties 11. Creative and Recreative Arte 12. Dr-amatics 13· ll:nglieh; ~ 14. Geograpb,y 15. Handwriting 16. Hane econani.cs 17· Health 18. History 19. Hane and Vocational Arts 20. Language Arte 21. Library 22. Literature 23. Latin 24. Liberal arts 25. Music 26. Orientation 27. Phonics 28. Piano 29. Pb,ysical Education 30. Reading 31. Rb,ythm Band 32. Science 33. Shop :;4. Spanish 35. Speech 36. 8I>EIlling 37. Social Studies 38. Typing 39. Unclassified 4o. Entirely depart­mentalized 41. lllo departmental instruction lllo reply -105 schools Total schools in each gt"OUP * 7 l l 13 7 l l 126 6 l l 10 6 l l l -40 14 3 l l -1 -2 l 7 l -2 l l -3 l l -103 37 l -32 12 1 -2 l 3 l l -l -2 l 1 -l -2 l 277 4 l 48 18 5 2 l -l -l -14 5 l -2 l 3 l 6 2 2 1 113 41 2 l 38 14 3 1 2 l 5 2 l -2 l 4 l 2 l 4 1 2 l 274 8 3 62 22 7 3 l -2 l 5 2 l -20 7 l -6 2 l -6 2 10 4 3 l 143 52 l -41 15 3 1 l -9 3 l -8 3 3 1 13 5 6 2 l -6 2 2 l 276 30 11 94 34 8 3 l -2 1 13 5 11 4 27 10 l -15 5 6 2 4 l 13 5 13 5 4 1 156 57 62 23 15 5 20 7 2 l 11 4 3 l 13 5 18 7 1 -18 7 12 4 275 54 19 102 37 8 3 2 l l -1 -l -3 l 2 l 17 6 17 6 33 12 3 1 22 8 12 4 7 3 26 9 17 6 5 2 181 65 77 28 24 9 26 9 6 2 9 3 4 1 20 7 27 10 l -23 8 31 11 278 70 25 96 35 9 3 2 l l -l -1 -2 l 5 2 1 -25 9 19 7 32 12 4 l 26 9 15 5 10 4 43 16 17 6 6 2 l -172 62 l -72 26 27 10 40 14 8 3 36 13 4 l 21 8 26 9 l -. 31 11 46 17 277 l 64 41 3 2 l l l 2 30 14 14 6 10 18 11 35 3 8 l 72 l 1 32 19 35 10 12 l 16 40 l 17 51 114 l 56 36 3 2 ---2 26 12 12 5 9 16 10 31 3 7 l 63 l l 28 17 31 9 11 1 14 35 -15 45 l 51 26 2 3 l l 2 l 20 9 11 5 7 17 11 33 l 5 2 l 50 1 1 22 14 27 10 9 11 30 16 48 86 l 59 30 2 3 --2 l 23 10 13 6 8 20 13 38 1 6 2 l 58 l l 26 16 31 12 10 13 35 19 56 *The various totals indicate the number of schools in which the given gt"ade was operated. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES and "B" of' Table 57 the larger total amount of' departmental work in the upper than in the lower grades. The preponderance of' de­partmental teaching in all grades relates to the following subjects, given in rank order: music, art, and physical education. These three subjects are supplemented in grades 6, 7, and 8, particularly in grades 7 and 8, with English or Language, arith­metic, and science as fields taught on the departmental plan. One reason why the per­ centages are so low for vocational subjects is that so few elementary schools offer these courses. Comparisons of' the extent of' depart­mentalization in Texas, non-Texas, and col­lege demonstration schools are shown in Table 58, 59, 60 and 61. The evidence pre­sented in this study shovs that there is no statistically reliable difference between the extent of' departmentalization in the 200 Texas and the 286 non-Texas schools. Only l out of' 18 critical ratios (Tables 58 and 59) is larger than 3.0 and the signifi­cance of' that one becomes questionable when one considers that the respondents were instructed to reply only to those items in the questionnaire which applied to their own schools; it is for this reason that items 8 and 9 were combined and the totals calculated separately as item 10 in Table 58. There is no statistically significant difference between the proportion of' non­Texas and campus demonstration schools (Ta­ble 60) which have or do n~t have departmen­tal work in some form. The dif'f'erences be­tween these two groups of' schools which at­tain statistical significance .indicate that a larger percentage of' the campus schools m9.intain departmental work in the f'irst grade (Table 60) whereas a larger percentage of' the non-Texas group practices specialization in teaching in grades 3, 4, and 6. The more detailed analysis in Table 61 shows one sta­tistically signif'icant dif'f'erence in f'avor of' the campus group and one in f'avor of' the non-Texas group. .In general, it appears that the campus and the non-Texas groups are very similar in the amount of' departmental instruction; such minor dif'f'erences as do exist reveal more departmentalization in the campus group. Table 58 Comparison of 200 Texas and 286 Non-Texas Schools on the Lowest Grade in School in Which Deparbuentalized Instruction is Practiced Lowest Grade 200 Texas Schools Pi S.E.pi 286 non-Tex. Schools S.Jl:.p2P2 s. JI:. Diff Diff. between Pi and p2 Critical Ratio Is Diff, Significant? L Grade l 19 .027 18 .022 .035 .01 .2 No 2. Grade 2 6 .016 5 .012 .020 .01 .5 No 3. Grade 3 10 .021 10 .017 .027 .oo .o No 4. Grade 4 14 .024 10 .017 .030 .04 1.3 No 5. Grade 5 13 .023 8 .015 .028 .05 1.7 Bo 6. Grade 6 8 .019 4 .011 .022 .04 1.8 No 7. Grades 7 and 8 5 .015 4 .011 .019 .01 .5 No 8. No departmentalization 6 .016 19 .023 .028 .13 4.6 Yes 9. No reply 22 .029 18 .022 .036 .04 1.1 No 10. Items 8 and 9 combined 28 .031 37 .029 .043 .09 2.0 No ORGANIZATION OF PROGRAM FOR INSTRUCTION Table 59 Canparisan of the Bumber of Subjects Departmentalized in the Fifth Gr-ade 1n 103 Texas and 124 Non-Texas Schools Whose Reports Identified the Subjects Departmentalized in Each Grade Bumber of Subjects 103 Texas Schools 124 Non-Tex. School a S. E. Diff. Diff. between P 1 and P2 Critical Ratio Is Diff. Significant? pl. S.E.pi P2 S.E.p2 1. One 28 .044 20 .035 .056 .08 1.4 No 2. Two 17 .037 16 .032 .049 .01 .2 No 3. Three 12 .031 11 .028 .042 .01 .2 No 4. Four 8 .026 12 .029 .039 .04 LO No 5. Five 8 .026 10 .026 .037 .02 .5 No 6. Six 2 .013 11 .028 .031 .09 2.9 No 7. Seven 5 .021 5 .019 .029 .oo .o No 8. Eight Cir" More 4 .019 3 .015 .024 .01 .4 No Table 60 Canpariaan of 286 Non-Texas and 46 College Cam.pus Demonstration Schools on the Lowest Gl-ade 1n School 1n Which Departmentalized. Instruction is Practiced 286 Nan-Texas School a 46 Camp­us Dem. Schools S. B:. Diff. Diff. between p 1 and p2 Critical Ratio Is Diff. Significant? pl S.E.p1 P2 S.E.p2 1. Grade 1 18 .022 33 .069 .023 .15 6.5 Yes 2. Gl'ade 2 5 .012 7 .037 .039 .02 .5 No 3. Gr-ade 3 10 .017 2 .020 .026 .08 3.0 Yea 4. Grade 4 10 .017 0 .ooo .017 .10 5.8 Yes 5. Grade 5 8 .015 7 .037 .040 .01 .2 No 6. Grade 6 4 .011 0 .000 .011 .o4 3.6 Yea 7. Grades 7 and 8 4 .011 2 .020 .023 .02 .8 No 8. No departmentalization 19 .023 28 .066 .070 .09 1.2 Bo 9. Bo reply 18 .022 13 .o49 .054 .05 .9 No 10. Items 8 and 9 cCl!lbined 37 .029 41 .072 .078 .04 .5 No ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 61 Ccmparison of the Number of Subjects Depar·;.mentaliz.ed in the Fifth Grade 1n 124 Non­Texas and 26 College Campus Demonstration Schools Whose Reports Identified the Subjects Departmentalized 1n Ea.ch Grade Number of Subjects 124 Non-Texas Schools Pi S.E.pi a6 Cam:p­us Dem. Schools P2 s.s:.p2 S. E. Diff. Diff. between Pi and p2 Critical Ratio Is Diff. Significant? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. One Two Three Four Five Six Seven 8. Eight or more 20 16 11 12 10 11 5 3 .035 .032 .028 .029 .026 .028 .019 .015 8 27 50 12 3 0 0 0 .053 .071 .098 .063 .033 .ooo .ooo .ooo .064 .079 .102 .070 .042 .028 .019 .015 .12 .11 .39 .oo .07 .11 .05 .03 1.8 1.4 3.8 .o 1.6 3.9 2.6 2.0 No No Yes No No Yes No No Program Improvements When the principals were asked to list the features of' the instructional pro­gram with which they were dissatisfied and to describe the changes they would l.lke to make, 44 per cent made no reply. It ls dlf­f'lcult to interpret this absence of re­sponse. It may mean that the principals and perhaps their teachers are so thoroughly conditioned or resigned to their present pro­grams that they are not sensitive to needed changes. The 56 per cent who dl.d respond gave a great variety of answers. No one reply was given by more than 37 persons. The most frequently mentioned desired pro­gram changes were: less departmentaliza­tion; increased curriculum correlation and integration into broader areas; curriculum enrichment with additions of' art, music, or science; more departmental work; time allot­ments on a larger block basis; more indivi­dualized instruction; longer school day; lighter teaching load for the principal; less emphasis on special subjects; lighter load for special subject teachers; more vocational courses in the upper grades; more remedial teaching; more flexible schedules; free period for each teacher; additions in physi­ cal facilities; ability grouping; fewer in­ terruptions in the school program; and light­er teaching loads. A larger variety of' needed program changes were named by the Texas than the non-Texas principals. CHAPTER 4 CLASSIFICATION, PROMOTION, CHILD-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES The broad problem of organizing and maintaining class groups for effective in­struction and for rendering the best pos­sible service to individual pupils brings into focus those special phases of school management known as classification, promo­tion, child-study, and adjustment proce­dures. Classification in First Grade The child's problem of becoming ac­quainted with and making his adjustment to life at school begins with his entrance to the nursery school, kindergarten, or the first grade. In most schools the more serious business of a school curriculum does not confront the child until he enters the first grade. It is for this reason that a special effort was made in this study to discover the nature of admission and clas­sification practices in the first grade. Only 29 per cent of the 532 schools {Table 62, part A) used criteria other than chronoligical age for admission to the first grade. Reading readiness or general abili­ty test results were used in 13 per cent of the schools. The variety of other critieria reported for the different schools reflects the effort being made in some situations to improve the child's adjustment to the first grade program. The entering first grade group was too large for one teacher to handle in 43 per cent of the schools. In the latter situations many different procedures were used in selecting those pupils who were to be assigned to Teacher A, to Teacher B, etc; 27 different types of replies were i­dentified (Table 62, part B), no one of which was reported for more than 7 per cent of the schools. Measures of reading readi­ness or mental ability were used in 14 per cent of the schools; in most of the re­maining schools (29 per cent of all schools) various techniques for heterogeneous group­ing were applied. It may thus be said that ability grouping was not very extensive, even in the 43 per cent of the schools in which the entering first grade pupils had to be divided among 2 or more teachers. It has become common practice among first grade teachers to subdivide their classes into 2 or more smaller groups, es­pecially for instruction in beginning read­ing. That this practice has become common in the schools included in this study is evidenced by the fact that the formation of sub-groups within first grade classes was reported for 76 per cent of the schools (Ta­ble 62, part C), the number of groups per class ranging from 2 to 8. The criteria used in forming sub-groups for teaching pur­poses within first grade classes covered the usual range of 6-year-old's developmental characteristics; the criteria most frequently applied pertained to readiness factors in reading {Table 62, part D). Other interesting features about first grade classification practices are the fact that sub-groups within classes usually are not formed until the school. term is 4 or more weeks under way so that teachers have had time to become familiar with the pupils and that in 75 per cent of the schools pupils are shifted from one sub-group to another during the term (Table 62, part .E and F). The percentage of pupils shifted from one.group to another during the term ranged from less than 10 to more than 50, the most frequently reported percentages ranging be­tween 10 and 25. In general, the data which have been presented indicate considerable flexibility in first grade classification practices in a surprisingly large proportion of the schools. Classification in Grade Two and Above Approximately 50 per cent of the schools were reported to have more pupils in one or more of the grades above the first than one teacher could handle so that there existed the need for allocating the pupils to the several teachers. All of the schools which had this aspect of the classification 81 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES problem did not have it for all the grades above the first; some schools had more pu­pils in grade 2 than one teacher could han­dle, but did not have this problem in grade 3 and above, whereas other schools had this problem in only the fourth or the sixth grade. Local year to year variations in birth rate and migration constitute impor­ tant factors in determining the enrollment figures for the different grades in a school. Although about 50 per cent of the schoois had more pupils per grade in all grades or in some l or 2 grades than one teacher could handle, this phase of the classification problem existed for any given grade in only about one-third of the schools, the actual percentages ranging from 37 for grade 2 to 33 for grade 6. Table 52 Classification Practice in the First Grade A. Criteria other than C.A. applied to admission to the first grade 1. None 2. General mental ability according to test given 3. Reading readiness 4 . Teacher judgment 5. Social a~justment 6. Health or physical condition 7. Kindergarten training 8. Le.nguage ability 9. Emotional adjustment 10. Sub-primary requirements passed 11. Environment, home conditions, pre-school opportunity 12. Consent of parents 13. All children must be vaccinated 14. Readiness to learn, readiness for school 15. Birth certificate 16. Must show proof of residence 1n district 17. Aptitude tests 18. Metropolitan Reading Readiness Test 19. Afflicted or mentally deficient children not admitted 20. Must enroll during first month of school 21. Position on waiting list 22. Conference with child and parent 23. Ability to follow directions 24. Interests of child 25. Playground attitude 26: Kuhlman-Anderson Intelligence Test 27. Pressey Classification Test 28. Parents permitted to pay tuition on underage children No reply Total number of schools B. Procedures used to form class groups if school has more than one teacher handling first grade. 1. Have only one first-grade teacher 2. Tests {mental, reading, readiness, etc.) 3. General Ability 4.-No particular procedure followed Total No. rf, 337 70 54 27 18 16 14 7 7 5 5 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 l l l l l l l l 45 532 249 39 36 26 63 13 10 5 3 3 4 l l l l l l l 8· 47 7 7 5 CLASSIFICATION-, PROMO~ION, CHILD-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES Table 62 (Continued) B. Procedures used to form class groups if school has more than one teacher handling first grade. 5. Divided alphabetically 6. Chronological age 7. Recommendations of kindergarten teacher 8. Social adjustment 9. Division made by lot 10. Heterogeneous grouping 11. Parents given a choice of rooms or session 12. According to kindergarten training 13. Divided equally 14. Principal makes assignments 15. Boys and girls (separately) divided equally 16 . Physical size 17. Reading readiness 18. One group of younger first-grade pupils; one group of older first grade pupils and younger second-grade pupils 19. Divided alphabetically first term; selected second term 20. Late entries kept together (special group) 21. Language ability; nationality 22. Kept together few weeks, then divided on basis of ability 23. Primarily alphabetical division; request of parents; teacher load. 24. Teacher judgment 25. Order of application 26. Ability to read 27. Race No reply Total No. ~ 23 22 22 18 18 17 15 9 8 7 7 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 l l 1 l 51 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 l l 1 1 10 Total number of schools 532 C. Number of sub-groups into which first-grade class·es are divided l. No sub-groups formed 2. Two 3. Three 4. Four 5. Five 6. Six 7. Two or three 8. Two to four 9. Three or four 10. Three to five 11. Three to six 12. Four or five 13. Four to eight 14. Eight 15. Four to seven 25 96 178 20 4 3 42 6 33 1 l 6 l l 1 5 18 33 4 l 1 8 l 6 1 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 62 (Continued) Total No. '/, C. Number of sub-groups into which first grade classes are divided 16. Number varies No reply Total number of schools D. Criteria used in forming sub-groups for teaching purposes within first-grade classes 1. Reading ability 2. General ability 3. Reading readiness 4. Rate or progress or achievement 5. Teacher judgment or evaluation 6. I.Q. or .mental age 7. Tests (reading readiness, vocabulary, etc.) 8. Social development, readiness for 9. No sub-groups formed 10. Phys1cal maturity 11. Chronological Age 12. Individual maturation or need 13. Grouping is flexible 14. Chiid interest 15. Criteria used are changeable 16. Previous training -time 17. Number Readiness 18. Size of class 19. Attendance 20. Gray's oral reading check 21. Time of entrance No reply Total number of schools test school E. How soon after the tenn begins are these 1. Four weeks 2. Six weeks 3. Two weeks 4. As soon as practical 5. Three weeks 6. No definite time; as need arises 7. One week 8. Eight weeks 9. First day; immediately 10. Three months 11. Five weeks· 12. Second semester 13. Ten weeks 14. Teacher judgment when need arises 15. Nine weeks 16. Seven weeks sub-groups made? ll 103 532 116 91 86 62 54 50 47 40 25 16 15 12 9 8 4 4 2 2 l l 6 101 532 64 59 49 44 43 28 23 22 16 10 5 5 2 2 l l 2 19 22 17 16 12 10 9 9 8 5 3 3 2 2 2 l l 19 12 11 9 8 8 5 4 4 3 3 l l CLASSIFICATION, PROMOTION, CHILD-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES Table 62 (Continued) E. How soon after the term begins are these sub-groups made? 17. Four months No reply Total number of schools Total No. "' 3 155 --­532 l 30 F. Once the sub-groups are formed, are pupils, shirted from one group to another Yes No Seldom or rarely No reply Total number of schools 397 2 2 131 --­532 75 -­-­25 Forty different procedures were in use in the schools in which the pupils of 1 or more grades had to be assigned to 2 or more teachers (Table 63). Only 8 or these 40 procedures represent direct efforts to achieve ability groups. Some effort toward ability grouping, as represented by these 8 procedures (items 2, 3, 5, 11, 13, 14, 17, and 37 in Table 63), involves 26 per cent of 532 schools or 51 per cent of the 268 schools in which class membership in any one of the grades above the first necessitates the al­location of pupils to 2 or more teachers. Table 63 Classification in Grade Two and Above Procedures used in forming class groups when the number Total of pupils per grade is too large for one teacher to handle. 1. No grades need to be divided No. 'f, 231 43 2. General ability considered 54 10 3. Students divided alphabetically 39 7 4. Social adjustment a determinant 30 6 5. I. Q. or mental age studied 27 5 6 . Teacher judgment used as basis 24 5 7. Chronological age 22 4 8. Pupil's or parent and pupil wishes are followed 21 4 9. No particular method used 21 4 10. Grading of previous years 18 3 11. Achievement rate of pupils determines 18 3 12. Heterogeneous grouping favored 16 3 13. Tests-reading ability, vocabulary, etc. 15 3 14. Groups kept homogeneous 13 2 15. Teacher-pupil relationship 13 2 16. Teachers draw enrollment cards or other method of division by lot 13 2 17. Tests-achievement 10 2 18. Same number of poor, average, and good students to each room 7 l ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 63 (Continued) Procedures used in forming class groups when the number of pupils per grade is too large for one teacher to handle. 191 Divide enrollment cards equally 20. Physical size or health 21. Repeaters change teachers 22. Date of .entrance separates groups 23. Place child in section where he will be happy (congenial group) 24. Reading ability 25. Overflow from combination of two grades placed in one room 26. Two children in same family not placed in same teacher's room 27. Teachers alternate between good and poor groups 28. Pupils draw by lot for section 29. Attendance records of pupils 30. Language ability determines group 31. Grouping of previous years 32. Tests given 33. Separate room for cotton pickers, etc., with two or three grades 34. Personal characteristics of pupils 35. Individual needs of pupils 36. One teacher's pupils are promoted to a certain other teacher 37. Ask for volunteers 38. Readiness for work 39. Combinations of half grades 40. Groups kept intact throughout elementary school 41. Age-grade record of pupil 42. Outstanding undesirable pupils are separated No reply Total number of schools Total No. "' 7 l 6 l 6 l 5 l 3 l 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - l - l - l - l - l - l - l - l - l - l - l - l - l - 53 10 --­ 532 Grouping Wjth1n Each Classroom in Grade Two and Above For pupils not assigned to special classes or otherwise handled as typical pupils, grouping to facilitate instruction and to assist in adapting instruction to individual differences may be managed through ability grouping in the formation of class sections (as described in the pre­ceding paragraph) or through the formation of sub-groups within classes or through a combination of the 2 methods. Table 64 pre­sents a summary of practices relating to grouping within classes. Some effort at the formation of sub-groups within classes was reported for 71 per cent of the schools. The practice is most prevalent in the primary grades and decreases in prevalence as one moves upward from the second grade. In 51 per cent of the schools the formation of sub-groups within classes is limited to selected subjects. Sub-groups are formed moat frequently in reading and in arithmetic, the practice prevailing in the former subject in 64 per cent and in the latter subject in 43 per cent of the schools. The percentages just quoted are the sums of the per cent of schools which do not restrict the formation of sub-'groups to cer­tain subjects and the per cent of schools which specifically named reading and arith­metic. Fifteen other subjects were named as fields in which sub-groups were organized within classes. General ability was name4 most frequently (by 23 per cent of the schools) as the criterion used in forming CLASSIFICATION, PROMOTION, CHIID-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES sub-groups. Most of the other criteria named related to measures or indices of a­chievement presumably related to the subjec in which the grouping was carried on. In practically all of the schools in which the formation of sub-groups was practiced pupils were shifted from one sub-group to another when changes in the instructional situation suggested the advisability of such procedure. The percentage of a typical class so shifted during a school term ranged from less than 4 to over 90, the majority of reports falling between 10 and 30 per cent. No doubt the percentage of pupils shifted from one sub­group within a class to another during a term would be different for annual than for semi-annual promotion schools. No such comparison was attempted in this study. Table 64 Grouping Within Each Classroom in Grade Two and Above A. Grades in which the formation of sub-groups a common practice is Total No. "' Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Unclassified None No reply 347 321 229 181 153 46 28 3 44 114 --­ 65 60 43 34 29 9 5 1 8 21 Total number of schools 532 B. Is forming of sub-groups limited to selected subjects? No sub-groups formed Yes No No reply 44 269 95 124 8 51 18 23 Total number of schools 532 c. If so, in what subjects? 1. Reading 2. Arithmetic 3. Not limited to selected 4. No sub-groups formed 5. Spelling 6. English; Language 7. Social Studies 8. Major subjects 9. Skill subjects 10. Handvriting 11. Geography 12. Health 13. History subjects 244 131 95 44 28 13 6 5 4 3 2 2 1 46 25 18 8 5 2 1 1 1 1 --- ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 64 (Continued) Total C. If so, in what subjects? No. 1' 14. First Aid 15. Academic Subjects 16. Science 17. Phonetics 18. Music 19. Art 1 1 1 1 1 1 No reply 129 24 Total number of schools 532 D. Criteria used in making sub-groups 1. General ability 123 23 2. Achievement 75 14 3. Reading ability 56 11 4. Test results 47 9 5. Teacher judgment 44 8 6. No sub-groups formed 44 8 7. I. Q. or mental age 15 3 8. Readiness 15 3 9. Interests and attitudes 20 4 10. Individual needs 13 2 11. Chronological Age 4 1 12. Arithmetical ability 4 1 13. Skills, speed, comprehension 3 1 14. Individual differences 4 1 15. Social adjustment 2 16. Attendance 1 17. Reaction time 1 18. Date of entry 1 19. Improvement of child 1 20. Knowledge of phonetics 1 21. Textbooks available 1 Total number of schools 532 E. Are pupils shifted from one group to another? No sub-groups formed 44 8 Yes 346 65 No 14 3 No reply 128 24 Total number of schools 532 ClRssifying Transfer Students How to determine the placement of pupils who transfer to a school from another district has always been a perplexing pro­blem for principals. At one time, in some schools, a transfer pupil was automatically put back a grade on the assumption that the standards in other schools were enough lower to justify placing the incoming child into a gro.de lower than the one he had been in or was promoted to by the sending school. The CLASSIFICATION, PROMOTION, CHILD-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES practice of demoting transfer pupils was especially prevalent when a pupil transfer­red from a rural to a city school. Information obtained in this study indicates an almost complete disappearance from current practice of some of the histor­ically undesirable methods of classifying transfer students. The great majority of the 36 different procedures used in classi­fying transfer pupils (Table 65) reported in this study imply that the pupil is placed by the receiving school in the grade indicated in the pupil's record from the sending school. Placement by informal or standardized measures of achievement or a­bility was indicated by only 13 per cent or fewer of the respondents (13 per cent for item 5, 8 per cent for item 8, etc., Table 65). The fact that the procedures listed in Table 65 may be grouped into 2 large cata­gories, placement by record or recommendation of sending school and measures of achievement, leaves certain things to be desired in present practices. Onl~ 5 items out of 36 (items, 7, 17, 20, 26, and 31 in Table 65) indicate that a few schools are giving cognizance to factors other than achievement or grading based on achievement or subjects covered in the place­ment of transfer students. Such factors as chronological age, size, and previous bsck­ground of experience, all of which are im­portant elements in a child's adjustment to school and to his class group, are recogni­zed by only a small percentage of schools if the direct statements of principals are taken as true reflections of practice. Table 65 Procedure Used in Classifying Transfer Students Tota.l Procedures No. 'f, 1. Record from transferring school 173 33 2. Trial entrance in same grade 129 24 111 21 3. Report cards 4. Accept classification of transferr.ing school; adjust later if necessary 98 18 5. Scholastic achievement test 70 13 6. Use of standard tests 40 8 7. Chronological age 29 5 8. Placed in trial group until teacher can determine proper placement 28 5 9. Interview with child and/or parent 16 3 10. Informal trial test 17 3 11. Adjust on basis of achievement in receiving school 14 3 12. Pupil's ability 13 2 13. Teacher judgment and observation 13 2 14. Intelligence test 11 2 15. Accept classification of transferring school if trans­ferring school has same number of grades as receiving school 11 2 16. Principal consults with parent 8 2 17. Cumulative record of child's entire school life 7 l 18. Placed in smallest cla.ss for sectionizing 6 l 19. Textbook covered 5 l 20. Social background or adjustment 5 l 21. Placed on trial if not from accredited school or from out-of-state or out-of-city 5 l 22. Superintendent or principal classifies 4 l ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 65 (Continued) Procedures 23. Entrance tests 24. Amount of work covered as set forth in State Course of Study 25. Reading ability determines placement 26. Number of years previously spent in school 27. Accept transfer classification if from an accredited school 28. Attendance 29. Check on abilities in fundamental subjects 30. Amount of work previously covered 31. Physical size 32. Letter from principal of transferring school 33; Book cards 34. Special problems of receiving school 35. Once placed, pupil is seldom demoted 36. Previous school experience No reply Total number of schools Promotion Practices No inquiry was m9.de in the present study as to whether schools followed the an­nual or the semiannual plan of promotion. The information whlch was sought related to the more detailed practices followed within the gross patterns of annual or semiannual promotion. In order that specific practices might be related to educational policy, each respondent was asked to react to the fol­lowing: "Which of the following statements, concerning a six-grade elementary school, comes nearest to describing the situation as it now exists in your school? Read both statements before you check the one which best applies. a. The elementary school is an in­stitution which takes children of varying physical and intellectual capacities who are about six years of age, and for six years offers them the educational opportuni­ties which seem best suited to their needs. They get WPat they can, ana when they are approximately twelve years of age they are promoted to the junior high school. If they have shown themselves to be above average in ability they may even be promoted at an. earlier age. Total No. "' 4 l 3 l 3 l 3 l 2 - 2 - 2 - l - l - l - l - l - 11 - l - 38 7 --­ 532 b. The elementary school is an in­stitution which takes children of varying physical and intellectual capacities who are approximately six years of age, and requires them to reach certain minimum standards of educational accomplishment before they are promoted to the junior high school. Unless they are of average ability or above, this may involve seven, eight or more years of attendance in the elementary school; and promotion to junior high school at the age of thirteen, fourteen, or older. It was thought that a response to part "a" or part "b" in this statement would give a fair index to the basic educational policy which the school endeavored to put in­to practice. Statement "a" reflects an ed­ucational policy characterized by equaliza­tion of educational opportunity and whole­some adjustment for all as basic to any good educational program. Statement "b" reflects achievement in subject matter as an objective of paramount importance, an objective which must be served in preference to all other considerations and thus giving less atten­tion to individual abilities which are less academic in nature. Statement "a" does not exclude attention to achievement in subject CLASSIFICATION, PROMOTION, CHILD-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES matter but recognizes the comparable impor­tance of other values. Several phases of promotion prac­tices in the schools were tabulated accord­ing to the statement of educational policy checked by the principal. Note that 36 per cent of the respondents (191 out of 532, Table 66) checked statement "a" and 51 per cent checked statement "b" as their prevail­ing educational policy. Non-promotion which was practiced in 92 per cent of all schools, was reported for about the same percentage of schools adhering to statement 11b11 • Is it possible that there is no re­lationship between one's basic educational policy and the use of non-promotion as an administrative and child adjustment proce­ dure or is it likely that the relationship between pupil progress and educational policy is not recognized or not understood by those who administer elementary schools? The data in part B, Table 66 reflect a similar lack "a11 of distinction between statements and "b" and the use of non-promotion as an ad­justment device. Although it would be dif­ficult to make a statistically valid compari­son between the percentages gi JU in part B of Table 66, the general impression one gets is that there is less non-promotion among the schools professing adherence to the ed­ucational policy reflected by statement "a" than in the schools subscribing to statement "b". Accelerating as a progress and ad- Table 66 Practices Regarding Non-Promotion Educational Policy A B No reply Total No. '/, No. 'Ii No. % No. % A. Is non-promotion practiced? Yes 175 91 259 95 53 79 487 92 No 11 6 3 l 1 l 15 3 No reply Total number of 5 3 12 4 13 19 30 6 schools 191 274 67 532 B. Percentage of en­rollment not pro-mated last term 1/5 -4 88 46 72 26 14 21 174 33 l -4 20 11 4 1 2 3 26 3 5 -9 27 14 78 20 11 16 116 22 10 -14 8 4 41 15 8 12 57 11 15 -19 20 -24 25 -29 30 -34 50 -54 2 l 2 l 12 4 3 1 1 -l -l - 2 3 16 3 3 l l -3 -l - None 17 9 11 4 4 6 32 6 No reply Tota1 number of 27 14 50 18 26 39 103 19 schools 191 274 67 532 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES justment device was used by a statistically significant higher percentage of schools subscribing to statement "a" than by those 11b 11 adhering to statement (acceleration was used by 53 per cent of those adhering to statement "a" and by 43 per cent of those naming statement "b"; the critical ratio for these two percentages is 6.6, Table 67). The data in part B of Table 67 likewise show a statistically significant difference favoring the amount of acceleration prac­ticed in the schools subscribing to state­ment "a" as their educationa.l policy. It both groups of schools use both devices, non­promotion being practiced in about the same proportion of schools in both groups and acceleration. being practiced in a larger pro­portion of policy "a" schools. Special achievement check-ups were being mgde in 36 per cent of the schools (Table 68, part A), Such check-ups were made in almost exactly the same proportion of schools following educational policy "a" as in those adhering to policy "b". Part B of Table 68 represents an effort to ascertain vhat relationship, if Table 67 Practices Regarding Acceleration Educational policy A B No reply Total No. '/, No. '/, No. '/, No. '/, A. Is acceleration used? I Yes 101 53 119 43 26 39 246 46 No 79 41 141 52 25 37 245 46 No reply Total number of 11 6 14 5 16 24 41 8 schools 191 274 67 532 B. Percentage of en­rollment accelerated last term 1/5 -4 5 -9 10 -14 15 -19 20 -24 30 -34 55 -59 None No reply Total number of schools 70 36 3 2 l l 102 53 15 8 191 I I I 56 20 2 l l -l -l -180 67 33 12 274 10 15 l l 37 55 19 28 67 136 26 3 l 3 l l -l -l -l -319 60 67 13 532 thus appears that there is slightly less in the amount of non-promotion and significant­ly more in the amount of acceleration in schools adhering to educational policy "a" than in those abiding by policy "b" although any, might exist between special achievement check-ups and the length of the elementary school program. Some persons have felt that special evaluation of achievement, especial­ly in reading, at the third grade level was CLASSIFICATION, PROMOTION, CHILD-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES responsible for the larger amount of non­promotion in the primary gredes, or that a 6-year elementary school placed less empha­sis on achievement than did 7-year or 8-year elementary schools. Before turning to any generalizations to be drawn from this por­tion of Table 68, some explanation of the figures is in order. Some of the schools represented in the study housed only pri­mary or only intermediate or only intermedi­ate and upper grades. Some of them were in school systems operating 6-year or 7-year or 8-year elem.entary programs. Since the respondents were instructed to report on practices in their own schools, certain re­ports were bound to be restricted to groups of grades representing less than the com­plete elementary program in the given dis­trict. Then again in some school system3 special achievement check-ups were made at several points in the elementary program. It is for these reasons that the data in part B of Table 68 have been organized dif­ferently than the data in most of the tables in this report. Actually this portion of the table includes reports from only those schools which were operating the full roster of grades representing the complete elemen­tary program in the district . Several generalizations may be drawn from Table 68, part B. Special achievement check-ups in primary grades are about equally prevalent in 6-year and 8-year elementary schools, such check-ups being made in grades 1 or 2 in approximately 5 or 6 per cent of the schools and in grade 3 in 27 or 21 per cent of the schools. Special check-ups in the sixth grade are more common in 6-year than in 8-year schools. In a small propor­tion of schools special achievement check­ups are made at several points in the ele­mentary program; this explains why the sums of certain percentages in the same column exceed 100. Special check-ups at any point in the program were omitted, i.e., the prac­tice did not prevail, in a larger percent­age of the 8-year than in the 6-year schools. In general, there appears to be somehwat more concern with special acievement check­ups in 6-year than ln 8-year schools. In only 15 per cent of all schools did the prin­cipals feel that the special achievement check-ups resulted in more retardation in the grades in which they were made than was prevalent in other grades. The percentage just quoted represents about one-third of the schools in which special check-ups were being made. Table 68 Practices Regarding Special Achievement Check-Ups a Educational Policy A B No reply Total No. No. No. No. A. Are special achievement checks made at certain grade levels? Yes No No reply Total number of schools B. Gi'ades in which special achieve­ment check-ups are made. "' 70 37 102 53 19 10 191 "' 103 38 139 51 32 11 274 Concluding grade of elementary school 6 8 No reply 'l'otal 5 7 No. No. No. No. No. No. "' "' "' "' "' "' "' "' 21 31 194 36 21 31 262 49 25 38 76 15 67 532 b 1 ­ 1 1 2 ­ K 6 5 26 5 15 6 5 8 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 68 {Continued) bConcluding grade of elementary school B. Grades in which special achieve­6 No reply Total 87 5 ment check-ups are made. No. No. No. 1' No. No. No. 'I> 'I> 'I> 'I> 'I> 2 8 6 20 4 11 5 1 2 28 217 12 105 20 3 27 67 283 4 16 7 18 14 35 7 21 9 10 8 3 27 34 65 2 36 1 ­23 1871 29 97 18 2 1 24 59 15 13 107 8 1 ­ 48 37 49 9 No special checkup made 1 ­261 4932 53 94 72 5 45 129 54 2 ­ No reply 10 17 1 9 84 16 Total number of schools 32 13 49 37 241 460 11 131 532 : c. Is there more retardation 1n a these grades than 1n other? Yes 82 15 I 128 24 No I 261 49Bo special eheckups made I 61 12 Total number of schools Bo reply 532 ba Percentages based on 532. Percentages in each column based on number of schools 1n each column. The practice of giving trial promo­tions was reported for 64 per cent of all schools. General rules or policies governing promotion from one grade to another were reported for 70 per cent of the schools (Table 69). That practice regarding general rules 1n terms of which promotions are de­cided varies greatly among the schools is evidenced by the fact that 62 different types of policies were described. Some schools apply more than one policy. The total frequency of mention for all policies was 695 by 426 schools. No one policy was named for more than 11 per cent of the schools. Thirty-seven of the 62 items ap­peared to be identified more closely with statement "b" on educational policy in that they refleeted achievement in subject mat­ter as the major emphasis in teaching and in promotion while 25 of the items (Table 69) appeared to be more closely associated with statement "a" on educational policy. The 37 i terns alligned with s tatemen t "b" receive.d a total frequency of mention of 355 whereas the 25 items alligned with statement "a" were named a total of 340 times. Although these particular data were not tabulated ac­cording to the educational policy subscribed to by the school, it seems reasonable to as­sume that the rules governing promotion which reflect the "whole child" would be found more frequently in the schools commit­ted to statement "a" which reflects the "e­qualization of educational opportunity11 view­point. In general, the schools which report­ed rules governing promotions seem to be a­bout equally divided as to liberal or "whole child" policies and policies giving much emphasis to achievement in subjects of study. This arbitrary way of dividing schools into two groups does not mean that the schools su"Qscribing to statement "a" are unconcerned with academic achievement, but simply implies that these schools attach greater importance to other values and outcomes for children, CLASSIFICATION, PROMOTION, CHILD-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES Table 69 General Rules Governing Promotion Practices General Rules 1. In primary grades must attain certain standards in reading 2. Chronological age is a determining factor 3. No rules 4. Teacher judgment used, or combination of teacher and administrators 5. Special study is made of each child 6. No child is promoted with marks below passing in more than two of fundamental subjects 7. Not promoted if failing in two major subjects; English, Arithmetic, etc. 8. Achievement tests' scores 9, Achievement must be equal to ability 10. Pupil does not stay in same grade more than two years 11. Physical and social development 12. In upper grades must make average 70 on all subjects 13. I. Q. or mental age considered 14. 70 average in major subjects required for promotion 15. Standard tests 16. In Grade I must attain certain standards in reading 17. Pupil stays in one grade no more than one year 18. School attendance considered 19. Must make average of 75 20. No child is promoted with marks below passing in more than one of fundamental subjects 21. General ability and maturation 22. Rules vary 23. 75 average in major subjects required for promotion 24. Trial promotions made after parents are consulted 25. Must attain minimum achievement standards for grade level 26. Grades given by teacher during the year 27. In primary grades must meet language requirements 28. Promotion or failure by subjects 29. No more than two failures allowed during time each child spends in the elementary schools 30. Must not fail in any essential subjects 31. Rules are same for all grades 32. All children must meet minimum requirements of state course of study 33. Reading ability is considered (no grade level specified). 34. D average in fundamental subjects required 35, In primary grades must pass requirements in arithmetic 36. Must make average of 75 with no grade below 60 37. Must pass in 75~ of subjects 38. If pupil has D in any subject, give conditional pass to high school from grade 8, but no diploma 39. Conferences with child, parents, teachers, and principal 40. Effort is considered 41. Must pass reading and arithmetic Total No. "1 61 61 53 53 46 35 34 23 23 23 23 21 20 19 17 '17 17 11 10 10 9 7 7 6 6 6 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 l 11 11 10 10 9 7 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 l l l l l l l l l l l l ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 69 (Continued) General Rules Total No. % 42. Cumulative record 1 - 43. In Grade I must attain certain standards in reading, number work, social adjustment, and health habits 1 - 44. Must average above 60 1 - 45. Upper grade child must make average of 75 in all subjects provided he is normal 1 - 46: In upper grades must make general average of 70 and must pass 75% of subjects 1 - 47. In grade 8 must pass county achievement test before entering high school 1 - 48. Promotions in grades 7 and 8 are by subjects, not grades 1 - 49. Child is promoted on trial if he fails in arithmetic, social studies, or two minors 1 - 50. Child is not promoted if he fails in more than three minor subjects 1 - 51. Pupils who make any F's may be promoted on recommendation of teacher and superintendent 1 - 52. Must meet standards of promotion set up by county supervisors 1 - 53. Pupils must pass unit tests, six weeks tests, and final tests 1 - 54. Progress in any subject or ability to get along with other children permits promotion 1 - 55. Teacher and principal confer 1 - 56. Certain study habits and citizenship practices are considered 1 - 57. Pupil's attitude is considered 1 - 58. Maturity of the child is considered 1 - 59. Affect of retardation on ambition of pupil is considered 1 - 60. Readiness for learning is considered 1 - 61. Time promotions are discouraged 1 - 62. Combination of rules is used 1 - No reply 106 20 --­ Total number of schools 532 in addition to achievement in subjects, than 11b11 do the schools subscribing to statement • Tables 70 and 71 present comparisons between the 3 groups of schools on selected phases of promotion practices. Out of eight comparisons between the Texas and the Non-Texas schools only 2 are statistically significant. Acceleration or grade-skip­ping and trial promotions were used in a larger percentage of non-Texas than in Texas schools. There were no statistically sig­nificant differences between the non-Texas and the campus demonstration schools in the promotion practices which were compared. Curriculum Differentiation Administrative provisions for adjust­ing educational service to individual dif­ferences have been more difficult to make than adaptations through methods of teaching and curriculum organization and requirements. It is probably true that in every classroom in the country the teacher takes cognizance of variations in pupil abilities and makes some adaptations in his teaching, to give added assistance to the slower or less able pupils and some encouragement to the faster or more capable pupils. This portion of the CLASSIFICATION, PROMOTION, CHILD-STUDY AND .ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES Table 70 Comparison of 200 Texas and 286 Non-Texas Schools 1n Selected Aspec1~s Of Promotion Practices Promotion Practices 200 Texas Schools Pi S.E.pi 286 Non-Tex. Schools P2 S.E.p2 S.E. Diff. l. Is non-promotion practiced? a. Yes b. No 90 3 .O~l .on 93 2 .015 .002 .025 .014 2. Is acceleration used? a. Yes b. No 37 52 .034 .035 51 44 .029 .029 .045 .045 3. Are special achievement checks made at certain grade levels? a. Yes }>. No 31 51 .031 .035 41 48 .029 .029 .042 .046 4. Are trial promotion given? a. Yes b. No 51 19 .035 .027 68 19 .027 .023 .054 .036 Diff. between Pi and p2 .03 .01 .14 .08 .10 .03 .17 .oo Is Critical Diff. Ratio Significant? 1.2 No No .7 Yes 3.1 No 1.7 2.4 No .6 No Yes 3.1 .o No study, therefore, concerned itself primari­ly with procedures in curriculum differen­tiation which were supplementary to the cus­tomary efforts of individual teachers and which might be classified as definitely plan ned and official procedures developed and encouraged by the administration. Table 72 summarizes the curriculum differentiation practices in the schools studied. Two-thirds of the schools use a printed or mimeographed course of study but only about half of these schools follow their courses of study very closely. In 17 per cent of the 532 schools the course of study is a single-track course which out­ lines the 'Work for a ll pupils without any differentiation according to ability. When this type of course of study is followed closely by teachers, the tendency is to cur­ tail the freedom of the teacher in adapting instruction to individual differences and thus results in non-flexible policies and standards for promotion. If school systems were entirely consistent in their policies one might expect to find an educational 11b 11 policy represented by statement , inflex­ible promotion policies and standards, much non-promotion and retardation, and a single­track non-differentiating course of study in the same schools. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 71 Ccmparison of 286 Non-Texas and 46 College Campus Demonstration Schools On Selected Aspects of Promotion Practices Prcmotion Practices L Is non-promotion practiced? a. Yes b. No 2. Is acceleration used? a. Yes b. No 3. Are special achievement checks made at certain grade levels? a. Yes b. No 4. Are trial prcmotions given? a. Yes b. No 286 Non-Tex. I 46 Col. Dem. Schools j Schools s.:e:.p i S.E.p2 P1 P2 93 2 51 44 41 48 68 19 .015 89 .002 7 .029 61 .029 35 .029 33 .029 50 .027 57 .023 22 Nearly half (45 per cent) of the schools had a course of study which was a single-track course but which did indicate enrichments for superior pupils and easier materials for the less able pupils. An ad­ditional 2 per cent of the schools reported separate courses of study for the superior groups, the middle groups, and the below­average groups. If courses of study occupy a significant role in the guidance of in~ struction, one wonders about the type of cur­riculum guidance that prevails in the 33 per cent of the schools for which no cotlrses of study of any kind were reported. In addition to the general curriculum; differentiation provided through courses of study 34 per cent of the schools reported that in one or more subjects they had mate­ .046 .037 .071 .070 .069 .073 .072 .061 S.:e:. Diff Diff. between Critical Ratio p1 and p2 • Is Diff. Significant? .048 .04 .8 No .038 .05 1.3 No .078 .10 1.2 No .076 .09 1.1 No I .075 .o8 LO No .079 .02 .2 No II i ! .078 .11 1.4 No I I I .065 .03 .4 No I rials designed to permit individual pupils to progress at their own rates; 63 per cent reported that it was common practice for their teachers to give differentiated assign­ments which make allowance for pupils of dif­ferent levels of ability; 46 per cent said that they used co-curricular activities such as clubs, assemblies, and athletic events as devices for adapting school experiences to individual differences; 59 per cent claimed that they made concerted effort to provide enrichment for superior pupils; 22 per cent permitted superior pupils to work through the course of study more rapidly than aver­age pupils (a practice probably associated with acceleration); 10 per cent excused pu­pils from subjects in which they had shown superior achievement; 18 per cent permitted certain pupils to follow a staggered type of CLASSIFI~ATION, PROMOTION, CHILD-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES program in which they take some subjects in their regular grade and some subjects in grades above or below the regular grade; 7 per cent gave a special type of diploma at the completion of the elementary school to those pupils who had not attained the academic achievement standards thought nec­essary for success in the usual high school course; 32 per cent reported special classes in the school itself or within the school system to which they could send atypical pupils; 93 per cent encouraged and permit­ ted pupils to browse in supplementary books and magazines or to read library books any period of the day when they have finished their regular assignments; and 92 per cent of the schools provided special help for pupils who are have difficulties in one or mor·e subjects. These data which have just been sum­marized are impressive in the extent to which school practices have progressed a­long lines intended to foster adaptation of instruction to individual differences in pupils. The items presented in Table 72 do not include all procedures useful in meet­ing individual pupil needs but they do re­flect the most prevalent forms of curricu­lum differentiation. It is true that as yet many of the practices prevail in less than half of the schools and some readers may be disappointed at the low percentages. One must remember, however, that the move­ment for recognition of individual differ­ences is hardly 25 years old and that there is evidence available to show that it takes about 50 years for a new idea to find its way into general school practice. Critical ratios were calculated for each part of Table 72 to ascertain whether curriculum differentiation practices were more prevalent in schools subscribing to an education policy represented by statement "a" than in schools acclaiming statement 11b 11 • In only 5 out of the 13 parts of' Table 72 were the cr~tical ratios 3.0 or over; these were parts D, E, F, G, and I. On all 5 of these practices represented by these items, the statistically significant higher percentages favored the schools subscribing to statement"a". The conclusion is that ef'forts at the forms of curriculum differen­tiation represented in Table 72 are more extensive with reference to 5 practices and equally extensive in the other areas in schools adhering to educational policy "a" 11b 11 than in schools subscribing to police • Child Study Procedures Increasing recognition of the extent and significance of' individual dif'f'erences among pupils has led school systems to inau­gurate policies and procedures for studying individual pupils and groups of pupils. A­mong the 532 schools included in the present study 34 per cent had developed definite policies regarding the making of case studies of individual pupils. Such policies had been developed in 46 per cent of the non-Texas group and in 52 per cent of the campus demon­stration schools; the difference between these 2 percentages does not have statistical significance. There is a statistically sig­nificant difference between the 18 per cent of Texas and the 46 per cent of non-Texas schools which had developed case study pro­cedures. In 52 schools, only 3 of which were campus demonstration schools, case studies were made in cooperation with a college or university. Other procedures (each reported for 5 per cent or less of the schools), placed the responsibility f'or case studies upon nurses, educational clinicians, visiting teachers, Children's Aid Society, mental hy­gienists, psychologists, juvenile courts, psychiatrists, classroom teachers, or prin­cipals. In some instances the responsibility was shared by 2 or more of' the persons named. When asked specifically, ''who made the case studies?", 10 per cent of the respondents said, "Classroom teacher". No one of the other individuals previously named was cited in more than 5 per cent of the questionnaires. The dif'ferent kinds of curricular adjustments made for pupils upon whom case studies had been made numbered 27. Special remedial help was the curriculum adjustment reported most frequently, it h~ving been named for 6 per cent of the schools. The other most prominently mentioned items were: "curriculum adjusted to the child", "grade placement changed", 11adjustment classes re­commended", "attention given to individual needs", "special school recommended", "in­creased home and school cooperation", and "more effective instructional approach". The facts presented on child study procedures indicate that the child study an1 case study idea has made considerable progress since 34 per cent of 532 schools from all parts of the country had developed ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES definite policies relative to this phase of elementary school work; if only the the non­Texas group of schools is considered the percentage rises to 46. Systematic and well developed PfOCedures for mgking case studies appeared lacking in many of the schools which had developed policies. This lack of well developed procedures was evident in the descriptions of policy which were given, in the allocation of responsibility for mak­ing case studies, and in the curriculum ad­ justments made for the children who had been the candidates for case studies. The latter phase of the problem seemed to be handled with particular cumbersomeness and thus re­ sulting in not much being done about it even after a case study had been made. Table 72 Curriculum Differentiation Practices Educational Policy A B No reply Total No. ~ No. '/, No. ~ No. ~ A. Do you use a printed or mimeographed course of study? I ; i I I Yes No No reply Total number of schools 1125 52 I 14 I191 65 27 7 195 71 51 19 28 10 274 36 8 23 67 54 12 34 356 lll 65 532 67 21 12 I B. If so, is it followed care­fully? Fairly closely None Yes No No reply 14 7 52 27 48 25 45 24 32 . 17 2 51 103 51 67 l 19 37 19 24 · 1 8 18 13 27 l 12 27 19 41 17 111 169 109 126 3 21 32 20 24 Total number of schools 191 274 67 532 c. Type of course of study used (a) a single-track course which outlines the work for all pupils with­out any differ­entiation accor­ding to ability 20 10 61 22 13 19 94 17 CLASSIFICATION, PROMOTION, CHILD-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES Table 72 (Continued) Educational Policy B No reply Total No. No. No. No. \I "' I "' "' c. Type of course of study used (b) a single course of I I ; study with enrich- I I ments indicated for superior pupils and I easier materials for the less able pupils 126 46 21 31 241 45 ' ' 94 49 I I (c) separate courses or I study for the super- I ior groups, ror the middle groups, and ror below-average groups 4 2 4 1 8 2 None 8 12 111 21 State course or study 52 27 51 19 1 1 1 13 1 5 1 No reply 24 36 29 10 29 11 73 14 Total number of schools 191 274 67 532 D. Are materials especiallyi designed to permit indi- I vidual pupils to progress I at their own rates used I ' in any subject field? Yes 14 2174 27 183 34 No 95 50 111 21 Partly 23 12 13 1975 27 1 1 2 1 3 1 No reply 40 60 72 37 123 45 235 44 Total number or schools 191 274 67 532 E. Is it common practice ror your teachers to give differentiated as­signments which make al­lowance for pupils or dif­rerent levels of ability? Yes 160 59 147 77 30 45 337 63 No 68 13 To some extent 6 9 15 8 47 17 1 -­ 1 -­No reply 126 24 66 24 29 15 31 46 Total. number of schools 191 274 67 532 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 72 {Continued) Educational Policy A B No reply Total No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' F. Are co-curricular acti­vities used as a device for adapting s.chool ex­perience to individual differences? I Yes I 107INo ! 28 No reply ' 56 ; ; Total number of schools ! 191 ;G. Does your school make i any concentrated effort ! ! to provide enrichment for I Isuperior pupils'? I I Yes ! 134 No I 28 No reply I 29I ITotal number of schools 191 I H. Are superior pupils per­!mitted to work through the course of study more rapidly than the average pupil'? 56 15 29 70 15 15 I I i I 114 I 55 I 105 ! I 274 I I I I 157 I 61 I 56 ! I i 274 i 42 20 38 57 22 21 I I I I 23 6 38 67 I I I i I 20 19 78 67 34 9 57 30 28 42 244 89 199 532 311 108 113 532 46 17 37 59 20 21 Yes No No reply 53 101 37 28 53 19 52 184 38 19 67 14 12 32 23 18 48 34 117 317 98 22 69 18 Total number of schools 191 I 274 67 532 I. Is it a policy of the school to excuse certain pupils from subjects in which they have shown superior achievement? Yes No No reply 30 141 20 16 74 10 16 239 19 6 87 7 6 39 22 9 58 33 52 419 61 10 79 11 Total number of schools 191 274 67 532 CLASSIFICATION , PROMOTION, CHILD-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES Table 72 (Continued) Educational Policy No. A % No. B % No reply No. % Total No. % J. Does the school permit certain pupils to follow a staggered type of pro-I gram in which they take some subjects in their regular grade and some subjects in grades a­bove or below the re­gular grade? Yes No No reply Total number of schools K. At the time pupils com­plete the elementary school, is a special type of diploma given those pupils who have not attained the acade­mic achievement stan­dards thought necessary for success in the usual high school course? Yes No No reply Total number of schools L. Are there any special classes in the school or in the city to which your school may send pupils? Yes No No reply Total number of schools 38 20 132 69 21 11 191 15 8 136 71 40 21 191 51 19 197 72 26 9 274 19 7 222 81 33 12 274 I 76 40 83 30 105 55 169 62 10 5 22 8 191 274 9 13 98 18 365 69 36 54 22 33 69 13 67 532 I 5 7 39 7 40 60 398 75 22 33 95 18 67 532 172 32 13 19 40 60 314 59 14 21 46 9 67 532 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 72 (Continued) Educational Policy I M. Are pupils encouraged I i and permitted to browse I I in supplementary books i I and magazi nes or to I I read library books I I l I I I I I during any period of the day when they have finished their regular assignments? Yes No No reply I 183 3 5 Total number of schools 191 N. Is special help given to pupils who are having difficulti es in one or more subjects? Yes No No reply 181 10 Total number of schools 191 A No. % Welfare Services Some children 1 s needs and problems arise out of their families 1 economic cir­cumstances which .result in inadequate pro­visions for food, clothing, shelter, or medical care which in turn create inter­ferences with children 1s adjustment and progress in school. In 84 per cent of the schools studied one or more types of child­ren 1 s physical needs (Table 73) were being met by cooperative agency effort in the com­munity. Eye glasses, school supplies, clothes, and food were the types of welfare services provided in from 60 to 74 per cent of the schools. Tonsillectomies were pro­vided in 42 per cent of the schools, hospi­talization in 22 per cent, and crutches in 14 per cent. No one of the other 14 types of services was provided in more than 9 per cent of the schools. In schools having 6 or more teachers, size of school does not appear to be a significant factor in deter­mining the percentage of school situations in which finy one of children's physical needs are met by cooperative agency effort. The fact that all of the welfare services are provided children in a smaller percentage of schools with 5 or fewer teachers than in schools with 6 or more teachers indicates B No reply Total No. % No. % No. % i I I I I I I I 95 257 94 54 81 494 93 2 9 3 12 2 3 8 3 13 19 26 5 274 67 532 95 257 94 52 78 490 92 7 3 7 l 5 10 5 15 22 35 7 274 67 532 that these services are available in less degree to rural than to urban children. Board of education funds were used in but a small proportion of the schools to provide welfare services for children and, when used, they were limited to a few types of aid. School supplies were provided in 30 per cent of the schools, food (including CLASSIFICATION, PROMOTION, CHILD-STUDY AND ADJUSTMENT PROCEDURES Table 73 Welfare Services A. Types of children's physical needs mat by cooperative a­gency effort in the community 1. Eye glasses 2. Crutches 3. Tonsillectomies 4. Food 5. Clothes 6. Housing 7. Hospitalization 8. School Supplies 9. Dental work 10. T. B. check 11. Hot lunches 12. Free milk 13. Vaccination and inoculation 14. Medical examination alfd care 15. Carfare 16. Recreational acti­vities or enter­taimnent admissions 17. Psychiatric treat­ment 18. Hearing aids 19. Posture correction 20. Speech clinic 21. First aid supplies None No reply Total number of schools Size of school according to number of teachers 1 2 3-? 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. 'f, No. 'f, No. 'f, No. 'f, No. 'f, No. 'f, No. 'f, No. 'f, No . ,,, No. 'f, 7 6 7 5 1 1 7 2 1 11 26 27 23 27 19 4 4 27 8 4 42 3 13 25 47 132 74 119 79 60 91 23 88 2 4 21 12 23 13 13 20 5 19 10 19 70 39 72 48 36 55 14 54 6 25 21 40 103 58 95 63 50 76 19 73 3 13 16 30 112 63 108 72 51 77 19 73 1 2 13 7 14 9 11 17 3 12 2 8 6 11 27 15 35 23 27 41 8 31 3 13 17 32 74 11 70 46 41 62 18 69 l 2 18 10 11 7 8 12 2 8 l 2 1 1 3 2 l 2 1 4 1 2 1 1 7 4 2 1 1 2 2 4 8 4 4 3 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 4 1 1 1 1 l l 1 2 1 1 1 4 2 4 1 4 l 2 5 3 l 1 2 8 15 63 17 32 20 11 4 3 3 5 1 4 24 53 179 131 66 26 6 86 1 14 3 43 4 57 5 71 2 29 1 14 3 43 1 14 l 14 1 14 7 16 80 8 40 11 55 16 80 18 90 3 15 9 45 13 65 4 20 1 5 1 5 2 10 20 391 74 73 14 222 42 321 60 337 63 48 9 116 22 346 65 46 9 7 l 2 -10 2 15 3 6 1 l -2 -3 1 2 -1 -1 -2 -11 2 74 14 532 B. For which types of aid are Board of Ed­ucation funds used? l. Eye glasses 2. Crutches 3. Tonsillectomies 4. Food 5. Clothes 6. Housing l 4 1 2 3 2 4 3 2 3 1 4 1 2 1 2 l 1 1 1 1 2 2 8 5 9 7 4 7 5 4 6 3 12 1 2 1 l 2 1 1 2 2 8 1 1 1 5 1 5 2 10 1 5 12 2 1 -5 l 31 6 8 2 l - ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 73 (Continued) Size of school according to number of teachers 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. ;, No. '!> No. '!> No. '!> No. '!> No. '!> No. '!> No. '!> No. '!> No. '!> B. Far which types of aid are Board of Ed­ucation funds used? 7. Hospitalization 8. School Supplies 9. Dental Care 10. Medical care and examination 11. Speech clinic 12. Recreational activities 13. Posture correction 14. Free milk 15. Lunches None 6 2 4 23 8 15 3 4 13 17 9 1 9 17 2 17 52 3 3 1 2 57 29 2 2 1 1 32 1 48 3 2 1 1 34 1 32 2 1 1 1 23 1 24 5 1 2 19 1 36 8 2 3 29 10 1 2 16 38 4 8 43 2 1 1 29 14 14 6 3 1 1 5 30 15 5 5 25 2 -160 30 14 3 8 2 1 -1 -1 -5 1 6 l 148 28 Total schools 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 free milk and lunches) in 8 per cent, dental care in 3 per cent, and clothes and medical care in 2 per cent, Again one observes (Table 73, part B) the smaller proportion of small schools in which school board funds are used for-these purposes. Q.uite 'clearly the welfare services for children are pro­vided by community agencies other than the school system and thus imply cooperation between the school and the other agencies. When asked, ''what percentage of children in need of welfare aid had their needs provided for last year?", the respon­ses ranged from less than 10 to more than 90, includin& replies given in 70 per cent of the questionnaires. In 24 per cent of the schools the percentage of needy pupils served was 81 or over; in 22 per cent of the schools 10 per cent or less of the needy were served, while in the remaining schools (except in those in which no welfare serv­ices of any kind were rendered) the percent­ages ranged between ll and 80. The general picture presented by these data shoys that less than half of the children in need of welfare aid were actually getting them. The percentage of needy receiving aid was some­what, but not markedly, smaller in the smaller than in the larger schools. When asked, ''what percentages of cases receiving aid were .nominated by teach­ers?", replies Yere presented by 52 per cent of the principals. In 75 per cent of the latter (or 39 per cent of all schools) the percentage of cases nominated by teachers ranged from 71 to 100. One thus recognizes the significant role played by the school and more particularly by classroom teachers in having children's physical needs met in those communities in which effective commu­nity action has been developed. CHAPTER 5 SAFETY PRACTICES This chapter is a summary of the unpublished Master's thesis by Blanche Loree Smith.1 Her part in the broader survey was described in the Preface of this bulle­tin. The tabulations for Miss Smith's the­sis were completed before the returns came in from the persons to whom questionnaires were mailed in the fall of 1943. This ex­plains why the tables in this chapter are based on returns from 404 schools instead on 532, the number of schools represented in the other tabulations in this bulletin. Fire Drills In many states the school laws re­quire pupil instruction and practice in e­ vacuating the building hurriedly in the e­vent of fire. Periodic practice fire drills have been the conventional method of educa­ting children in proper conduct in the event a fire alann is sounded. Table 74 presents the facts regarding the frequency of fire drills in the 404 schools. Two practices attain prominence among the larger number shown in Table 74; 32 per cent of the schools conducted from 6 to 9 fire drills per year whereas another 26 per cent of the schools conducted from 16 to 18 practice drills per year. No practice drills were reported for 77 per cent of the 1-teacher and 56 per cent of the 2-teacher schools. Among the schools having 3 or more teachers, size of school appeared to be unrelated to the frequency of Table 74 ... Frequency Per Year of Fire Dr-ills in Elementary Schools ... Percentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size-group. 1. Blanche Laree Smith, Safety Practices 1n nementary Schools. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Texas Library, 1944. 107 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES fire drill practices, the general picture being about the same for the larger as for the smaller schools. Printed instructions for teachers regarding fire drills were available in 57 per cent of the schools (Table 75). In 3 per cent of the schools the principals said that oral instruct~ons were given teachers since printed . instructions were not avail­able. ntshed concern in the smaller schools no doubt being a natural accompaniment of the location in rural or less densely populated areas. Among the 5 different methods used to familiarize teachers with air raid in­structions (Table 78), distribution or post­ing of the printed instructions were report­ed for 40 per cent of the schools. Faculty discussions were held in F9 per cent of the Table 75 Types of Instructions far Teachers Regarding Fire Drills 1n Elementary School* l. Printed Instructions Size of School According to Number of Teachers l 2 3-5 6-10 ll-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. 1' No. 1' No. 1' No. '1> No. 1' No. 1' No. 1' No. 1' No. 1' No. 1' Available Yes 5 19 3 13 25 56 77 57 73 73 27 64 9 56 3 60 9 82 231 ·57 No ll 42 13 57 l2 27 40 29 23 23 13 31 6 38 2 40 l 9 121 30 2. Oral Instructions - -­ l 2 7 5 4 4 -­ -­ -­ -­ l2 3 No reply 10 42 7 30 7 15 12 9 -­ 2 5 l 6 -­ l 9 40 10 Total No. Schools 26 23 45 136 100 42 16 5 ll -404 *Percentages 1n each column are based on the number of schools 1n each size-group. Air Raid Drills The advent of World War II brought the danger of bombing and the campaign urg­ing schools to educate pupils in proper procedure in the event that an air raid a­larm were g~ven. In view of the recency of this precautionary movement, it is signifi­cant to note that air raid drills were re­ported for 58 per cent of the schools (Ta­ble 76). There was little agreement among the schools as to the frequency per year that air raid practice drills should be con­ducted. No air raid drills were reported for 85 per cent of the 1-teacher, 78 per cent of the 2-teacher, and 60 per cent of the 3 to 5-teacher schools. Air raid drills were definitely more prominent in the larger than in the smaller schools. Officially published air raid in­s tructions were available in 57 per cent of the schools (Table 77). The smaller amount of attention to air raid drills is again ev­ident among the smaller schools, such dimi­ schools. Traffic Safety Traffic safety practices in the 404 schools are summarized in Tables 79, 80, 81, and 82. Safety patrol organizations existed in 46 per cent of the schools. Except in schools of less than 6 teachers, safety pa­trols were found in from 48 to 74 per cent of the schools in the different size-groups, the general tendency being an increase in the percentage of schools having safety pa­trols as the size of the school increased. Pupil membership in safety patrols was recorded for 46 per cent of the schools, i.e., for all the schools which reported having safety patrols. Although the age of pupils eligible for membership in safety patrols varied extensively among the schools and ranged from first grade to high school, there was evidence that more schools (23 per cent) restricted membership to fifth and sixth grade pupils than any other eligibility SAFETY PRACTICES Table 76 Frequency Per Year of Air Raid Drills in Elementary Schools* Percentages in each column based on the number of schools in each size-group. Table 77 Availability in Elementary Schools of Officially Published Air Raid Instruction* Copies of Instructions on Drills Available Size of School According to Number of Teachers l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-.25 26-30 31-up Total No. '/> No. '/> No. '/> No. '/> No. '/> No. '/> No. '/> No. '/> No. '/> No. '/> Yes No No reply 4 15 10 38 12 46 8 35 7 30 8 35 22 49 15 33 8 18 80 59 32 24 24 17 66 66 21 21 13 13 29 69 8 19 5 12 11 69 4 25 21 16 i 2 40 l 20 2 40 : 8 75 2 18 l 9 230 57 100 25 74 18 Total No. Schools 26 23 136 100 42 16 5 11 4o4 *Percentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size-group. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 78 Methods of Familiarizing Teachers With Air Raid Instructions 1J:l Elementary Schools Familiarizing Teachers vith Instructions Size of School According to Number of Teachers l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16~0 21~5 26-30 "51-up Total · No. '1: No. 1> No. 'I> No . 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> 1. None 2. Printed Instructions 3. Study and Practice 4. Faculty Discussions 5. Oral 1J:lstructions by PriJ:lcipal or Warden 6. Instructions Posted No reply 7 27 l 4 l 4 -­4 15 -­14 54 4 17 5 2 -­-­l 4 l 4 12 52 12 27 9 20 5 11 7 15 8 18 l 2 10 22 12 9 34 25 13 10 44 32 21 15 7 5 38 28 7 7 31 31 15 15 34 34 14 14 6 6 20 20 4 10 11 26 3 7 19 45 7 17 -7 17 -­6 38 3 19 7 44 2 13 l 6 3 19 -­l 20 l 20 4 80 3 60 -­-­ l 9 6 55 2 18 3 27 -­-2 18 47 12 104 25 43 11 118 29 60 15 16 4 106 26 Total Number of Schools 26 23 45 136 100 42 16 5 11 404 Table 79 Safety Patrol Orsanizations 1J:l Elementary Schools * Percentages 1J:l each column are based on the number of schools in each &ize-group. SAFETY PRACTICES Table 80 * Age~ade Eligibility for Membership in Safety Patrol Organizations in Elementary Schools Size of School According to Number of Teachers Eligibility in Safety Patrol Organizations 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. 'lo No. '1> No Organization 7 27 5 22 10 22 17 13 15 15 3 7 1 6 1 20 1 9 60 15 No age ar grade limit 1 4 -­ 1 2 3 2 -­ -­ 1 6 -­ -­ 6 1 Second Grade -­ -­ -­ -­ -­ -­ -­ -­ 1 9 1 -­ Third Grade -­ -­ l 2 3 2 2 2 2 5 -­ -­ -­ 8 2 Fourth Grade -­ -­ -­ 7 5 10 10 5 12 1 6 -­ -­ 23 6 Fifth Grade -­ l 4 3 7 13 10 17 17 9 21 3 19 l 20 -­ 47 12 Sixth Grade 1 4 -­ 1 2 16 12 14 14 7 17 6 38 -­ 1 9 46 11 Seventh Grade -­ -­ -­ 2 1 8 8 4 10 -­ -­ l 9 15 4 Eighth Grade -­ 1 4 -­ 1 1 -­ -­ -­ 1 20 -­ 3 1 6-10 1 4 -­ -­ 10 7 6 6 1 2 -­ -­ 1 9 19 5 11-15 years -­ -­ 1 2 6 4 4 4 -­ -­ -­ 1 9 12 3 Boy ar girl Scouts -­ -­ 1 2 -­ -­ -­ -­ 1 20 -­ 2 -­ High school Patrol -­ -­ -­ 2 1 1 1 -­ -­ -­ 1 9 4 1 No reply 16 61 16 70 27 60 54 41 24 24 10 24 4 25 2 20 34 36 158 39 Total No. Schools 26 23 45 136 100 42 16 5 11 404 *Percentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size-group. Table 81 Eligibility of Girls in Safety Patrol Organizations in Elementary Schools* Size of School According to Number of Teachers Girls' Eligibility in 2 1 16-20 Total 6-10 21-25 26-30 31-up 11-15 3-5 Safety Organizations No. No. No. 'lo No. No. 'lo No. 'lo No. 'lo No. 'lo No. 'lo No. 'lo 'lo 'lo '1> I 3 12 2 9 110 27 Yes 44 32 14 33 3 27 8 50 3 7 33 33 5 22 16 36 41 41 3 60 No 7 27 34 25 19 45 8 25 4 36 133 33 No reply 16 61 16 70 26 58 26 26 9 21 2 4o 161 40 4 25 4 36 58 43 26 42 Total No. Schools 100 16 11 404 23 136 45 5 * Percentages in each column are based on the number of schools in each size-group. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 82 Activities Engaged in by Safety Patrol Organizations in Elementary Schools* Size of School According to Number of Teachers Activities of Safety 2l 6-10 16-20 21-25 26-30 Total 11-15 31-upq3-5 Patrol No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. 2 No. 1> Size of School According to Number of Te&chers 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 No . 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No . 1> 31-up No. 1> Total No. 1> No Yes Clinic No reply 6 14 -­6 23 54 23 l 21 -l 5 91 4 l 43 -­l 2 96 2 2 l 131 96 -­3 2 -­99 -­l 99 l -­39 l 2 93 2 5 -­15 -­l 94 6 -­5 100 --­-­ l 8 -­2 9 73 18 11 3 375 93 l -­17 4 Total No. Schools 26 23 45 136 100 42 16 5 l1 404 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 89 Persons Administering First Aid in Elementary Schools Table 90 Availability of Qualified Persons to Adm1n1eter First Aid in lU.ementary Schools CHAPTER 6 LIBRA.RY SERVICE The physical accommodations which have been made within school buildings to facilitate library service in elementary schools may be seen in Table 91, part A. A specially equipped library room used only as a library was found in 48 per cent of the schools. An additional 11 per cent of the schools had a specially equipped library room which was also used as a classroom. A reading table in each classroom was reported for 71 per cent of the schools and shelves for library books in each classroom were found in 70 per cent of the schools. Speci­ally arranged reading nooks in each class­room were recorded in 34 per cent of the re­turns. Children's libraries were housed in the principal's office in 20 per cent and in storerooms in 8 per cent of the schools. Specially equipped library rooms existed in more than 60 per cent of soholls with 6 or more teachers, the range being from 63 per cent in the 6-to 10-teacher schools to 95 per cent of the schools with more than 30 teachers. Less than one-seventh of the I~ and 2-teacher schools were favored with specially equipped library rooms. When the Texas, the non-Texas, and the college campus schools were compared it was found that 38 per cent of the Texas and 50 per cent of the non-Texas schools (not a statistically significant difference) had a specially equipped library room used only as a library. If to the preceding per­centages are added the percentages of schools which had a specially equipped li­brary room used also as a classroom, the totals become 48 and 63, respectively. The latter 2 percentages represent a statisti­cally significant difference in favor of the non-Texas group. Among the college cam­pus schools 78 per cent maintained a speci­ally equipped room used only as a library; none had a specially equipped library room used also as a classroom. When the campus group was compared with the non-Texas group a statistically significant difference fa­voring the campus group was found in the percentage of schools which had a specially equipped room used only as a library. When, however, the schools having a specially equipped room used only as a library were added to the schools having a specially equipped library room used also as a class­ room, the percentages became 63 for the non-Texas and 78 for the campus schools, the latter comparison not resulting in a statistically significant difference. Regular use in the local school of some out-of-school library resources was re­ported for 79 per cent of the schools (Table 91, part B). The local public library was named as an out-of-school library resource regularly used in 57 per cent of the schools. A county public library, a county school library, state public library, and the ex­tension service of a nearby college or uni­versity were the other most frequently uti­lized outside library resources, each being named for less than 20 per cent of the schools. Differences between the smaller Iand the larger schools were clearly evident. Local public libraries were used by only a small proportion of the 1-teacher and 2­teacher schools and by less than half of the schools with 3 to 5 teachers. In these smaller schools, however, county school or public library service was used more exten­sively than in the larger schools . Of spe­cial interest was the fact that from about one-third to one-half of the 1-teacher and 2-teacher schools were in situations in which countywide school library service had been developed. Part C of Table 91 reveals interest­ing facts about the types of materials bor­rowed regularly from out-of-school library sources. One might anticipate that a large percentage of the schools would borrow books but one might be surprised to find that only 56 per cent of the schools borrow books and that as many as 46 per cent of the schools borro'W films, 20 per cent borrow film strips, and 27 per cent borrow slides. A noticeably higher percentage of the smaller than the larger schools borrow books, 'Whereas a notice­ably higher percentage of the larger than 119 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 91 Library Facilities and Resources* A. Types of library facili- Size of School According to Number of Teachers ties which prevail 1n the school l No. '1' 2 No. '1' 3-5 No. '1' 6-10 No. '1' 11-15 No. '1' 16-00 No. '1' 21-25 No. '1' 26-30 No. '1' 31-up No. '1' Total No. '1' l l. A separate specially equipped library room which is used only as a library 2. A specially equipped I I lI 4 I I 3 13 19 361 93 52 78 60 36 55 16 62 4 57 16 80 256 48 ! I I I I I I library roam which is also used as a class­room 3. Shelves for library books in the princi­pal's office 4. A stare roan 1n which library books are housed 5. Shelves for library books 1n each class-roan 6. A reading table 1n ea~h classroan 7. A specially arranged 6 15 14 23 58 54 I I I 3! I 3I i i ! 4 ; ! ! i 17 !16 13 13 17 71 67 4 7 6 42 39 8 13 11 79 74 19 11 44 25 14 8 127 71 136 76 11 21 10 94 99 8 16 8 72 76 10 13 4 47 44 15 20 6 71 67 5 5 l 17 18 19 19 4 65 69 l 3 5 4 14 43 71 57 3 2 9 16 15 10 45 80 57 11 108 20 45 8 373 70 376 71 I I ! ! ' ; i ; reading nook in each classroom. 8. Auditorium used as a library 9. Bookmobile 10. L:l.brary 1n hall ll. Library 1n room used 9 35 I I I I 9 38 I 18 l 34 2 59 l 3 33 l 2 43 l 2 33 l 2 27 l 41 2 10 38 3 43 ' 5 25 183 34 2 -­l -­6 l for other than class purposes 12. Library shelves 1n 4 3 I l 2 l 4 6 l music room 13. No reply ~ l2 l 4 3 2 2 2 l 2 ! l 5 2 9 -­2 I B. Out-of-school library resources utilized regularly by the school l. Local public library 2. Local privately 7 27 2 8 25 47 106 59 81 62 44 67 21 81 4 57 13 65 303 57 sponsored library 3. County library 4. State public library 5. Extension service 10 5 38 19 5 2 21 8 14 7 26 13 5 30 19 3 17 11 l 15 5 l 11 4 2 15 4 3 23 6 4 15 l l 2 14 14 29 l 2 3 5 10 15 10 96 51 2 18 10 fran nearby college I ar university 6. County school library 7. YK:A l 8 4 31 .. 3 11 13 46 6 11 11 21 18 13 10 7 18 8 l 14 6 l 8 8 l2 l2 l 4 l l 14 14 3 l I 15 5 59 61 l 11 11 -­ LIBRARY SERVICE Table 91 (Continued) *Percentages in each column were calculated on the basis of the number of schools in each size-group. the smaller schools borrow visual aids of various kinds from outside sources. The data lead to some interesting speculations as to the relative selfsufficiency of smal­ler and larger schools when it comes to books and whether the smaller extent of borrowing of books by the larger schools means the absence of coordination between school and public libraries in urban centers. ~uite clearly the implication is that machi­nery for circulating visual aids have not been developed as well for smaller as for larger schools. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Procedures for Using The School Library Adequate library service in elemen­tary schools usually results from two-direc­tional effort operating concurrently; these are (a) securing the facilities and books essential to any service and (b) developing procedures whereby optimum use may be ob­tained from such facilities as have been achieved. When it comes to procedures used in the schools studied for giving children access to the library facilities of the school (Table 92), one is impressed with the limited array of practices. Although 9 dif­ferent procedures were reported, only 4 of them were found in more than 1 per cent of the schools. Permitting children to use the classroom library whenever they have free time was practiced in 70 per cent of the schools. In 56 per cent of the~schools classes have ~egularly scheduled library pe­ riods. Apparently scheduled library periods prevailed in nearly all the schools that had a specially equipped library room; it will be recalled that 59 per cent of the schools had such special library rooms. In only 26 per cent of the schools were children per­mitted to go to the library individually at any hour of the day; the latter percentage represents less than half of the schools which reported specially equipped library rooms. Two other conclusions are suggested Table 92 Procedures Whereby Children Have Access to the Library Facilities of the School* Grades in Which the Practice Prevails Primary Interm. Upper Interm. & All Pri. & Un- Practice Only Only Upper ClassHied Grades Only Interm. Total No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. 'I> 'I>'I> 'I> 'I> 'I> 'I> "' 1. Children may go to the library individually at any hour of the day 20 4 2 -­10 2 136 2651 10 5 I 25 5 3 1I25 2. Classes have regularly scheduled library I 8 2 298 56 periods 34 6 65 12 i 29 5 56 1197 18 9 2 3. Children may use class- I I I room library whenever they I 22 4 28 5 I 19 4 I12 2have f'ree time 82 .15 36 13 2 370 701194 4. Collections of books are I I I I placed in classrooms as I 12 2 8 2 64 12 289 54 needed 1161 30 23 4 15 3 5 1 5. Groups may visit library at any time 1 i 1 1 3 1 I I I I 1 -­ 6. Children take books home I 1 ! 7. Portable library taken I I I 1 -­ 1 to roam I I 8. Library open before and/ 1 I 1or after school hours 5 13 1 9. Librarians work in I I 1 -­1classrooms 16 3 No reply I I Total number of schools 532 I I *Percentages throughout the table calculated on the basis of 532. LIBRARY SERVICE by the dat~ in Table 92. Whatever practices have been developed by schools seem to be applied uniformly in all grades in the ma-j orlty of schools reporting each of the var­ious procedures. The implication ls that procedures for using the school library have not been subjected as extensively as they might be to critical evaluation to ascertain their appropriateness for the various age groups. The question of grade placement of children's relationships to the school li­brary may need careful study. Also, there seems to be lacking that fluidity of pupil contact with the library which seems essen­tial to effective library service. Only a small proportion of schools reported such practices as "children may go to the library individually at any hour of the day", "groups may visit the library at any time", "children take books home", "portable li­brary taken to classrooms", "library open before and after school hours", and "librar­ians work in classrooms". No mention was made of week-end or vacation time access to the school library. There ls danger that the school library may become formalized in its purposes and procedures and thus fall to achieve its real service functions in en­riching the curriculum for children. Library Facilities For Teachers and Parents A professional library for teachers was reported for 57 per cent of the schools (Table 93). It was housed in various places in the different schools, 17 different lo­cations being identified. The preferred locations were the princlpal's office and the school library; no other location was designated for more than 4 per cent of the schools. In 40 per cent of the situations the professional library for teachers was financed by the board of education. Eleven other miscellaneous methods for financing the teachers' professional library were given, no one of which was utilized in more than 12 per cent of the schools. Reading materials for parents were available in 36 per cent of the schools. The study did not request further details so that no information ls available on the ex­tent or nature of the reading materials for parents or the procedures used in giving par­ents access to the books or pamphlets. Table 93 Library Facilities for Teachers and Parents A. Does the building have a professional library for teachers? Total No. % Yes 302 57 No 185 35 No reply 45 8 B. Place where teachers' professional library ls housed 1. Princlpal's office 152 29 2. School library 70 13 3. Teachers' room 21 4 4. superintendent's office 19 4 5. College library 8 2 6. Separate room 7. Book room 5 5 1 1 8. Teacher's workroom 4 1 9. School room 4 1 10. Hall of school building 3 1 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 93 (Continued) Total No. '/; B. Place where teachers' professional library is housed 11. City library 3 1 12. Supervisor's office 2 - 13. Clerk' s office 1 - 14. In museum 1 - 15. In assembly hall 1 - 16. Director's Office 1 - 17. Reception room 1 - No library ·for teachers 185 35 No reply 46 9 c. Methods of financing teacher's professional library 1. Board of Education; school funds 211 40 2. Teachers buy books 63 12 3. Contributions, made regularly by faculty and administrators 24 5 4. P. T. A. funds 17 3 5. Belongs to principal 13 ~- 6. Financed by state 10 2 7. College or university funds 10 2 8. Other libraries provide teacher's library 6 1 9. Sponsored by a foundation, etc. 4 1 10. Voluntary donations 3 1 11. Superintendent furnishes books 3 1 12. Special sales and drives 1 - No library for teachers 185 35 No reply 58 11 D. Does the school have reading materials for parents? Yes 190 36 No 258 49 No reply 84 16 Total number of schools 532 CHAPTER 7 RELATIONSHIPS WI'l'H OTHER SCHOOLS Well articulated educational pro­gress for pupils is achieved through a vari­ety of channels and procedures which per­vade the entire program of each unit in the school system and the relationships between contiguous segments of the entire program of public education. In this study only a limited amount of information was sought on the problems of articulation and that which was sought was limited to inter-school re­lationships. Graduation certificates were issued to elementary school pupils at the comple~ tion of the elementary course in 43 per cent of the schools (Table 94). When a pupil transfers to a school from an9ther district more than 20 different kinds of data were requested by one or more of the schools, some schools requesting several types of in­formation. Only 5 of the 20 items shown in Table 94, part B reflect data pertaining to social adjustment, home background, or de­velopmental status, i.e., the kinds of in­formation available in comprehensive cumu­lative case records. The remaining 15 items refer to the conventional report card or transfer record. Of special interest is the number of schools requesting various types of health data. Although 23 different kinds of data were being requested by the high schools at­tended by most of the graduates of these ele­mentary schools, it cannot be said that the study reflects widespread acceptance in prac­tice of desirable articulation procedures via school records as postulated in the pro- Table 94 * Relations with Other Schools A. Do you issue graduation certificates at the completion of your elementary school? Yes No No reply B. Kinds of data reguested from a pupil or sending school when a pupil transfers in from another district 1. Report card 2. Book report 3. Transfer 4. Scholastic record or academic achievement 5. Medical test report; health card 6. Cumulative records 7. Permanent record sheet 8. Information for classification--age, grade, address, family data 9. Former grade placement Total No. '/, 228 284 20 286 148 91 83 68 45 40 40 34 43 53 4 54 28 17 16 13 8 6 6 6 *All percentages in this table based on 532. 125 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Tc.tal No. '!> Table 94 (Continued) B. Kinds of data requested from a pupil or sending school when a pupil transfers in fro~ another district 10. Attendance record 11. Test results: Mental, Intelligence, Achievement 12. Vaccination certificate 13. Birth record 14. Transcript 15. Social adjustment; work habits 16. Dental certificate 17. Letter of transfer 18. Interviews with parents and children 19. Any available 20 . Miscellaneous None No reply c. Kinds of data requested by the high school attended by most of the graduates of your school: 1. Cumulative records 2. Permanent record card 3. Scholastic record or academic achievement 4. Report card 5. Medical test report; health card 6. Test results: Mental, Intelligence, Achievement 7. Book card 8. Diploma or certificate of completion of elementary school 9. Guidance report; special case history 10. Classification data--age, grade, address, etc. 11. Promotion lists or written statement of standing 12. Attendance record 13. Transcript 14. Transfer 15. Recommendation as to courses 16. Vaccination certificate 17. Record of last year of work 18. Teacher's estimate 19. File of all data gathered 20. Census cards 21. Dental certificate 22. Personal conference record 23. Miscellaneous None No reply 34 22 19 15 15 7 3 2 1 7 5 6 19 126 94 91 90 85 76 1)0 44 36 30 24 23 18 14 7 7 4 4 3 3 3 2 5 13 55 6 4 4 3 3 1 1 l l l 4 24 18 17 17 16 14 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 3 l l l l l l l. l 2 10 RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER SCHOOLS Table 94 (Continued) Total No. '/J D. Kinds of activities carried on to acquaint your upper grade students with the secondary school which they will attend: 1. Party or visiting day for upper grade students 2. Talks by administrators from high school 3. Conferences with representative of high school 4. Discussion of high school while in upper grades 5. Students are in contact always through assemblies, etc. 6. Extra-curricular activities--plays, athletics, clubs, newspaper, auditorium work 7. Some high school buildings used for work in grades 8. Handbook studied by prospective entering students and parents 9. Students explain program of high school 10. Association with children now enrolled in secondary school 11. Joint sessions held (assembly) 12. Students taught how to use library properly 13. Each new high school entry has a "big brother or sister" for a time 14. Programs from secondary school 15. Guidance course gives necessary preparation 16. Buildings on same campus 17. Departmental work in 6th grade, 8th grade 18. Research activities 19. Orientation meetings None No reply 154 66 59 55 46 20 18 15 6 6 8 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 57 149 29 12 11 10 9 4 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 -­-­-­-­-­11 28 fessional literature. Except for the 24 per cent of schools requested to send cumulative records to the high school, only small per­centages of schools were requested to sub­mit inrormation on health, case histories, and guidance report. No inrormation was sought in this study of the composition of the cumulative records requested in some schools so that there is the possibility that some of the cumulative records mention­ed in the reports may consist only of the usual record of teachers marks, attendance, and test scores. The need for improved articulation between the elementary school and the se­condary school is further reflected in the kinds of activities carried on to acquaint upper grade students with secondary school which most of them are likely to attend. No effort or activities in this direction (Table 94, part D) were reported for 39 per cent of the schools. No one of the variety of 19 activities was carried on in-more than 29 per cent of the schools. Although the various practices re­vealed in Table 94 leave much to be desired by way of procedures designed to assist the children's transfer from one school to an­other, there is much encouragement in the data. One recognizes at least small percent­ages of schools which have succeeded in put­ting a variety of the best practices into operation. The various lists of activities reflect the different ways in which schools are approaching or dealing with the problem of articulation. The list of activities carried on to acquaint upper grade pupils with the secondary school which most of them will attend should be suggestive to others who are interested in enlarging or improving their programs in this regard. CHAPTER 8 RECORDS AND REPORTS At several points in the preceding chapters certain aspects of reporting, re­cord keeping, or report-using were discus­sed in relation to other phases of school management to which the respective phases of reporting seemed pertinent. In the pre­sent chapter additional features of records and reports are treated. Such separation in the treatment of record keeping and re­port making and using does not result in the presentation of a composite, integrated picture of this phase of school management. Since it was not a major purpose in this study to obtain a comprehensive and detaile picture of child accounting and other re­cord keeping procedures but rather to gain information on specific practices in rela­tion to their functions, it was necessary to request certain types of data in c.ertain portions of the study and to request othe·r types of information at other points in the inquiry. A comprehensive and integrated picture of child accounting and other record keeping procedures had to be sacrificed in favor of other values sought. Census Taking Selected phases of census taking practices are portrayed in Table 95. In 31 per cent of the schools classroom teachers aid in taking the school census. Teacher participation in census taking was required in only 14 per cent of the places. The fre­quency with which the school census is taken varied from "continuous census" to "no cen­sus taken"; the prevailing practice was the annual census, reported for 63 per cent of the schools. Teachers checked the school enrollment against the census lists in 39 per cent of the schools. Table 95 Census Taking Practices A. Do classroom teachers aid in taking the school census? 1. Yes 2. No No reply If so, is. participation in census taking required of classroom teachers? 1. Yes 2. No No reply B. How frequently is the census taken? l. Continuous 2. Twice a year 3. Annually Schools No. "' 166 31 320 60 46 9 77 14 187 35 268 51 11 2 l -­ 334 63 128 129 RECORDS AND REPORTS Table 95 (Continued) B. How frequently is the 4. Every two years 5. Every 3 years 6. Every four years 7. Every five years 8. Every six years 9. Every ten years 10. Irregularly No census taken No reply census taken? c. Do teachers check enrollment against the 1. Yes 2. No No reply Total number of schools Schools No. % 17 3 3 1 1 -­5 1 1 -­4 1 2 -­ 21 4 132 25 census 207 39 191 36 134 25 532 Attendance Recording and Reporting Maintaining an accurate record of children's attendance at school is an im­portant function. The basic attendance re­cord is a legal document for the school and also becomes the child's legal evidence a­bout his formal schooling. That the respon sibility for complete and accurate atten­dance records is diligently met by most schools is evidenced by the fact that 95 per cent of the schools in the study made an inventory of attendance at least once each day while in 25 per cent of the schools such an accounting of children was made twice each day (Table 96, part A). That the teacher is the front line officer in keeping the attendance record is revealed by the fact that the teacher alone keeps the attendance register in 89 per cent of the schools (Table 96, part B) and the teachers in cooperation with the prin­cipal, secretary, or pupil assistants keep the attendance register in an additional 3 per cent of the schools. Rep:ular reporting of the attendance by those who keep the ori­ginal record was practiced in only 65 per cent of the schools (Table 96, part C), the frequency of such reporting varying from once per day to each class period. Undoubt­edly the principals who did not reply to this question or those who said that no daily report was made follow some practice which provides some irregular or term-end procedure for reporting the attendance to some central office. The latter assumption is substantiated by the types of answers given to the question, "To whom are atten­ dance reports made?" Fifty-nine per cent of the respondents (Table 96, part D) said, "the principal or the principal's office" or the "superintendent's office"; the others gave miscellaneous answers or did not respond to the qeustion, thus implying that there was no systematic procedure for regular re­porting of attendance. When asked to describe the procedure used in reporting attendance the respondents named 30 different techniques (Table 96, part E). Only 3 of the 30 procedures pre­vailed in as many as 11 to 17 per cent of the schools; these three methods were "attendance cards prepared11 , "attendance report forms sent to teachers daily", and "lists of ab­sences made". The use of pupil messengers or office assistants in collecting the at­tendance reports was found in a small pro­portion of the schools. In the list of prac­tices which were reported are also evident the procedures used in schools which do not have attendance reported regularly but do request that reports be made by teachers in the event of repeated absence by a pupil, illness, or an epidemic. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 96 Attendance Recording and Reporting* Total No. % A. Frequency per day with wh1 ch an inventory is made of the children in attendance 1. Twice 369 70 2. Once 131 25 3. Each period 6 1 4. Continually 4 1 5. No daily inventory made 1 6. Three times 1 7. Four times 1 No reply 17 3 B. Who keeps the attendance register? 1. Teachers, class or home room 2. Principal 3. Clerk; secretary 472 15 13 2 4. Teacher and principal F\ 2 5. Supervisor 7 1 6. Supervisor and students 7. Teacher and secretary 8. Doctor 9. Class sponsor 2 1 1 1 10. Pupil under supervision of teacher 1 No reply 11 2 C. How frequently per day is the attendance reported? 1. Twice 180 34 2. Once 162 30 3. No daily report made 53 10 4. Each class period 4 1 5. Four times 1 6. In department grades -each period 1 No reply 131 25 D. To whom are attendance reports made? 1. Principal; principal 1 s office. 296 56 2. Nurse or medical officer 24 5 3. Teacher 21 4 4. Clerk 15 3 -;i; 5. Superintendent; Superintendent's office 14 _, 6. Truant officer 11 2 7. Supervisor 5 1 8. Recorded 5 1 9. Director 2 10. Head teacher 1 11. School 1 12. Dietician 1 No reply 157 30 * Percentages throughout this table are based on 532. RECORDS AND REPORTS Table 96 (Continued) E. Procedures used in reporting the attendance 1. Attendance cards prepared 2. Attendance record book, cards, or sheet sent to teachers daily 3. List of absences made 4. Monthly reports made 5. Teacher checks attendance 6. List of absences sent to principal and superintendent 7. Absences reported to parents or to attendance officer 8. Listed in Daily Register 9. Weekly attendance record handed in 10. Nurse checks absences 11. Frequent absences reported to principal or special cases 12. Attendance slips collected by pupil 13. Principal requests record of attendance 14. Messenger used 15. Six weeks reports made 16. Principal checks record book 17. Attendance charts made 18. Blanks hung outside door for collection 19. Printed blanks are furnished 20. Teacher reports absence in person 21. Record kept in principal's office 22. Summary report periodically 23. Office assistant picks up lists 24. Pupil's name and phone number given principal 25. Absentees readmitted by slips 26. Absence slips filed in office 27. Listed on blackboard 28. Special report blank furnished by State Dept. 29. Pupil announces to school 30. Registers handed in each week by teachers None No reply Total number of schools Total No. 'f, 90 61 58 36 30 30 26 14 11 11 11 10 10 7 7 6 4 4 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 112 532 17 11 11 7 6 6 5 -:z:_, 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 21 Periodic Testing In the discussion of classification, promotion, child study, and adjustment pro­cedures in chapter 4, certain facts were presented which gave some index to the use of mental and achievement tests in the schools. Table 97 gives a more complete picture of testing practices as reported by 89 per cent of the principals. Except for informal teachers' tests, the commonest plan for all types of tests was to have them administered once per year. The extent to which testing in the health field had spread among the schools is revealed by the percent­ages of 66, 56, 54, 48, and 24 for vision, hearing, dental, medical, and speech examin­ations, resepectively. The use of standard­ ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 97 Frequency with which Various Types of Tests were Given aPercentages throughout table based on 5,2, ized achievement tests was reported for 67 per cent while intelligence tests were given at varying intervals in 52 per cent of the schools. The role of the classroom teacher in giving all types of tests is revealed in Table 98, In some schools, however, intel­ligence, vision, hearing, speech, and stand­ardized achievement tests are administered by the principal, supervisor, superintend­ent, research or psychology department, or college students. Testing in the health field portrays the overlapping function of teachers, nurses, physicians, and dentists, In about one-third of the schools vision and hearing tests are given by nurses, which raises the question whether time given to such testing makes the best use of the spe­cia~ talents of the nurse, especially when it has been demonstrated that teachers can be trained readily to give screening tests of vision and hearing effectively. It is doubtful whether nurses should be encouraged or expected to give medical or dental exami­nations or whether such examinations given by nurses can have values which lead to any­thing but false security In Table 99 are summarized the prac­tices followed by the schools in recording and using test results. Results of vision and standardized achievement tests were the only types of test results recorded on penna­ RECORDS AND REPORTS Table 98 Persons Who Administer the Various Types of Teets Persons Who Administer Testsa Types of Teet Teach­er Prill­cipal Super­visor Nurse Doctor Den­tist or tech-D.ician Supt. Col­lege stud-ents Re­search ar Ps7. Dept. Cit7 or Ct7. Health Office Ho Rep17 or Unc. Total No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> No. 'I> l. In.fm-mal teachers 2. Intelligence 3. Vision 4. Hearing 5. Speech 6. Medical 7. Dental 8. Nutritional Statue 9. Standardized achievement 10. Readiness: Aptitude 11. Tuberculosis i2. Arithmetic 13. Audianeter 14. Others -Unc. 15. Personalit7 16. No tests given No repl1 299 56 117 22 86 16 51 10 64 12 6 l 9 2 21 4 219 41 2­l -­4 1 l -­ 91 17 7 l 4 l l 62 12 l 15 3 3 4 19 l 3 l l l 4 - l -185 35 173 33 32 6 50 9 59 11 58 11 1­1­ 47 9 44 8 15 3 179 34 47 19 2 1 9 4 -- 3 l l -152 29 1­ 6 l l 6 l --l 2 3 -l 29 2 2 l 10 l 5 ---2 - 3 3 3 3 l l l l l - 2 12 18 16 12 16 14 10 28 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 5 l 303 57 274 52 352 66 300 56 129 24 254 48 285 54 109 20 356 67 7 1 2 -­l -­2 -­4 l l -l -56 11 Total number of schools 532 aPercentagee throughout the table are based on 532. nent record cards in 50 per cent or more of the schools. The plan of having individual cumulative folders for each child apparently was not widespread among the schools since the filing of test papers in cumulative folders was done in more than 26 per cent of the schools with respect to standardized achievement test papers only. Class or school summaries of test results were made for achievement tests in 50 per cent and for intelligence tests in 37 per cent of the schools. Hearing, vision, intelligence, and achievement test papers were filed in the classroom for teacher use in from 24 to 47 per cent of the situations. These various percentages give a picture of practices for the group of schools as a whole; no separate tabulation was made of practices in the use of test results in relation to the specific schools giving each type of test according to designated intervals such as twice per year, once per year, etc. Comparison of Table 97 and 99 shows that in general the percentages in the "yes" columns of Table 99 are only about one-half as large as the per­centage of schools giving each type of test ORGANIZATIONAL AND AIMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 99 Percentage of 532 Schools Jim.ploying Various Practices in the Use of Test Results Claes ar schoolResults are recorded Teet papers are Text papers are on perma.nent record filed in cumulative summaries are filed in classroomType of Test cards folder made far teacher use '/>No '/>No '/>No Yes '/>No '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> Reply Yes ReplyReply Reply Yes No NoNo Yes No 21 10 10 1. Informal teachers' 28 2116 11 1513 34 13 37 2. Intelligence 2 46 4 26 18 8 99 35 737 5 2812 83. Vision 2 22 12 2114 303250 33 24 8 244. Hearing 8 44 1 11 11 2929 19 17 105. Speech 2 8 4 11 6 131315 37 5 216. Medical 14 14 61 11 27 1936 27 77 2014 187. Dental 8 6 273031 15 7337 2 8. Nutritional status 14 12 81 13 9 935 5 3 9. Standardized achievement 2 14 6 144 4752 17 50137 37 I 10. Readiness; Aptitude 11 14 -- No reply 11 1111 il as shown in Table 97. The general conclu­sion is that test results are summarized, placed in cumulative folders or on pennanent record cards, or filed in the classroom in a much smaller percentage of schools than the percentage in which the various types of tests are administered periodically. Scholastic Marking Practices Scholastic marking, i.e., the as­signing or giving of marks as a method of evaluating the scholastic success of pupils, has always been a difficult problem in school management and a great variety of procedures have been proposed and tried. That the problem is still an unsettled issue is evidenced by the fact that 71 different marking practices (Table 100, part A) were reported in this study. Some form of the letter method (A, B, C, etc.) was used in 46 per cent of the schools while some vari­ation of the satisfactory-unsatisfactory method had found favor in 28 per cent of the schools. The numberical percentage method, favored almost universally at one time, was found in only 2 per cent of the schools. Marking systems based on developmental data or parent-teacher interviews, which had found favor in recent professional books and articles, were reported for less than 1 per cent of the schools. Marks were awarded each 6 weeks (or 6 times per year) in 55 per cent of the schools (Table 100, part B), more frequently than once each 6 weeks period in only about 8 per cent of the schools, and 4 or fewer times per year in 23 per cent of the places. It is significant that as many as 23 per cent of the schools have been able to reduce the frequency of marking to once, twice, or three or four times per year. When asked, "How frequently per year are summaries made of scholastic marks given by teachers?", replies were received from 71 per cent of the principals (Table 100, part C). The most common practice was to make such summaries once or twice per year, re­ported for 38 per cent of the schools or more than half of the places from which replies were received on this particular question. The nature of the replies tabulated in Table 100, part C, suggests that in the majority of schools in which summaries are made of teachers' marks they are made at the end of the semester or year, depending upon whether the school has annual or semiannual promo­tions. In the remaining schools such sum­maries of teachers' marks are probably made at the close of each marking period. RECORDS AND REPORTS Table 100 Marking Practices* A. T:voe of markin~ system used 1. Letters 2. A -B -c -:z; A -B -c ­ ./ . D 4. A -B -c -D -E 5. A -B -c -D -E -F 6. A -B -c -F 7. A -B -c -D -F 8. A -B -c -D -F and 0 -u -s -I 9. A -B -c -D -u 10. A -B -c -D -u -F 11. A -B -c -D -x 12. A -s -N -u 13. E -s -u 14. E -s -I -u 15. E -s -N -u 16. E -s -T -p p 17. E -VG -G -F --u 18. E -G -F -u 19. E -G -A -u p 20. E -G -s -F -w ­ 21. G -s -I -F 22. G -s -u 23. H -s -u 24. HS -s -u -N 25. s -u 26. s -u (Primary) and A -B -c (Intermediate) 27. s -u -F 28. s -I -u 29. s -w -u 30. s -N -u 31. s -N -I 32. s -N 33. s -I 34. s -v 35. s -I -x 36. 0 -s -u 37. 0 -s -N -u 38. 0 -s 39. 0 -s -T -u 40. 0 -s -x 41. N -c -E 42. VG -s -u 43. VS -s -I -u 44. Numbers ~5. 1 -4 46. 1 -5 47. Numerical percents * Percentages based on 532, Total No. % 88 17 2 -­ 50 9 31 6 16 -:z; ./ -:z; ./ 1 52 10 1 -­ -:z; ./ 1 1 -­ 1 -­ 1 -­ 10 2 3 1 -:z; ./ 1 2 -­ 2 -­ 2 -­ 1 -­ 1 -­ 1 -­ 1 -­ -:z; ./ -1 1 -­ 58 11 12 2 4 1 17 3 -:z; ./ 1 4 1 9 2 4 1 1 -­ 1 -­ 1 -­ 8 2 2 -­ 1 -­ 2 -­ 1 -­ 1 -­ 1 -­ 1 -­ 19 4 2 -­ 10 2 10 2 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 100 (Continued) Total No. % A. Type of marking .system used 48. 3 -point scale 49. 5 -point scale 50. 10 -point scale 51. Superior, above average, average, below average, inferior 52. Good -Fair -Poor 53. Essay, paragraph, or narrative reports 2 2 1 2 1 13 2 54. Excellent, good, fair, poor, failing 55. Plus or minus check list 56. Above average, average, below average 57. Teachers' choice 58. Checks 1 1 1 1 4 1 59. Graph 60. Poor -fair 61. Checks (primary) and letters (intermediate) 62. Letters (ABCD in grades 1 -4), Numbers (in grades 5 -8) 2 2 1 9 2 63. Intervals of 5, beginning at 60 64. Ayers 65. Checks and comments 1 1 1 66. Individual growth 67. Excellent, average, unsatisfactory 68. Teacher-parent interview 1 2 1 69. Plus, average, minus 2 70. Words 1 71. .varies 1 No mar!rn used 13 2. No reply 47 9 B. Frequency per year with which marks are given '>; 1 1. One time _, 2. Two times 9 2 '>; _, . Three times 12 2 4. Four times 95 18 5. Five times 2 13 6. Six times 161 30 7. Eight times 7 1 8. Nine times 12 2 9. Daily 4 1 10. Weeldy 4 1 11. Monthly 12 2 12. Each five weeks '>; _, 1 13. Each six weeks 132 25 .14. Each nine weeks 1 -­ 15. Each ten weeks 5 1 16. Pra·ctice varies 8 2 No reply 51 10 RECORDS AND REPORTS Table 100 (Continued) c. Frequency per year with which summaries are made of teachers' marks 1. One time 2. Two times 3 . Two or three 4. Three times 5. Four times 6. Five times 7. Six times 8. Seven times 9. Eight times times 10. Each three weeks 11. Each four weeks 12. Each six weeks 13. Each ten weeks 14. Twi.ce a term 15. Six weeks, mid-term, end of 16. Every three or four years 17. Practice varies No summaries made No reply Reporting to Parents There is a very high correlation between the frequency with which scholastic marks are awarded by teachers and the fre­quency per year with which reports are made to parents as shown by a comparison of Ta­ble 100, part B, and Table 101, part A. The high consistency between marking peri­ods and reporting to parents makes one won­der whether the periodic awarding of marks is done primarily for the purpose of report ing to parents rather than as a teaching and evaluation technique. In 79 per cent of the schools teachers report directly to parents, where­as in 11 per cent of the schools the prin­cipal issues all reports or the principal and teacher cooperate in reporting to pa­rents (Table 101, part B). In making the reports to parents some type of card was used in 88 per cent of the schools. Per­sonal letters or conferences used with or tenn 137 - Total No. % 68 13 132 25 1 -­ 5 1 36 7 3 1 38 7 - 2 -­ 1 -­ 8 2 41 8 4 1 1 -­ 1 --. 1 -­ 10 2 25 5 155 29 without some type of report card were re­ported for 29 per cent of the schools. Re­porting to parents by means of letters or conferences only was limited to 8 per cent of the places. The different items included ln re­ports to parents numbered 26 (Table 101, part D). Attendance, scholastic marks, con­duct, citizenship, attitudes, character traits, habits, and health were the 8 items included in parent reports by 60 per cent or more of the schools. Except for test re­sults, mentioned by 33 per cent of the prin­cipals, no other item was included rn reports to parents by more than 1 per cent of the schools. One of the interesting observations is the extent of which citizenship, character traits, habits, attitudes, and health have entered the field of reports to parents, thus reflecting corresponding objectives and emphases in the school program. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 101 Practices in Reporting to Parents * Total No. '/> A. How frequently are marks reported to parents? 1. Every six weeks 306 58 2. Quarterly 102 19 3. Monthly 25 5 4. Three times yearly 20 4 5. Five times yearly 12 2 6. Practice varies ll 2 7. Every ten weeks 7 1 8. Every five weeks 4 1 9. Six times yearly 4 1 10. Every eight weeks 3 1 11. Every nine weeks 3 1 12. Annually 3 1 13. Twice yearly 3 1 14. No marks reported 3 1 15. Eight times yearly 2 -­ No reply 24 5 B. Procedure in reporting 1. Teachers report directly to parents 418 79 46 9 2. Reports issued by principal and teachers 3. All reports are issued by principal 13 2 4. Report issued by supervisor 5. Directly in some cases 2 1 No reply 53 10 c. Type of report to parents 1. A card; folder 354 67 2. Card and letter 78 15 3. Card, letter, and oral 28 5 4. A letter; comments 19 4 5. Letter or comments, and oral 16 3 6. Card and oral 8 2 7. Oral; conference 4 1 8. Letters in first grade, cards in others 2 9. All types 1 10. None 1 11. Special form 1 No reply 20 4 D. Items included in reports to parents 1. Attendance 498 94 2. Scholastic marks 478 90 3. Conduct 461 87 4. Citizenship 409 77 5. Attitudes 370 70 6. Character traits 366 69 * Percentages in this table are based on 532. RECORDS AND REPORTS Table 101 (Continued) D. Items included in reports to parents 7. Health 8. Habits 9. Test results 10. Teachers comment on program 11. Pupil interests and abilities 12. Effort 13. Weight and Height 14. Social factors 15. Prospects of promotion 16. Objectives 17. Recommendations 18. Physical Education 19. Summary of tests and class work 20. Immunization 21. Interests 22. Texts 23. Any extreme case 24. Special abilities 25. Service 26. Recommendations No reply Total No. % 332 331 177 7 6 5 2 2 l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 22 62 62 1 1 1 4 Total number of schools 532 CHAPTER 9 TEXTBOOK, SUPPLIES, AND EQUIPMENT MANAGMENT Instructional supplies of many kinds are essential if the type of teaching de­sired in a school is actually to be a­chieved. Although all teachers have learn­ed to improvise in many ways, it is probably a truism to say that the kind of teaching you get is directly proportional to the re­pertoire of supplies and equipment made a­vailable to teacher and pupils. The best way to insure the presence when needed of essential educational tools is to have them provided by the same public fund that pro­vides for schoolhouses and teachers' sala­ries. The parallelism between free public schooling and essential instructional sup­plies is so well recognized that many state legislatures have passed laws requiring or authorizing local school boards to provide books and other instructional supplies free to all pupils. The data in Table 102 reveal several important facts. First among these facts is the wide array of types of instructional supplies provided by the school free to all pupils. The long list of 75 items marks a long step forward from the time when the pupils had to provide all their own books and supplies. Of the total list of supplies provided free to all pupils by 1 or more schools, 2 items (textbooks and supplemen­tary books) were provided by from 80 to 89 per cent of the schools, 1 item (standard­ized tests) was provided by from 70 to 79 per cent of the schools, 3 items (construc­tion paper, manila drawing paper, and mod­eling clay) were provided by from 60 to 69 per cent of the schools, 10 items (ink, paper clips, thumb tacks, colored crayons, colored paper, oak-tag paper, white drawing paper, news print paper, scissors, and paste) were made available in from 50 to 59 per cent of the places, and 33 items were available free to all pupils in 20 per cent or less of the schools. Practically all of the types of supplies provided by 50 per cent or more of the schools were available free to all pupils in as large or a larger proportion of the smaller as in the larger schools. In fact, size of school seemed to be an unimportant factor as far as the pro­vision of the more basic supplies was con­cerned. It was largely in the types of sup­plies that might be called enrichment mate­rials that the larger schools held a distinct advantage over the smaller schools. Teaching Equipment Equipment is usually differentiated from instructional supplies by the fact that the former is more durable, can be used many times, and lasts over a period of years where­as the latter, except for books, is consumed in the using. A wide array of teaching equip­ment (Table 103) was available in 1 or more of the schools studied, thus reflecting curri­culum enrichment and the nature of the edu­cational program in the schools most favored in this regard. Only 10 of the 64 different kinds of teaching equipment were available in 50 per cent or more of the schools. These 10 articles were stereoscope (98 per cent), paper cutters (84 per cent), handwriting alphabet strips (78 per cent), printing set (73 per cent), paper punchers and hectograph (each 62 per cent), globes and mineograph (each 56 per cent), motion picture projector (52 per cent), and slide projector (51 per cent). Only 2 other articles, primary print typewriter and wood-burning, set, were avail­ able in more than 10 per cent of the schools. Materials for industrial arts or handicraft, radios or radio equipment, phono­graphs, and musical instruments were reported for a surprisingly small percentage of schools, whereas equipment for visual in­struction was widely available, both as to the variety of visual aids and the percentage of schools which had the more common types of visual equipment. Except for maps and globes, the various types of equipment were much more prevalent in the larger than in the smaller schools. In fact, except for maps, globes, handwriting alphabet set, paper punchers, hectograph, and printing set, no item of equipment was found in as many as 10 140 TEXTBOOK, SUPPLIES, AND EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT Table 102 Instructional Supplies Provided by the School Free to All Pupils * Types of Supplies Size of School According to Number of Teachers ·Total l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> 1. Basic textbooks 25 96 20 83 51 96 156 87 122 93 55 83 23 88 6 86 18 90 476 89 2. Supplementary Books 24 92 19 79 49 92 160 89 107 82 53 8o 23 88 6 86 20 100 461 87 3. Wark books 16 62 14 58 17 32 62 35 45 34 25 38 11 42 4 57 7 35 201 38 4. Composition books 2 8 3 13 8 15 35 20 31 24 14 21 7 27 3 43 5 25 lo8 20 5. Arithmetic Drill Books 7 27 6 25 14 26 41 23 34 26 16 24 6 23 2 29 7 35 133 25 6. Outline maps 7 27 6 25 18 34 76 42 68 52 29 44 15 58 4 57 13 65 218 41 7. SpelliDg blanks 5 19 2 8 7 13 41 23 32 24 19 29 9 35 2 29 6 30 123 23 8. "ilritiDg paper far ink 8 31 2 8 19 36 88 49 57 44 32 48 19 73 4 57 14 70 243 46 9. Tttet paper (examination) 5 19 4 17 19 36 78 44 62 47 26 39 21 81 4 57 11 55 230 43 10. SteIJdardized teats 17 65 17 71 34 64 126 70 97 74 47 71 20 77 5 71 17 85 38o 71 11. Graph paper 4 15 5 21 9 17 58 32 47 36 23 35 12 46 4 57 9 45 171 32 12. Notebook: paper 3 12 5 9 32 18 29 22 14 21 7 27 2 29 3 15 95 18 13. Mw!ic scare paper l 4 2 8 10 19 51 28 40 31 17 26 12 46 3 43 5 25 141 27 14. Scratch tablets 5 19 l 4 9 17 31 17 31 24 11 17 9 35 l 14 5 25 103 19 15. Theme paper 4 15 l 4 9 17 49 27 38 29 18 27 11 42 3 43 7 35 140 26 16. Blotters 5 19 4 17 11 21 57 32 52 40 20 30 11 42 4 57 10 50 174 33 17. Ink 5 19 l 4 19 36 86 48 78 60 39 59 20 77 6 86 15 75 269 51 18. Pena 3 12 2 8 15 28 71 40 65 50 28 42 16 62 5 71 14 70 219 41 19. Pen-hold.ere 2 8 2 8 12 23 65 36 47 36 27 41 18 69 4 57 12 60 186 35 20. Pencils (lead) 5 19 2 8 14 26 55 31 48 37 21 32 12 46 4 57 9 45 170 32 21. Rubber erasers 6 23 2 8 10 19 37 21 36 27 15 23 6 23 3 43 6 30 121 23 22. Twine 5 19 l 4 7 13 50 28 43 33 21 32 10 38 2 29 6 30 145 27 23. P1Ds 8 31 2 8 8 15 55 31 47 36 25 38 13 50 ·3 43 10 50 171 32 24. Paper clips 13 50 6 25 22 42 76 42 62 47 35 53 15 58 4 .57 13 65 264 50 25. Thumb tacks 17 65 11 46 29 55 92 51 74 56 38 58 16 62 4 57 13 65 294 55 26. Colored crayon 12 46 8 33 26 49 86 48 66 50 35 53 18 67 3 43 13 65 269 51 27. Colored paper 11 42 8 33 23 43 101 56 78 60 40 61 17 65 5 71 16 8o 299 56 28. Construction paper 17 65 11 46 28 53 111 62 86 66 43 65 20 77 6 86 17 85 339 64 29. Manilla drawiDg paper 11 42 7 29 28 53 101 56 83 63 43 65 21 81 5 71 16 80 325 61 30. Oak-tag paper 4 15 6 26 18 34 100 56 76 58 40 61 17 65 6 86 15 75 272 51 31. White drawiDg paper 9 35 7 29 21 40 104 58 75 57 39 59 19 73 5 71 16 80 296 56 32. Mounting paper 7 27 4 17 15 28 83 46 70 53 36 55 15 58 4 57 16 8o 250 47 33. News print 5 19 8 33 21 40 101 56 84 64 37 56 19 73 5 71 17 85 287 54 34. Crayolas 10 38 4 17 12 23 66 37 52 40 31 47 12 46 4 57 9 45 200 38 35· Charcoal sticks 8 15 61 34 52 40 25 38 10 38 2 29 8 40 166 31 36. Rulers 9 35 3 13 19 36 76 42 62 47 34 52 16 62 4 57 13 65 236 44 37· Scieeare 12 46 9 38 22 42 94 53 72 55 38 58 20 77 6 86 13 65 287 54 38. Clay (Model1Dg) 13 50 8 33 24 45 105 59 82 63 43 65 23 88 5 71 17 85 320 60 39. Paste. 15 58 8 33 23 43 105 59 85 65 42 64 18 69 6 86 15 75 316 59 40. Water colors 5 19 2 8 14 26 68 38 61 54 31 47 16 62 4 57 14 70 215 40 41. Tempera paints 2 8 3 13 19 36 88 49 75 57 36 55 19 73 4 57 14 70 260 49 42. Finger paints 2 8 l 4 9 17 56 31 52 40 29 44 11 42 3 43 11 55 174 33 43. Paint brushes 5 17 2 8 13 25 86 48 73 56 34 52 17 65 5 71 12 60 247 46 44. Soap (carviDg) 3 13 5 9 19 11 23 18 12 18 4 15 l 14 3 15 74 14 45. Linoleum (block) l 4 6 11 35 20 36 27 17 26 9 35 2 29 7 35 113 21 46. Plaster Paris (model1Dg) l 4 3 6 29 16 30 23 11 17 6 23 l 14 7 35 88 17 ll!-2 GRGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 102 (Continued) Size of School According to Number of Teachers Types of Supplies l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. 'lo No. 'lo No. 'lo iio. 'lo Bo. 'lo Bo. 'lo No. 'lo ]lo. 'lo No. 'lo llo. 'lo 47. Conpaesee 48. Butcher paper 49. Protractors 50. Crepe paper 51. Oilcloth 52. Sewing materials 53. Lumber far shop wark 54. Food far H. E. 55. Playgt"ound Equipment 56. Cloth far art wark 57. Raffia and Reed 58. Seeds and tool~ far victary gardens 59. Wrapping paper 60. Chalk 61. Scotch tape 62. ll:l:'aeere (blackboard) 63. Blue print materials 64. Book mending kit 65. Freecal 66. Kraft paper 67. Wool (weaving) 68. Onion skin paper 69 • .Ir.alean1n8, . enamel, varnish, shellac 70. Braes, paper Fasteners 71 •. Doilies 72. Printers 1Ilk 73. Gummed seals, labels, stare, dote 74. 011 paint 75. Games lfone No reply l 4 2 8 l 2 l 2 l 2 2 4 l 2 l 2 l l 3 2 l l 2 l 2 l l l 3 2 5 3 2 .1 2 l 2 l l l l l l l l l 2 l l l l l l l l l l l 4 2 2 2 3 2 6 5 l l 2 2 3 2 l l 2 2 2 2 2 2 l l l l 2 2 2 2 l l l 2 2 3 2 3 2 3 l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 2 3 l 5 l 5 l 5 l ., l -2 -l -­2 -6 l 15 3 5 l 4 l 6 l 4 l 3 l 7 l 5 l 2 -2 -­2 -l -­l -­l -3 l l -6 l 3 -­l -­l -l -l -l -2 -8 2 Total number of schools 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 ii Percentages in each column were calculated on the basis of the number of schools in each size-gi-oup. per cent of the 1-teacher and 2-teacher schools. Out of the total of 64 different types of teaching equipment, only 14 were reported for 1 or more 1-teacher and 2­ ers fared better than the 1-and 2-teacher schools but less well than the larger schools. The greatest variety of teaching equipment was available in schools having from 6 to 25 teachers. teacher schools. Schools with 3 to 5 teach­ TEXTBOOK SUPPLIES, AND EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT Table 103 Types of Equipment Available in Schools* Size of School Accordine to Number of Teachers Types of Equipment 2l Total 6-10 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up11-153-5 No. No. '1> I No. No. No. No. No. No. .No. '1>No. '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1>'1> l. Slide projector l 4 l 4 14 26 62 47 20 77 7 100 l..8 90 269 51 89 50 47 71 2. Motion picture projector 2 8 l 4 18 34 20 77 6 86 276 52 83 46 85 65 45 68 15 75 3. Stereoscope l 4 l 4 11 21 12 60 14 54 70 39 30 45 5 71 199 37 55 42 4. Maps 24 92 21 88 26 100 7 100 20 100 521 98 52 98 174 97 130 99 65 98 5. Globes 21 81 20 83 126 96 20 77 7 100 49 92 165 92 19 95 398 56 65 98 6. Handwriting alphabet strips 16 67 15 58 112 86 14 70 143 80 413 78 19 13 ) 43 52 79 39 74 7. Paper punchers 10 38 10 42 7 100 18 90114 87 328 62 8.· Paper cutters 34 64 23 88 153 85 59 89 7 100 448 84 4 17 32 60 127 97 .3 12 25 96 19 95 157 88 65 98 9. Mimeograph 1 4 2 8 20 38 20 77 81 62 6 86 96 54 17 85 297 56 54 82 10. Hectograph 16 62 41 77 146 82 19 79 109 83 328 62 51 77 17 65 15 75 4 57 11. Prilllar;y-print typewriter 2 8 l 4 16 30 186 35 12 • Printing Set (letters, blocks) 19 73 3 43 9 45 65 36 25 38 55 42 14 54 20 83 21 81 18 90 48 73 133 74 39 74 93 71 4 57 390 73 2 813. Wood-burning set 1 4 22 17 18 10 2 8 4 20 8 12 8 15 65 12 14. !Jeost;yle l 2 1 -­ 15. Shop equipment 8 4 4 3 l 14 16 3 3 4 ). 2 16. Typewriters 8 4 1 4 l 14 4 6 18 3 3 2 17. Radio equipment l 2 8 6 4 6 1 4 1 14 24 5 9 5 18. Phonograph 10 6 6 9 21 4 5 4 19. Musical instruments 2 3 6 5 1 14 18 3 9 5 20. Loans 2 3 2 -­ 21. Leather tooling set l 2 1 -­ 22. llalopticon 2 2 l 1 1 2 4 l 23. Number press l 1 1 2 2 -­ 24. Duplicator l 1 1 2 1 4 8 2 5 3 25. Kiln l 2 1 -­ 26. Opaque projectors 2 l 2 2 l .2 5 l 27. Ditto machine l 2 4 2 1 4 1 14 1 5 14 3 3 2 3 4 28. Scales l l 2 3 6 l 3 2 29. H. E. Equipment 6 3 12 2 3 2 3 4 30. Stapling machine 4 2 l 2 5 1 31. Sight conservation typewriters 1 14 l -­ 32. Reflectoscope l 4 l -­ 33. Slide-making equipment l l 1 4 2 -­ 34, Spot lights 1 4 1 -­ 35. Recording machine 1 4 l -­ 36. Pictures for classroom use l 2 2 2 l 2 4 1 37. Adding machine 2 l 2 2 4 1 38. Delineoscope 1 l 4 1 3 2 39. Display case 1 1 l 1 2 -­ 40. Exhibit board l l 1 l 2 -­ 41. Stencil equipment l 1 l -­ ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 103 (Cootinued) Types of Equipment Size of S chool Acc ording to Number of Teacher s Total l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' 42. Strip film machine 43. Broadcasting system 44. Telebinocular 45. Science equipment 46. Mimeoscope 47. Tracing frame or glass 48. Stillfilms 49. Translux machine 50. Easels 51. Ophthalnograph 52. Puzzles and games 53. Museum cases and supplies 54. Microscope 55. Electric oven, etc. far clay work 56. Metroooscope 57. Radios, phonographs, etc. 58. Postcard picture machine 59. Cameras and films 60. Arithmetic set 61. Athletic equipment 62. Tools far woodwork 63. Wall charts 64. Art masterpieces No reply Total number of schools l 4 l 4 26 3 13 l 4 2 8 ·2 8 24 l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 3 6 2 4 2 4 l 2 53 l l 2 l l l 2 l l l 2 l l l l l 4 2 l l l l 2 l l l 2 l 4 2 l l l l l l 2 l 179 4 3 l l l l l l 11 8 l l 2 l l l 131 l 2 l 2 3 4 l 2 l 2 l 2 l 2 66 l 4 26 7 20 5 l 3 l 2 -3 l 2 -2 -l -l -5 l l -2 -2 -l -2 -3 l 25 5 l -l -2 -2 -6 l 6 l l -5 l 532 *Percentages in each column were calculated Oil the basis of the number of schools in each size-group. Management Practices A complete dissertation on the or­ganization and techniques for the management of textbooks, supplies, and teaching equip­ment cannot be presented in this report. Without such presentation, however, it be­comes difficult to give full meaning and in­terpretation to the findings presented in Table 104. In the portion of the study sum­marized in Tabie 89 an effort was made to obtain a picture of the functioning of in­ternal management practices relating to text­books, supplies, and teaching equipment. In order that the data and brief comments pre­sented herein may be more meaningful the reader is urged to consult a good treatise on office, stockroom, and equipment manage­ment. The first step in providing materials for teachi:ng is to secure them and to malce them available in the individual schools. As far as the securing of textbooks is con­cerned, the prevailing practice (in 71 per TEXTBOOK, SUPPLIES, AND EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT Table 104 * Textbook, Supply, and Equipment Management Practices Textbooks, Basic and Supplementaru Instructional Supplies (crayolas, ink, etc.) Instructional Equipment (Motion Picture Machine, Maps, Globes, etc.) No. ;, No. ;, No. ;, A. Securing: L Principal requisitions frcm central office 2. Teacher requisitions frcm central office 3. Teacher makes direct purchase frcm vendors 4. Principal makes direct purchase frcm vendors 5. The requisition of the 378 62 5 34 71 12 1 6 275 44 28 52 52 8 5 10 290 47 9 57 55 9 2 11 teacher is made on a special farm 6. The requisition of the teacher is sent to the principal 7. School director or superintendent does the buying 8. State text-book de­pository 9. Purchased by other or­ganizations -PTA, etc. 10. Requis:!.tion sent to Board of Education No reply 111 284 4 1 1 22 21 53 1 -­-­4 109 257 3 1 3 78 20 48 1 -­1 15 82 234 4 2 76 15 44 1 -­14 B. Storing: 1. Checked into storeroom upon arrival at building 2. Distributed directly to classrooms upon arrival at building No reply 305 183 24 57 34 5 293 105 92 55 20 17 237 134 101 45 25 19 ,, '" -Distribution to classrooms: L Teachers check out frcm storeroom 2. Pupils check out frcm the storage room 3. Teacher has an account with the storeroom 4. Delivered to classrooms on a specified schedule 5, Bought by pupils 258 12 41 117 1 49 2 8 22 -­ 199 12 32 124 1 37 2 6 23 -­ 190 8 26 116 36 2 5 22 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 104 (Continued) Textbooks, Basic and Supplementary Instructional Supplies (crayolas, ink, etc.) Instructional Equipment (Motion Picture Machine, Maps, Globes, etc.) No. ;, No. ;, No. ;, c. Distribution to classrooms: 6. Delivered to classrooms on arrival No reply D. Distribution to pupils: 1. The pupils are issued the materials by the classroom teacher 2. The pupils are issued the materials by the princi­pal's office staff 3. The pupil has an indivi­dual account with ~he classroom teacher 4. Pupil signs for materials received 5. Duplicate copy of' child's account sent to parents 6. At close of year materials are returned to teacher 7. Account of pupil with teacher is checked 8. Adjustment for defacement, loss or destruction by pupil to teacher No reply E. Return to stockroom: 1. The teacher returns materi­als to stockroom 2. The pupils ·return materials to stockroom 3. The equipment is returned by custodians or others as per schedule of use 4. The teacher reconciles her account or record with the stockroom 5. Not returned to stockroom 6. Teacher checks materials back to principal No reply 1 -­100 19 442 83 6 1 60 11 33 6 15 3 217 Jn 96 18 246 46 24 5 292 55 22 4 25 5 148 35 17 3 2 -­94 18 1 -­145 27 353 66 9 2 23 4 6 1 3 1 104 20 37 1 82 15 li2 21 169 32 19 4 18 3 68 13 16 3 1 -­229 43 169 32 220 41 8 2 14 3 5 1 1 -­76 14 29 5 78 15 237 45 184 35 15 3 31 6 77 14 10 2 2 -­208 39 F. Inventory: }. Materials are inventoried continuously 184 35 120 23 114 21 TEXTBOOK, SUPPLIES, AND EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT 147 Table 104 (Co~tinued) Textbooks, Basic and Supplementary Instructional Supplies (Crayolas, ink, etc.) Instructional,Equipment (Moticn Picture Machine, Maps, Globes, etc.) No. No. '/, No. '/, "' F. Inventory: 2. Materials are insepected when returned to stockroom 158 30 54 10 75 14 3. Materials are inspected when checked out of stockroom 125 24 67 13 66 12 4. Materials are purchased by the Board of Education on a basis of annual requisi­ tions 245 46 243 46 228 43 5. Specific titles and per pupil quotas are specified 95 18 56 11 40 8 6. Principal 0hecks class­ rooms to note status of supplies 124 23 104 20 92 17 7. Teachers are notified periodically as to the amounts used as ccmpared to budgetary allowances 54 10 62 12 41 8 8. Non-consumable items are listed on a location card checked with request to where and when they were sent or delivered 37 7 19 4 39 7 9. Principal notifies each teacher before making periodic requisitions or annual budget of supplies 228 43 217 41 192 :;6 10. The school operates a school supplies store from which pupils may purchase supplies not furnished by the Board of Education 22 4 32 6 6 1 11. Inventory made annually 1 -­ 1 -­ 1 -­ No reply 35 7 97 18 116 22 *Percentages throughout this table are based on 532. cent of the schools) was for the principal to requisition books from the central of­fice. In 53 per cent of the schools the principal's requisitions were based upon or influenced by requisitions from teachers, although printed fonns for teachers' re­quisitions were used in only 21 per cent of the places. In a small proportion of schools teachers requisitioned books directly from the central office while in still fewer places the principal purchased books directly from the vendors. In securing instructional supplies or equipment, only about one-half of the principals submit requisitions to the ORGANIZATIONAL AND AI»1INISTRATIVE PRACTICES central office. The various percentages which have been quoted (as well as others given in Table 89) are determined in part by size of school and the availability in the school system of various types of mate­ rials for teaching. The numbers in the "no reply" categories throughout the table re­flect in part the absence of materials or systematic management practices. Availability of storerooms or stock­rooms in elementary schools, a factor which is affected by size of school, is reflected in the data in parts B, C, and E of Table 104. Only about 50 per cent of the schools reported practices pertaining to checking materials into the storeroom upon arrival at the building, having teachers check mate­rials out of the stockroom, or having teach­ers return materials to the stockroom. Books were administered through the stock­room in a larger percentage of schools than were instructional supplies and teaching equipment. Well developed inventory practi­ces were reported for about one-third of the school~ (Table 104, part F). In the distri­bution of materials to pupils, the types of practices recommended in professional litera­ture were found in a comparatively small per­centage of the schools. In general, the data of Table 104 suggest much to be desired in the field of textbook, supply, and equipment management if the practices reported for the schools are compared with recommended procedures. Certain desirable methods were found in more than half of the schools but the majority of the items were checked for a relatively small proportion of the schools. Obviously each school must adapt its management practices to the available staff, building facilities, and repertoire of teaching aids. No doubt this adaptation to local circumstances is reflect­ed in the data but when adaptation to local conditions results in undesirable or make­shift practices, revision of plans is in order. CHAPTER 10 ACTttINISTRATION OF Only two kinds of infonnation were sought relative to service agencies, namely, what types of specialized personnel were available, and selected types of data about the ways in which the available personnel functioned in the schools. Attendance officers were designated as available in only 54 per cent, physician who gave periodic health examinations in 51 per cent, school nurses in 49 per cent, and public health nurses in 43 per cent of the schools (Table 105). In 15 of the ques tionnaires the comment was made that not any of the types of special service person­nel was available whereas no reply of any kind was given in this part of the study in 55 reports. If the latter two figures are added the sum represents 13 per cent of the SERVICE AGENCIES schools. The data in Table 105 thus re­present the detailed facts for the 87 per cent of the schools in which 1 or more types of service personnel were available. Although the arrangement of the data in the portion of Table 105 which shows the agencies which singly or in cooperation sponsor and pay for the service does not re­veal the exact number of school systems in which each type of service is sponsored cooperatively by 2 or more agencies, it is evident that cooperative agency sponsorship is not very extensive. The most extensive inter-agency cooperation pertained to the provision of nurses' services; in 11 per cent of the schools the city government partici­pated and in 23 per cent of the schools the county government participated in providing Table 105 Service Personnel Available in Elementary Schools* Agencies whic.h singly or cooperatively sponsor Are services available? and pay for each service No School-City County State Private No Yes Reply board Gov't Gov't Gov't Agency No. ;, No. No. ;, ;, No. No. ;, ;, No. No. ;, ;, No. ;, 1. Attendance officer 286 42 231 54 15 223 43 27 12 250 13 5 9 2. Visiting teacher 14 418 66 12 1 2675 39 17 79 13 3 3. Public health nurse 2&6 231 43 15 11 61 11 122 54 23 23 8 58 37 7 4. School nurse 262 14 20249 48 256 20 438 273 2255 5 9 5. Psychologist 122 24 23 12 386 4 1 11 2655 73 36 157 3 6. Psychiatrist 2617 413 93 1 2 78 505 9 13 163 37 7 3 7. Dentist 206 10017 309 58 4 2239 19 32 6 4233 47 9 8. Physician who gives periodic health exams 2271 11 250 51 47 30 10157 52 2737 297 5 5 9. Physician who gives periodic eye exams 114 21 28 12 10 2 390 6 1 263 8 245 73 5 11.0. Speech clinician 21 423113 1 4 398 71 13 1 4 12 2 75 235 Ill. Dietitian 66 12 6 82 31 47 1 2 435 1 29 93 None available ----15 No reply ----------55 * Percentages throughout this table are based on 532. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Ta1'le 106 Service Personnel Operational Practices * Attend-e.nce Offleer Visit­ing Teacher County or City Health Nurse School Nurse Psychol­ogist Den-tist fhysi­clan-Health Exams Phys!­clan-Eye Exams Speech Clini­clan Dietl­tian No. '!> Ne. '!> No. '!> No. '!> No. '!> No. No. '!> No. '!> No. '!> No. '!> "' A. Person who plans the schedule for service personnel 1. Superintendent 62 12 17 3 17 3 56 ll 10 2 29 5 27 5 10 2 14 3 5 1 2. Principal 76 14 14 3 22 4 46 9 27 5 20 4 25 5 7 1 21 4 ll 2 3. Service Person­ nel members plan own schedules 58 ll 25 5 50 9 109 2:J 29 5 82 15 95 18 47 9 35 7 17 3 4. Supervisor 1 -­ l -­ 4 1 4 l l -­ 7 l 5. Organizations re­ lated to school such as Bureau of Child Guidance, Bureau of Attend­ ance, Hea]J;h Dept., etc. ll 2 4 l 43 8 31 6 16 3 30 6 45 8 15 3 5 l 3 1 6. Board of Education 6 1 2 -­ 3 l 2 -­ 1 -­ 3 l 6 1 3 l 1 -­ l -­ 7. Clerk 3 1 1 -­ 8. Parent 2 -­ 2 -­ 2 -­ 9. Teacher 2 -­ 1 -­ 1 -­ i.. 1 2 -­ 4 1 4 1 2 -­ 8 2 10. Director of Cur­ riculwn 2 -­ 1 -­ l -­ 2 -­ l -­ 1 -­ 1 -­ ll. State supervises 1 -­ 2 -­ l -­ 3 -­ 3 1 12. Planned coopera­ tively 2 -­ l -­ 4 1 5 1 3 1 3 1 8 2 3 l 3 l 1 -­ B. Service personnel works within the school 1. On regular schedule 61 ll 26 5 51 10 154 29 12 2 81 15 108 20 46 9 51 10 23 4 2. On call only 149 28 27 5 65 12 26 5 81 15 46 9 55 10 27 5 28 5 15 3 3. Both on regular schedule and on call 22 4 7 l 20 4 42 8 8 2 8 2 27 5 10 2 10 2 l -­ c. T:l:me per week given to the pc.rti~ular school 1. Lese than 1 hour per week 14 3 5 1 ll 2 6 1 11 2 11 2 22 4 7 l 2 -­ 2. Fran one hour to 1/2 day per week 15 3 6 l 15 3 2::> 4 8 2 17 3 20 4 2 -­ 14 3 2 -­ 3. 1/2 day per week 6 1 5 1 4 1 28 5 1 -­ 3 l 4 1 l -­ 10 2 4. Above 1/2 day per week (3 hours to 10 hours) 23 4 7 l 14 3 79 15 3 1 10 2 14 3 8 2 17 3 4 l ADMINISTRATION OF SERVICE AGENCIES Table 106 (Continued) County Pbysi- IPeysi-SpeechAttend- Visit­ or City School Dieti-Psychol­ cian­cian- Den­ ance 1ng Clini- Health l!;ye tian Nurse ogist tist !HealthOfficer Teacher cian Nurse ~ams Exams No . No. No. No . No. No. No. No. '1> '1> '1> '1> No. '1> !No. '1> '1> '1> '1>'1> c. Time per week given to the particular school 2 -­ 2 -­5. 11 to 15 hours 2 -­ l -­ 12 2 l -­ l -­ 6. 16 to 20 hours 2 -­ 2 -­4 l 7. Half t1me 16 3 4 l l --­ 3 l 8. Full time 2 -­ 2 -­6 l l -­4 l l -­ 15 3 3 l 7 11 9. As needed; time varies 62 12 21 4 2 -­16 3 18 3 14 313 2 19 4 9 2 9 2 No reply 144 27 186 35154 29 68 13 86 16 48 9 163 31 54 1034 6 92 17 D. Representative visits classrooms regularly to con­tact pupils needing help and to identify cases l. Yes 22 414 3 160 30 23 4 18 334 6 34 6 8 234 69 2 2. No 42 8 12 2 20 418 315 3 11 2 11 2 30 6 6 l17 3 IE. Representative con­tacts only those pupils sent to the office l. Yes 120 23 28 5 60 11 62 12 84 1643 8 41 8 29 557 11 7 l 2. No 2 -­6 l 4 l8 2 4 l 15 3 3 l 3 l 5 l *Percentages throughout the table are based on 532. the services of public health nurses. In 5 per cent of' the situations the city or county government shared in providing school nurses. The special services of psychologists, psychiatrists, speech clini­cians, or dieticians were available in less than one-seventh of the schools. The role of private agencies in these fields was evident but not very extensive in terms of proportion of schools served. Service Agency Practices The value, effectiveness, and edu­cational impact of a specialized service depends in large measure upon the direction, planning, and scheduling of the service. When the services of specialists are made available in a school there are at least two important values to be sought; one of these values is service to children and the other is the educational return to pupils, teachers, and parents. Exploring and ex­ ploiting the potential educational values in each type of special service have been difficult and represent a hurdle not yet surmounted in most schools. The reality of the latter problems is reflected by the data in Table 106. Although attendance officers were available in 54 per cent of the schools, superintendents or principals share in planning the schedules of attend­ance officers in only 12 and 14 per cent, respectively, of the schools. Superintend­ents, principals, supervisors, or teachers plan or share in planning the schedules of other types of serv.lce personnel in an even smaller percentage of schools than was re­ ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES ported for the attendance officers. Although Table 105 might give one the impression that the specialized ser­vices are available in a fairly large per­centage of schools, such impression becomes deflated as one examines more carefully parts A and B of Table 106 which reveal the role of the school staff in planning the schedules of the specialists and the kind of plan according to which the various specialists work within the school. Note that the school nurse is the only special­ist who works within the school on regular schedule in as many as 37 per cent of the schools. Most of the other specialists are on regular schedule in less than 10 per cent of the schools although the same spe­cialists are available in from 12 to 54 per cent of the schools. There is no intention here of pre­suming that all specialists in the service fields should operate full-time on a pre­determined schedule or that they should visit a given school only on schedule or that their time should be spent in visiting classrooms while they are in a given build­ing. On the other hand, experience has dem­onstrated the merit of utilizing a combina­tion of "scheduled" and "on call" visits to each school and to request most of the spe­cialists to make some contact with pupils and teachers in typical classroom situations. CHAPTER 11 SUPERVISION AND Organization for supervision is something intangible until specifics in terms of personnel, functions, and activi­ties can be portrayed with reasonable accu­racy. In the present study no effort was made to get theoretical statements or dia­grams of organization for supervision and staff education. Attention was directed to the more specific kinds of things which constitute the functioning program. To get at least a partial picture of the organization for supervision, two lines of inquiry were followed. In the first instance, the questionnaire directed each respondent to list the types of admini- STAFF EDUCATION strative and supervisory officers available in his school system, to describe the size of each of these person's job, and to indi­cate the amount of time and the types of services each of the available administrative and supervisory officers gave in his build­~(i.e., the respondent's building). The inquiry was thus oriented to the nature and scope of supervisory services actually re­ceived in a given school. Table 107 shows the percentage of schools in which the various types of super­visory personnel were available. Of the 413 schools for which principals were designated as members of the supervisory staff (Table 1. 2. 3, 4. 5, 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20 Principal Superintendent Music Supervisor Art Supervisor Physical Ed. Supervisor General Grade Supervisor Primary Grade Supervisor Intennediate Grade Supervisor Assistant Superintendent Assistant Principal Research worker Director of Training Testing Supervisor Psychologist Curriculwn Director Coordinator Speech Supervisor Handwriting Supervisor Visiting teacher Health SupervisorNone No ReplyTotal number of schools Total No. 413 356 246 185 153 83 74 45 43 41 21 15 6 7;_, 2 2 1 l 1 l i2 6"i % 78 67 46 35 29 16 14 8 8 8 4 3 1 1 -­-­-­-­-­-­2 12 532 Table 107 The Supervisory Personnel Available in Elementary Schools* *Percentages in table based on 532. 153 ORGANIZATIONAL AND Ar:MIN!STRATIVE PRACTICES 107), the scope of the principal's supervi­sory .task was limited to 1 school in 77 per cent of the cases (Table 108). The other 11 per cent who replied to this question were in charge of 2 to 10 schools. Only 3 per cent of the principals said that they had no time for administrative and super­visory work, whereas 38 per cent gave full time to supervision and administration. Others gave from 1 to 30 hours per week to their role as school principals. The per­centage of principals who gave full time to classroom teaching (Table 108, part C) is larger than the percentage who gave no The scope and nature of superintend­ents' supervisory task is shown in Table 109. In only 14 per cent of the cases was the superintendent's supervisory task limited to less then 4 schools. For the small rural schools included in the study the person designated as superintendent was usually the county superintendent. When the principals who filled out the questionnaires were asked to indicate the number of hours per week which the superintendent devoted to admini­strative and supervisory work within the schools of which the respondents were the principals or to give the hours per week de- Table 108 The Supervising and Teaching Program of the Elementary School Principal !A. scope of the prin­cipal 1 s supervi­sory task Supervises 1 schools Supervises 2 schools supervises 3 schools Supervises 4-10 schools No reply Total No. 2 No. '1> Size of School According to Number of Teachers 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 Bo. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> 31-up No. '1> Total No. 'I> 47. Community Concert Aes1n. 48. Miscella;neous* Bone Bo Reply 3 11 1 4 13 50 1 4 1 4 7 29 3 2 1 2 1 4 18 33 77 40 59 42 25 38 20 76 3 43 1 2 2 1 2 2 6 11 8 4 2 2 2 3 11 55 1 5 5 1 217 30 7 1 39 7 Is there a clearcut school policy urging the principal to affiliate h1llleelf with organi­zatians 1n the Cammmity? Yes Bo Bo reply ' 1 4 8 31 17 65 4 17 11 46 9 38 14 26 4 20 27 21 18 27 7 27 1 14 28 53 108 60 94 72 40 61 17 65 6 86 11 21 36 20 10 8 8 12 2 8 7 35 10 50 3 15 114 21 322 61 95 18 *Card Club, Executives Club, Cub Scouts, University Wanen's Club, Consumers' Co-op, Beta Sigma Pi, s. E. A., Business Men's Club, Social Welfare, F. and A. M., Service Club, Penn State Club, Pi Lambda Theta, Day Care Committee, Book Club, Chinese Culture Study Group, Kappa Delta Pi, Writers' Club, Current Events Club, Hard of Hearing Club, Ration Board, Discussion Club, Optimist Club, Camnercial Club, Business Girls, Club, Order of .Al!laranth, Am. Legion Aux., Planning Board, Schoolmaster's Club, Bird Club, Maternal Health, United Nations Committee, H. D. Club, Community Chair, Hot Lunch, Ban Boosters, Co. Council of Ed., Guild, Business Womens' Circle, Administrative Women's Council 1n Ed., Book Lovers Club, Pioneer Club, Elementary Principals' Ass'n., L. u. L. A. c., Home Guard, Grange, Farm Burear, Quote Club, Public Speaking Club, Phi Lamba Pi, Union Federation and Loan Ass 'n., Social Studies Council, Art Ass 'n., Alumni Ass'n., Civic Music Ass'n., Bational Guard, U. D. c., Knife and Fork Club, Altrusa Club, Fire Company, Ohio State Teachers' Ass'n. Local, 4H Club, Social Service League, Plymouth Guild, Friends Meeting, Community House Director, Supervis Bo. 1> Bo. 1> Bo. 1> Bo. 1> Bo. 1> Bo. 1> Bo. 1> Bo. 1> Bo. 1> l. Education Week is sponsored by the school 4 15 7 29 27 51 129 72 96 73 47 71 20 77 7 100 14 85 354 67 2. Open-House Bight is held once or twice a year 3 12 5 21 17 32 78 44 69 53 41 62 13 50 4 57 9 45 241 45 3. Open-House Bight is held periodically throughout the school year 5 19 l 4 3 6 8 4 6 5 4 6 l 4 l 14 3 15 32 6 4. A special Visitor's Day is set aside during which visitors are specially invited to see the school in action 5 19 5 21 19 36 98 55 72 55 34 52 14 54 4 57 14 70 265 50 5. Parents and patrons are invited to: Plays 21 81 19 79 49 92 149 83 112 85 59 89 22 85 6 86 15 75 452 85 Pageants 6 23 8 33 24 45 91 51 71 54 39 59 17 65 6 86 9 45 271 51 Assembly Progl"ams 10 38 9 38 42 79 137 77 106 81 58 88 24 92 7 100 17 85 410 77 Game Days 3 12 4 16 20 38 71 40 42 32 25 38 9 35 5 71 7 35 186 35 Father-£on Banquets 2 4 21 12 15 11 14 21 2 8 4 20 58 11 Mother-daughter Banguets 2 8 l 4 l 2 14 8 9 7 12 18 4 15 4 20 47 9 Teas put on by pupils 2 8 l 4 10 19 51 28 41 31 24 36 11 42 5 71 10 50 155 29 6. Moving pictures or the school's work are shown to nan-£chool personnel 2 8 8 15 16 9 17 13 14 21 5 19 l 14 4 20 67 13 7. School-trained stu­ dent talent is used to give progl"ams out­ side the school l 4 l 4 14 26 72 40 65 50 31 47 11 42 4 57 9 45 lo8 20 8. Pranotion exercises are used to present educational news aDd problems to the attend­ 9. ing audience Miscellaneous * 4 3 15 11 6 l 25 4 21 3 40 6 51 13 28 7 33 6 25 4 23 4 35 6 6 2 23 8 2 28 6 30 151 28 34 5 Bo reply 5 19 4 17 4 8 9 5 2 2 l 4 2 10 27 5 Total schools in each group 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 * Easter hunts are used, Children take part in P.T.A., Cullnination activities in the classrooms, Father's day is used, Spring music restival is held, Book Week is observed, There is an annual exhibit or the school work, A rate is held, There is a parent-student square dance, A band and music night is held, Special progl"ams are used, School picnics are used, Entertainment is provided by the school ror the P.T.A., Exhibits or student work are used, Band concerts are given by the school band, Musical programs are given by the school personnel, Socials or various types are used, Athletic events are sponsored by the school, School rairs are used, There are two Saturday demonstrations per year. SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS Table 120 Other Methods Used in Acquainting the :Public with the WCl["k and :Problems or the School Size or School Acc(J["ding to Number or Teachers 2 16-20 Total l 6-10 21-25 26-30 31-up11-15 3-5 Jfo, No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. 1>No. 1> 1> 1>1> 1> 1> 1> 1> 1> 1. An annual rep(J["t or your individual school is made avail­able to parents and others, showing prob­lems and showing prog­ress made during the year 82 15 22 17 2 8 l 14 2 10 2 8 2 8 11 21 27 15 13 20 2. A visiting teacher is available to represent the school in homes or the students 2 8 2 7 14 8 l 14 48 9 9 14 3 15 17 13 3. A visiting ·nurse is available to represent the school in the homes or the students 11 21 14 54 181 34 l 4 l 4 58 32 54 41 32 48 3 43 7 35 4. It is the policy or the school r(J[" class­roa11 teachers to visit homes or the e;tudents 242 45 21 40 12 46 11 55 11 42 63 48 3 43 36 55 8 33 77 43 5. Such iteme as mono­graphs, news letters, etc., are sent period­ically to parents l _14 2 10 2 8 30 17 27 21 13 20 7 27 89 17 7 13 6. Such iteme as just mentioned are sent to parents, but not regularly 26 49 11 42 11 55 267 50 96 54 72 55 36 55 3 43 6 23 6 25 7. Such items as just mentioned are published in newspaper 21 32 10 38 2 8 48 37 166 31 l 4 3 '+;;1 8 15 67 37 6 30 8. Parente are called to school ror individual conrerences with mem­bers or the school starr 22 85 21 40 l 4 125 70 107 82 6 86 14 70 3 12 54 82 353 66 9. conrerences between parents and the school starr are provided by 112 63 18 69P.T.A. meetings, etc. 7 29 25 47 89 68 318 60 43 65 5 71 15 75 4 15 10. Letters are sent to parents by members or the school starr 10 40 4 16 18 34 l 4 103 ·58 13 50 296 56 45 68 98 75 4 57 11. Club magazines and bulletins print school news 12 9 21 12 16 24 1 14 6 23 6 30 6 23 5 9 73 14 12. An attendance orricer is available to re­present the school in the homes or the students 2 8 12 23 11 55 19 73 5 71 207 39 67 37 36 55 55 42 172 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 1.20 {Continued) Size of School According to Number of Teachers l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21...,25 26-30 31-up Total No. No. "' No. No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' No. "' Bo. "' 13. Exhibits of students' work are available either in the school "' "' or in other places 14. Speeches or lectures an educational topics are made by the teach­ers to non-school 4 15 8 33 27 51 118 66 90 69 49 74 14 54 4 57 14 70 328 64 personnel 15. Speeches or lectures an educational topics are made by the prin­cipal to nan-school 7 13 37 21 29 22 18 27 4 15 2 29 5 25 102 19 persannel 16. Broadcasts are made to the general pub-lie by school per­sannel to acquaint the public with the 6 11 48 27 41 31 24 36 7 27 4 57 6 30 136 26 work of the school 20 11 28 21 16 24 3 12 l 14 6 30 71 14 17. Miscellaneous * 10 5 3 2 3 5 l 4 17 2 Bo reply Total schools in 10 38 6 25 9 17 115 64 3 2 2 3 l 4 2 10 148 28 each group 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 *A Book Fair is held once a year, Principal visits homes of problem children, The school paper is sent home, Victory concerts are given, Report cards carry such information to parents, Booklets an units of work are sent to parents, Daily newspaper carry such information, Outside speakers are used, One page of the weekly paper is used for the school, A parent's handbook is issued, A nu_trition fair is held once a year, a parent council meets with the super­intendent periodically. organizations was reported for only 54 per cent of the 1-teacher and 67 per cent of the 2-teacher schools. Community Agencies and Their Services to Schools Eighty-eight per cent of the re­turns listed 1 or more services which the schools were receiving from community a­gencies. The most common services re­ceived by the schools, each reported for about one-third of the schools, were the furnishing of food and clothing for needy children, providing physical examinations for pupils, giving tuberculin tests, giving American flags, giving books to the school library, cooperating with the school health program, and providing fire prevention in­struction {Table 122). Services from com­munity agencies were reported for only 48 per cent of the 1-teacher and 44 per cent of the 2-teacher schools. The percentage of schools receiving each type of service was roughly the same for schools of all sizes except that a noticeably smaller percentage of 1-teacher and 2-teacher schools were the recipients of the various services and that a smaller number of different services were made available in the 1-teacher schools. Ninety-three per cent of the respond­ ents identified the community agencies SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS Table 121 Groups Using the School Building Size of School According to Number of Teachers 21 16-20 6-10 Total 11-15 21-25 26-30 31-up3-5 No. No. No. No. Bo. No . No. No. No. No. 'I> 'I> 'I> 'I> 'I> 'I> 'I> 'I> 'I> ~ 1. Adult recreation group 1 4 14 11 17 9 15 23 8 31 2 29 3 15 65 12 5 9 2 42. Almnni Ass'n. 1 4 4 3 1 4 23 4 3 15 7 4 5 8 3. Boys Scouts and similar boys• argani­zations 2 8 1 4 18 34 12 46 70 39 32 48 2 29 215 40 65 50 13 65 4. First aid class 3 12 6 11 24 13 14 54 11 55 67 51 30 45 159 30 4 57 5. Fraternal organizations 1 2 1 1 2 3 9 2 5 4 6. Literary Society 2 2 4 2 2 8 1 5 9 2 1 4 20 11 7. Mothers' Club 1 4 18 14 8 12 3 12 1 14 62 12 5 25 5 9 8. Music Club 14 8 8 12 4 20 7 29 3 12 13 25 49 9 9. Or-ganized evening school classes 1 4 10 8 4 20 11 17 19 11 6 23 51 10 10. p, T. A. 3 12 126 70 104 79 22 85 13 54 54 82 5 71 15 75 35 66 377 71 11. Patriotic Societies l 4 14 8 10 15 3 13 64 12 7 13 15 11 6 23 2 29 6 30 12. Regularly scheduled community get-to­gathers 2 8 12 23 2 8 8 6 l 14 4 15 15 8 5 25 5 8 54 10 13. Women's clubs not fitting above types 8 4 2 8 7 11 2 10 4 15 3 13 8 15 41 8 7 5 14. w. P. A. Projects l 4 l 4 4 8 11 6 2 8 9 14 2 10 9 7 39 7 2 3 15. Nutrition classes 4 2 l 4 12 2 5 4 16. Girl Scouts and similar girls' or­!J!.nizations 10 2 1 4 l 4 14 54 10 50 72 4o 214 4.0 70 53 32 48 4 52 2 4 2 1 l 4 l l17. Ration Camnittees 6 l 2 8 2 8 1 4 2 218. Church 7 l 4 8 l 1 1 419. 4H Club 4 17 4 15 3 2 17 3 l 4 4 2 20. Agricultural group 1 2 6 1 2 4 4 5 l 4 21. Civilian defense 1 5 16 3 3 2 5 4 l 2 l 1 1 2 22. Home nursing 1 5 5 3 9 2 2 3 l 2 6 623. A1r raid wardens l 5 3 2 13 2 24. Children's recreation center 2 2 l l 2 8 2 10 2 29 9 2 l 2 4 3 4 5 2 825. Red Cross 16 3 5 3 12 22 16 11 2 8 2 2826. Miscellaneous * 6 23 6 25 13 17 1 5 33 17 90 12 No reply 10 8 12 46 4 6 3 12 23 13 8 15 3 15 71 13 Total schools in each group 8 33 2426 131 66 20 179 2753 5327 *Q.C.D. Classes, Naval cadets, C.A.A. classes, Nursery school, Canning courses, Fathers' Clubs, Principals' ass'n., Music recitals, Superintendents' Ass 'n., Canning Class, Victory Club, Safety meeting, Farm Bureau, Fireman, Plll.,)' practice, Public meetings, Defense council, Dental clinic, Sewing Class, Well-baby clinic, Vaccination clinic, Water Ass'n., F. F. A., Surgical dressing group, Religious F.ducation group, Consumers FA. Class, Military registration, Voting booth, Hospital graduation exercises, Selective service board, Y.M.C.A. office, Lions Club, Rifle Club, Con­servation Ass'n., Bird Club, Band, Mothers Club, Athletic Club, Police Instruction Classes, Ration Board, American Legion Band, Y. w. c. A., Negro Vacation Bible School, Dancing Class, Farmers' Union, Occasional Community meet, Farmers meetings, Sunday School, Bible Class, Coop, meetings, Rural War Production, Air raid casualty house, A.A.A., Electtons, Auditorium rented far college affairs, Junior Red Cross, College clubs, State-regional music meets, Classes for Greek children. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 122 Services Received by the School f'rcm Camnunity Agencies Size of School According to Number of Teachers 2 16~0 1 21~5 6-10 11-15 26-30 31-up Total3-5 ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, ,,, No. No. No. ,,,No. No. No. No. No. No. No. 1. Receive excursion grooups of pupils 2 8 1 4 9 17 50 28 44 34 20 30 9 35 1 14 9 45 145 27 2. Furnish food and clothing 5 19 4 17 10 19 61 34 66 50 32 48 15 58 1 14 6 30 200 38 3. Sponsor dental clinics 2 8 1 4 13 25 49 27 42 32 20 30 11 42 3 43 4 20 145 27 4. Physical exams 3 12 3 13 21 40 67 37 57 44 28 42 10 38 3 43 6 30 198 37 5. Tuberculin Test 1 4 1 4 13 25 65 36 61 47 26 39 7 27 3 43 7 35 184 35 6. Furnish schoolroan equipment 1 4 5 21 12 23 31 17 20 15 11 17 3 12 1 14 2 10 86 16 7. Plant trees and shrubbery 3 12 7 29 12 23 47 26 35 27 19 29 6 23 3 15 132 25 8. Provide prizes for contests 3 13 10 19 47 26 52 40 24 36 10 38 2 29 5 25 .L53 29 9. Purchase pictures far classrooms 2 8 12 23 30 17 27 21 18 27 4 15 1 14 94 18 10. Give American flags 6 23 16 30 53 30 55 42 21 32 10 28 4 57 4 20 169 32 11. Assist in school enter­ tainmants and programs 4 15 9 38 18 34 49 27 46 35 19 29 8 31 1 14 5 25 159 30 12. Furnish school supplies to the needy 1 4 7 13 26 14 32 24 17 26 3 12 1 14 4 20 91 17 13. Give books to the school library 2 8 3 13 19 36 61 34 51 39 27 41 9 35 3 43 6 30 181 34 14. :Purchase band in­ struments 1 4 10 19 23 13 19 15 15 23 5 19 1 14 1 5 75 14 15. Provide playgroound equipment 4 17 14 26 37 21 37 28 14 21 5 19 4 20 115 22 16. Give Christmas baskets 3 12 3 13 11 21 50 28 37 28 24 36 4 15 5 71 7 35 144 27 17. Give Christmas toys 4 15 1 4 8 15 43 24 33 25 15 23 8 31 1 14 6 30 119 22 18. Provide chance for excursions by students 4 15 3 13 10 19 36 20 31 24 12 18 6 23 7 35 109 20 19. Cooperate with school in juvenile cases handled 1 4 2 4 39 22 48 37 22 33 10 38 3 43 9 45 134 25 20. Cooperate with school 1n health program 3 12 2 8 19 36 71 40 62 47 26 39 10 38 4 57 6 30 203 38 21. Guide traffic near school 4 8 33 18 31 24 19 29 7 27 3 43 5 25 102 19 22. Lend books for students' use 3 12 3 13 8 15 24 13 18 14 9 14 3 12 5 25 73 14 23. !'remote advertising of school 5 9 24 13 20 15 9 14 1 4 3 15 62 12 24. Provide fire pre­ vention instruction 1 4 1 4 13 25 44 25 65 50 29 44 10 38 3 43 8 40 174 33 25. Book repairing 1 4 1 4 3 6 8 4 10 8 2 3 2 8 2 10 29 5 26. Furniture repair 27. Miscellaneous * l 4 1 4 3 1 6 2 3 6 2 3 2 8 2 6 1 2 1 4 1 5 12 2 16 2 No reply 11 42 11 46 7 13 19 11 7 5 3 5 1 4 5 25 64 12 Total schools in each grooup 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 * First aid equipment, :Purchase band uniforms, Purchase safety patrol belts, Purchase Safety Sally, Purchase magazines for school, Give identification tags to students, Purchases glasses for needy, Provide film service, Provide records fer victrola, Provide supplies for school garden, Provide eye clinic, Provide science specimens. SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS rendering services to their schools (Table l or groups of organizations were listed. The 123). Fifty-two different organizations 2 most frequently named agencies were the Table 123 COllllllunity Agencies Rendering Services to the Schools ~-­ Size of School According to Number of Teachers Total l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up No. 1> No. 1> No 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No . 1> No. 1> No. 1> l. P.T.A. 7 27 15 63 38 72 135 76 111 85 56 85 23 88 5 71 14 70 404 38 2. Mothers Clubs 2 8 3 13 6 11 23 13 16 12 6 9 3 12 l 14 2 10 62 12 3. Fathers Clubs l 4 l 2 l l 3 2 2 10 8 2 4. Luncheon Clubs 3 6 27 15 38 29 17 26 8 31 3 43 4 20 100 19 5. Patriotic Societies 2 8 2 4 35 20 30 23 13 20 6 23 4 20 9? 17 6. Merchants and Bus. Ori~mizations 4 17 11 21 43 24 28 21 16 24 8 31 l 14 2 10 113 21 7. Religious ana De­ nomination.al groups 2 8 5 21 12 23 36 20 35 27 17 26 7 27 l 14 4 20 119 22 8. Charity groups l 4 4 8 20 11 23 18 14 21 6 23 l 14 5 25 74 14 9. Welfare Organ. l 4 2 8 13 25 51 28 63 48 30 45 13 50 4 57 7 35 184 35 10. Adult study group l 4 2 4 9 5 9 7 6 9 4 15 31 6 11. Red Cross 3 12 2 8 17 32 80 45 75 57 33 50 12 46 2 29 12 60 236 44 12. T. B. Ass'n. l 4 2 8 8 15 55 31 53 40 24 36 6 23 2 29 10 50 161 30 13. Org. made up of students(boy Scouts) l 4 10 19 59 33 54 41 24 36 12 46 l 14 9 45 170 32 14. Public Library 4 15 2 8 12 23 91 51 78 60 43 65 19 73 2 29 11 55 262 49 15· City or County Health Dept. 6 23 4 12 21 40 82 46 68 52 43 65 13 50 3 43 11 55 251 47 16. Zoos 2 4 3 2 12 9 6 9 l 4 l 14 3 15 28 5 17. Radio Station l 4 2 8 4 8 30 17 43 33 24 36 5 19 l 14 5 25 115 22 18. Newapaper 5 19 8 33 17 32 99 55 85 65 37 56 12 46 l 14 9 45 273 51 19. Fire Dept. 11 22 82 46 93 70 45 68 14 54 6 86 14 70 265 50 20. Police Dept. 4 8 76 42 87 66 42 64 14 54 5 71 14 70 242 45 21. Juvenile Court ~ 4 37 21 51 39 30 45 11 42 4. 57 8 40 143 27 22. W. P. A. 2 8 8 33 14 26 32 18 35 27 15 23 4 15 l 14 7 35 118 22 23. Gov't. Bldgs. 6 3 15 11 8 12 l 4 3 15 33 6 24. Public Bldgs. 21 12 13 10 12 18 2 8 4 20 52 10 25. Industrial plants 14 8 22 17 14 21 3 12 7 35 60 11 26. Libraries 3 12 4 17 13 25 51 28 58 44 28 42 11 42 2 29 9 45 179 34 27. Museums l 2 31 17 26 20 14 21 6 23 3 43 7 35 88 17 28. Transportation systems 2 8 4 17 8 15 19 11 29 22 13 20 6 23 l 14 4 20 86 16 ~9. COllllllUilication systems 30. Stores Bl. Publishing houses 2 8 l 4 l 4 l 4 3 6 10 19 5 9 16 9 47 26 14 8 27 21 37 28 22 17 4 6 15 23 6 9 3 12 4 15 2 8 4 20 6 30 2 10 57 11 122 23 53 10 B2. Construction work ~3. Miscellaneous * 3 5 5 3 13 7 5 4 6 4 l 2 l 4 10 2 24 3 No reply 10 38 3 13 4 8 13 7 4 3 l 2 l 4 2 10 38 7 Total schools in each group 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 * Children's Service League, Park Department, S.P.C.A., University, Special picture shows, Lions Club, Highway depart­ment, State Department of Instruction, State Department of Health, Garden Club, N.Y.A., Teachers College, Camnunity Chest, Camnunity Club, Government surplus camnodities, Women's Club, Adelante Club, American Autanobile Ass'n., l'oundation. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES newspaper and the fire department, l'eported by 51 and 50 per cent, respectively, of the principals. Six other agencies appeared prominently in the returns, namely, the P. T.A., welfare organizations, Red Cross, the public library, city or county health de­partment ana police department. Cooperation With Publicity Efforts of Outside Organizations In nearly every community there are some outside organizations with whose pub­ licity efforts the school cooperates. It may be a drive for Christmas baskets for the poor, the sale of defense stamps and bonds, or a ticket sale for a benefit affair put on by a local service club. In the sev­eral tables which follow the practices of the schools are summarized. The use of assembly speakers in one way or another ~as reported for 47 per cent of the schools (Table 124). The most common practice was for the school to permit a Table 124 Assembly Speakers Used by the School in Cooperating With the Publicity Ef'forts of Outside Organizations Size of School According to Number of Teachers 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> Io. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> 1. School requests speaker to appear to advertise the article, organization, or event 1 4 3 13 8 15 34 19 28 21 12 18 8 31 3 15 97 le 2. School permits speaker to mention same article or event in an educational lecture 4 15 1 4 12 23 46 25 38 29 32 48 4 15 4 57 1 5 142 21 3. School permits speaker to solicit funds from pupils 1 4 1 2 18 10 11 8 5 8 2 8 1 14 2 10 41 e 4. School children drama­ tize or give assembly talks to interest persons in later paid programs of outside organizations 1 2 22 12 19 15 11 17 5 19 3 43 1 5 62 l~ 5. An Appeal is made thro' the principal and teachers 2 1 1 1 3 1 6. The central office aIL"(lounces and the teachers follow l l 1 .1 7. Speakers used to in­ troduce war stamp contests 1 4 1 2 2 .3 8. Speakers used to introduce scrap drive contests 1 4 1 2 2 .3 9, Speakers talk at Victary Concerts l 1 1 .1 10. Teachers sponsor various war drives 1 1 1 .1 11. P.T.A. sponsors various events 1 1 1 .1 No reply 21 81 19 79 33 62 91 51 65 50 26 393 11 42 2 29 16 80 284 53 Total schools in each group 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 177 SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS speaker to mention some article or event in an educational talk to the pupils. It is evident from the data that schools general­ly do not permit the publicity agents of out&ide organizations to appear before the student body. Ways in which the schools cooperate with outside organizations in the latter's efforts to raise funds for charity are por­trayed in Table 125. School participation in tt>.is type of enterprise was reported for only 53 per cent of the schools. The most common of the practices was for the teach­ers and pupils ~o put on the event and then give the funds to charity. Participation in contests sponsored by outside organizations was reported for 60 per cent of the schools (Table 126). Practices in regard to contest range all the way from active sponsorship by the school.. to obtain money or prizes for the scho~l to actively discouraging pupils from entering all contests sponsored by outside organizations. When equipment is loaned from com­mercial houses or other community agencies it becomes necessary in many cases to ex­press appreciation for such loan in a way which may appear like advertising that com­pany's product. Use of such equipment loans and practices in expressing appreciation for them were described in 52 per cent of the returns (Table 127). The most common prac­tice, reported for 31 per cent of the school~ was for the school to express publicly its appreciation f·or such loan. In 15 per cent of the schools equipment loans were not re­quested or accepted. Some schools have given considerable thought to the development of policies re­garding equipment gifts which carry adverti­sing in one or more forms and regarding the retention of producers' names on articles purchased by the school. Apparently these Table 125 Events to Raise Funds for Charity Used by the School 1n Cooperating with Publicity Efforts of Outside Organizations Size of School According to Number of Teachers l 2 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> Ho. '1> Ho. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> .1. Events put on by pupils and teachers, funds given to charity 3 12 2 8 12 23 51 28 42 32 23 35 9 35 4 57 9 45 155 29 2 • . Events put on by pupils and teachers, part of funds retained by school 3 12 6 25 7 13 34 19 28 21 20 30 8 31 2 29 2 10 110 21 3. Event sponsored by teachers, all funds given to charity 4 8 14 8 !..8 14 10 15 3 12 2 29 3 15 54 10 4. Teachers give active assistance 1n sponsor­ 1ng the event 5 19 6 25 11 21 56 31 49 37 27 41 8 31 4 57 3 15 169 32 5. Event put on by P.T.A. and teachers 3 2 3 l 6. Teachers pay annual amount to be paid from office 1 2 2 .1 7. Tickets are sold in the Office l 5 1 .1 8. Boy and Girl Scouts put on a drive for the needy 1 2 8 12 9 2 Ho reply 19 73 15 63 35 66 82 46 57 44 17 26 13 50 1 14 9 45 248 47 Total schools 1n each group 26 24 53 179 131 66 26 7 20 532 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES issues had not loomed large in the schools included in this study since responses to this item were obtained from only 38 per cent of the respondents (Table 128}. Pre­vailing practice in these schools seems to be one of unconcern about advertising at­tached to school equipment. Frequently schools are called upon to promote the sale of tickets for one thing or another. The nature of the schools' participation in selling tickets to events sponsored by outside organizations is por­traied in Table 129. Note that no one policy was reported for more than 29 per cent of the schools. Practi.ces regarding the use of prined materials obtained without cost to the school are summarized in Table 130. The Table 126 Contests Used by School in Cooperating with the Publicity Efforts of Outside Ot-SIUlizations 1. Contests prcmoted by outside organizations actively sponsored by the school to obtain money or prizes far Size of School According to Number of Teachers Total No. ;, 1 No. ;, 2 No. ;, 3-5 No. ;, 6-10 No. ;, 11-15 No. ;, 16-20 No. ;, 21-25 No. ;, 26-30 No. ;, 31-up No. ;, the school 2. Contests promoted by outside organizations actively sponsored by the school far educa­ 3 12 6 25 12 23 26 15 28 21 14 21 2 8 1 14 93 11 tional values only 3. Children are 1nformed of the contest by annoucement or posters on bulletin boards but the school takes no further steps to pro­ 3 12 3 13 6 ll 46 26 42 32 30 45 6 23 3 43 5 25 143 27 mote the contest 4. School staff makes no effort to publicize the contest but nei­ther does it take steps to assist or to pre­vent students frcm 1 4 2 4 8 15 41 23 41 31 17 26 8 31 3 43 6 30 126 24 participating 5. School staff actively discourages pupils frcm entering all con­tests sponsored by 4 8 24 13 25 19 19 29 4 15 3 43 6 30 84 16 outside organization 6. Only Bond sales contests are encouraged by the 1 4 1 2 5 3 11 8 1 2 1 3 1 14 4 20 25 5 school 1 4 1 .1 No reply Total schools in 21 81 15 63 31 58 75 42 40 31 14 21 7 27 2 29 7 35 213 40 each group 26 24 53 179 132 66 26 7 20 532 SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS Table 127 Loan of Equipment Used by School in Cooperating with Publicity Efforts of Outside Organizations Size of School According to Number of Teachers 21 16-20 Total 6-10 21-25 26-30 31-up11-153-5 No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No . No. '1> No. '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '1> '!> '1> 1. Appreciation for loan of equipment is ex­pressed publicly 1 4 5 21 20 30 64 36 167 3115 28 5 19 2 2949 37 6 39 2. Equipment loans are accepted but no public acknowledgment is g1ven before pupils ar patrons 2 41 4 8 124 3 2 29 13 7 32 63 7 3. Eg.Jlipment loans are not requested or accepted 3 12 24 13 3 1214 21 3 13 8 15 17 13 3 43 3 15 78 15 No reply 22 85 16 67 81 45 16 6229 55 11 5523 35 257 48 Total schools in each group 59 45 26 24 26 20131 66 179 53 5327 Table 128 Gifts of Equipment Used by the School in Cooperating with Publicity Efforts of Outside Organizations ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 129 Children's Help in Selling Tickets Soliciting Membership or Money Used by the School in Cooperating with Publicity Ei'forts of Outside Organizations Size of School According to Number of Teachers l 2 3-5 6-10 ll-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-up Total No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> l'lo. 1> l. Teachers actively promote children' s particiaption 3 12 6 25 12 23 47 26 45 34 19 29 5 19 l 14 2 10 141 26 2. Agents are permitted to appear before pu­ pile in school to solicit children's participati 2 No. 1> Size of School According to Number of Teachers 3-5 6-10 ll-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> No. 1> 31-up No. 1> Total No. 1> l. Appreciation for f'ree materials is expressed publicly to pupils and to patrons 2. Printed material with attached advertising is used provided the content is accurate and unbiased 3. btlterials with attached advertising and erpres­sing biased view are used 4. Advertising space is sold in school annual 5. No advertising space is given in any school publication No reply Total schools in each group 5 5 19 26 19 19 73 3 l 29 24 13 4 83 12 10 l 2 34 53 23 19 2 4 64 43 64 l 17 17 83 179 24 36 l 9 9 46 45 52 l ll 12 49 131 34 4o l 8 9 37 15 24 l 4 8 27 66 23 36 2 5 12 41 3 9 3 ll 26 12 35 12 42 l 2 l 3 2 7 14 29 15 43 29 5 6 3 2 10 20 25 30 15 10 5 132 25 173 33 3 l 37 7 47 9 255 48 532 SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS Table 131 School Publications Used by School in Cooperatiog with Publicity Efforts of Outside Cll"ganizations l No. '1> 2 No. '1> Size of School According to Number of Teachers 3-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> No. '1> 26-30 No. '1> 31-up No. '1> Total No. '1> l. Advertising space is sold in the programs for school events 2. Donations or loans or materials are aJJilounced 1n printed programs far school events 3. Advertising space is sold in the school paper 4. Advertising space-is sold in the school aJJilual 5. Advertisiog space is given to school patrons in the school paper 6. No advertising space is given to school patrons in llIJY school publication No reply Total schools in each group l l 23 26 4 4 88 l 23 24 4 96 3 l 2 2 l 46 53 6 2 4 4 2 87 15 8 15 8 16 9 13 7 17 9 127 71 179 14 10 13 11 22 87 131 11 8 10 8 17 66 7 6 6 2 5 44 66 11 9 9 3 8 67 3 2 2 4 17 26 12 8 8 15 65 2 3 2 7 29 43 29 l l l 3 13 20 5 5 5 15 65 44 8 35 7 38 7 33 6 l .1 55 10 382 72 532 Table 132 Visual Aids Used by School in Cooperating with Publicity Efforts of Outside Cll"ganizations Size rJ'f School According to Number of Teachers l. Free films and slides with attached advertisiog are used providing the content is accurate and unbiased 2. Illustrated lecture with attached adver­tisiog is used pro­vid1ng the content is accurate and un­biased 3. Exhibits with at­tached advertisiog are used 4. Posters with attached advertising are used 5. No reply Total schools in each ·group l No. '1> 4 15 2 8 7 27 17 65 26 2 No. '1> 2 8 l 4 2 8 7 29 16 67 24 3-5 No. '1> 14 26 5 9 6 11 7 13 44 83 53 6-10 No. '1> 93 52 4o 22 36 20 45 25 78 44 179 11-15 No. '1> 83 66 35 27 39 30 44 34 40 32 131 16-20 No. '1> 34 52 14 21 18 27 22 33 26 39 66 21-25 No. '1> 17 65 5 19 8 31 12 46 5 19 26 26-30 No. '1> 4 57 l 14 l 14 3 43 7 31-up Total No. No. '1> '1> 14 70 265 50 110 21 9 45 4 20 115 22 5 25 150 28 6 30 235 44 20 532 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES impression one gets from the data in Table 130 is that the schools are very cautious in the use of free materials to make sure that the content is accurate and unbiased. School publications such as an­nuals and newspapers are not as common for elementary schools as for high schools. This may be one reason why only 20 per cent of the principals responded to that portion of the questionnaire which asked about school publication advertising practice. Apparently all of the usual policies regard­ing advertising space or ac"knowledgements prevail in some elementary schools (Table 131), although no one practice was reported for more than 10 per cent of the schools. Advertising and publicity practices regarding visual aids must be developed in all schools which use visual aids. In 50 per cent of the schools in this study free films and slides with attached adver­tising are used if the content is accurate and unbiased (Table 132). The various per­ centages shown of the different practices in Table 132 are indicies of the extent to which the different types of visual aids are used rather than an index showing that only a limited per centage of schools follow each practice. Throughout the study the respond­ents were urged to answer only those items which were pertinent to their schools. If a school did not use exhibits, that item was left unchecked. The implication likewise is that these various types of visual aids were used in only 56 per cent of the schools so that if 50 per cent of the schools fol­ lowed a given practice it means that nearly all of those using visual aids of the types identified in this section of the study were following that practice. All items in Table 132 should be viewed from this angle. CHAPTER 13 OFFICE PRACTICES Office practices in any school are Table 134 conditioned by the physical facilities which are available for the administrative center of the school. In approximately 20 per Location of Elementary School Offices cent of the 532 schools no provisions had been made for a principal's office (Table 133). The absence of a principal's office Total No. % was not confined to the 1-teacher and 2­teacher schools. In only 69 per cent of the schools did the office consist of a space specifically planned for office pur­poses when the building was constructed. Table 133 Types of Offices Found in Elementary Schools Type Total No. % 1. No special space set aside for an office 2. Ann unused classroom 58 11 converted into an office 3, An unused nook converted 13 2 into an office 4. A space especially planned for office purposes when 42 6 building was constructed 5. Room remodeled for office 368 69 purposes 1 No reply 50 9 T.otal number of schools 532 In 48 per cent of the schools (Ta­ble 134) the office located on the first floor; in 51 per cent of the cases it was located near the front entrance (although not necessarily on the first floor) and in 35 per cent of the schools the office was located in a central place in the building. Nine miscellaneous locations were reported (Table 134). The essential features of office floor plans were reported for 57 per cent 1. On first floor 255 48 2. On second floor 85 16 3. Locations other than first or second floor 3 1 4. Near the front entrance 273 51 5. Central in the building 184 35 6. Not centrally located 9 2 7. Near the rear entrance 4 1 8. Near principal's teaching room 2 -­ 9. End of long hall 2 -­ 10. Near side entrance 2 -­ 7; _,, 1 11. Part of a classroom 12. Location very inconvenient 11 2 13. No office 5 1 No reply 104 20 Total number of schools 532 of the schools (Table 135). In half of these cases (26 per cent of the 532 schools) the office lay-out provided only a single all-purpose room. A private conference room for the principal was available in only 20 per cent of all schools. A general review of the essential features of elementary school offices as summarized in Table 135 leaves much to be desired in terms of pre­ sent-day standards. No doubt the office practices portrayed in the remainder of this chapter are conditioned by the circumstances under which office practices must be carried forward in these schools Use of the Office The questionnaires revealed 16 dif­ferent purposes for which principals' offices were used. General administration, tele­ 183 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINIS'l'RATIVE PRACTICES Table 135 Essential Features of Office Floor Plans in Elementary Schools Total No. % 1. Office lay-out provides only a single all-purpose room 137 26 2. Health and first-aid room contiguous to the office 20 4 3. Private conference room for the principal 107 20 4. Private exit from principal 1 s office 6 1 5. Private toilet room for the principal 76 14 6. Outer waiting room for office callers 92 17 7. Teachers' mail and supply boxes 22 4 8. Counter arrangement for the outer office 32 6 9. Bookroom and/or supply room included in office suite 91 17 7; 10. Radio control cabinet 14 _, 11. Overall dimensions of the office suite: Less than 200 square feet 65 12 200 -300 57 11 301 -400 31 6 401 -500 20 4 501 -600 10 2 601 -700 7 1 701 -1000 7 1 Above 1000 square feet 7; _, 1 12. Public address system 8 2 13. Faculty lounge 19 4 No reply 227 43 Total number of schools 532 telephoning, as a waiting room, for teach• ers' meetings, as a storage and supply room, and as a medical room were the 5 uses re­ported for 20 per cent or more of the schools (Table 136). Office Personnel and Time Devoted to Office Work In chapter 11 data were presented which showed that in 413 of the 532 schools there were persons designated as princi­pals; the remaining schools were 1-teacher or 2-teacher schools or other small schools in which the superintendent also served as principal of the elementary school. It was also shown that there were 41 schools in which there were assistant principals. In addition to these two types of persons, infonnation in a subse­quent portion of the questionnaire re­vealed that there were 124 schools in which there were secretaries, 94 of whom were full-time and 25 half-time employees. Table 136 Purposes for Which Principals' Offices Are Used Total Uses No. % 1. General Administration 511 96 2. Telephoning 335 63 7; _,. Waiting room 184 35 4. Teachers' meetings 137 26 5. Storage and supply room 109 20 6. Medical room 105 20 7. PTA committee room 96 18 8. Resting place for teachers or pupils 52 10 9. Library 44 8 7; 10. Class recitation 14 _, 11. Lunch room 7 1 12. Conference room 6 1 7; 13. Board of Education meetings _, 1 ] 4. Defense center 1 -­OFFICE PRACTICES 185 serve part-time as office assi·stants and in 46 schools pupils served as part-time office assistants. The·se figures thus portray the total picture as far as office personnel is concerned in the 532 schoo1s. Table 137 presents certain additional facts regarding time devoted to office work by principals, assistant principals, and secretaries. Note that 38 per cent of the 413 principals, 9 per cent of the assistant principals, and 37 per cent of the secre­taries were reported as devoting 1 or more hours on Saturdays to office work. Table 137 also shows the estimated fraction of office time devoted to planned and unplanned Table 137 Selected Facts Regarding Time Devoted to Office Work No. of hours on Saturday devoted to office work 1. Principals a No. of Hrs. 0 1 2 ~ _, 4 Varies 2. Assistant Principal b 0 1 2 3 3. Secretary c 0 Per cent of persons 25 4 10 9 7 8 32 2 5 2 37 Fraction of office time devoted to planned activities Percentage of time 0-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100 Varies 0-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100 Varies 0-20 Per cent of persons 6 13 24 15 ~ _, 2 7 10 5 7 2 5 Fraction of office time devoted to un­planned activities Percentage of time Per cent of persons 0-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100 11 21 23 4 1 Varies 2 0-20 21-40 41060 61-80 81-100 7 7 10 -­-­ 0-20 21 1 2 ~ _, 4 5 Varies -· 2 20 11 1 3 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100 4 15 23 16 21-40 20 41-60 14 61-80 1 81-100 4 Varies 1 aPercentages based on 413, the number of principals shown in Table 107 b Percentages based on 41, the number of assistant principals shown in Table 107. Percentages based on 124, the number of secretaries reported. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES activities by each of these three groups of the office personnel. Unplanned activities refer to the unanticipated events which oc­cur in every school each day or every few days and must be attended to. Three addi­tional observations seem warranted by the data in Table 137. There is a marked dif­ference among principals .and among assist­ant princtpals in the fraction of office time devoted to planned and unplanned act­ivities: in each of these two groups are some individuals who use practically all of their office time for the performance of planned activities, whereas others find practically no office time for planned act­iv~ties and give nearly all of their office time to incidental or unplanned tasks. The implication of thses two extremes of prac­tice for administration and for educational leadership by the principal is clearly evi­dent. Principals and assistant principals distribute themselves in about the same proportions in relationship to the percent­age of office time devoted to planned and unplanned activities. A larger proportion of the secretaries, on the other hand, gave a larger percentage of their time to plan­ned activities and a proportionately smal­ler fraction of their time to unplanned ac­tivities. Duties and Activities of Office Personnel In section 13 of the questionnaire an effort was made to obtain a picture of the scope and allocation of the duties and activities of the office personnel. This portion of the questionnaire was answered by 409 or 77 per cent of the respondents. The replies are summarized in Table 138. All 51 activities in the suggested list were checked by one or more respond­ents as being perfonned by some member of the office staff. Although no additional items were appended to the suggested list by the persons who filled out the blanks, it is quite certain that the 51 activities do not comprise an all-inclusive list of duties performed by the office personnel. It must be remembered, however, that in this portion of the study only office prac­tices were being inventoried. Several generalizations are evident fron Table 138. In the category of assign­ed work with time planned for it, the ma­jority of the 51 activities were performed by each of the 5 groups of persons who com­prise the office personnel; in some schools a given activity was assigned to the princi­pal, in others the same activity was perfor­ed by the assistant principal, the secretary, a teacher serving part-time in the office, or by a pupil assistant. All 51 of the act­ivities were perfonned by principals in some schools and by secretaries in other schools. Only 5 of the 51 activities (items 39, 40, 42, 43, and 50) were not assigned to assist­ant principals. Teachers serving part-time in the office performed almost the same array of duties as assistant principals. Thirty­three of the 51 activities had been assigned to pupil assistants in 1 or more schools. This generous distribution of activities among the 5 groups of persons comprising the office personnel raises some fundamental questions about the organization of office work in elementary schools, the use of the principal's time, the infringements which office duties place upon the leadership role of the principal, and the need for secretar­ial assistance in elementary school offices. Certainly when pupil assistants can be as­ signed 33 out of 51 activities and when secretaries can be assigned all of the same list of office duties as principals engage in, some way ought to be found for better u­ tilization of the professional training of the principal. There is very little difference be­tween the distribution to various members of the office staff of the activities designated as "assigned work" and those designated as being handled "incidentally". Apparently most of the activities occur in both the planned and the unplanned portions of office duties or are handled as planned activities in some schools and as unplanned ones in other schools. In the category of assigned work with time planned for it, only 5 of the 51 activities (items 8, 9, 29, 35, and 49) were performed by 50 per cent or more of the principals in the 409 schools represented in this part of the study; no one of these 5 items, nor any of the other 46 items, was checked for as many as 50 per cent of the principals in the category of unplanned or incidentally handled duties. A total of 26 of the 51 activities were designated as as­signed work for 25 per cent or more of the principals whereas only 7 of the 51 activi­ties were handled incidentally by as many as 25 to 35 per cent of the principals. Thirteen of the 51 activities (items OFFICE PRACTICES Table 138 Duties and Activities of Office Personnel !Assigned work, time planned for 11.t, perforJ1!6d by: la 166* 177 68 74 139 128 101 249 211 38 123 165 183 196 109 81 50 145 148 106 63 87 93 88 18 5 31 25 2o8 137 186 131 149 73 209 59 185 2b 7* 9 4 3 7 5 2 8 5 1 4 5 4 4 3 4 4 5 4 3 1 2 2 7 3 2 3 2 3 4 5 6 6 2 3 4 5 3c 81* 87 82 77 83 40 34 3 4 32 47 30 59 43 74 4 10 21 12 11 11 4 13 51 43 90 27 16 9 2 10 69 73 41 81 9 35 4.l No. : . Ordinarily the teacher dispenses the supplies to the patient 295 55 4. The pupil treats himself if the case is a minor one 93 17 5. Some first aid supplies are stored in the classrooms and/or gymnasiums 169 32 6. Records are kept of the cases treated 109 20 7. Nurse dispenses materials 73 14 8. Custodian dispenses supplies 1 -­No reply 41 8 Total number of schools 532 of the principal in handling lost and found articles is revealed by items 1, 4, and 8, in Table 144. Student committees were re­sponsible for handling found articles in 11 per cent ofthe schools. Table 144 Practices Regarding Lost and Found Ar·ticles 1. It is the principal's duty to receive lost and found articles 2. It is the secretary's duty to receive lost and found articles ">: / . It is .the duty of a student committee to receive such articles 4. The principal returns the a rticles 5. The secretary returns the articles No. '/, 258 49 llO 21 61 160 91 ll 30 17 Total OFFICE PRACTICES 191 Table 144 (Continued) Table 145 (Continued) Total No. % Total No. % 6. A student committee re­turns the articles 7. The articl~s are displayed 8. Announcements regarding lost and found articles are posted on the bulletin board 9. A written report is kept of the handling of these articles 10. Custodian handles lost and found articles 11. Teacher receives lost and found articles 12. One teacher takes charge 13. Handled by school nurse No reply Total number of schools 77 284 116 14 5 8 7 2 62 532 14 53 22 .,._ / 1 2 1 -­12 Loud Speaker System Only 10 per cent of the schools were equipped with loud speaker systems (Table 145). Ten different uses of the loud spea:rnr system were identified by the principals who had them in their buildings. Apparently pupil use of a centralized loud speaker system had not developed extensively in these schools. T1;3.ble 145 Practices Regarding the Use of the Loud Speaker System Total No. % 1. The speaker system is used according to a schedule 2. The speaker system is used at the beginning of the school day 3. The speaker system is used at near the middle of the day 4. The system is used at the end of the school day 5. Special announcements are given at unscheduled times 17 16 8 11 31 .,._ / .,._ / 2 2 6 6. The system is used to converse with individual teachers or classes 7. The system is used for broadcasting programs to the rooms 8. Pupils have access to the system on oc casions 9. The system is used to listen in on an individual room 10. Student committees make announcements No reply (or no loud­speaker system) Total number of schools 26 5 41 8 .,._.,._ // 6 11 2 1 - 481 90 532 Professional Library Information regarding a professional library for teachers (Table 146) was supplied in 68 per cent of the reports. In 24 per cent of the schools the professional library was the personal property of the faculty members whereas in 41 per cent of the schools it was provided by the Board of Education. As a rule the professional libraries were small, consisting of less than 50 books and less than 10 periodicals. In only 21 per cent of the schools was the professional li­brary used as a basts for faculty study groups. Use of the library by members of the teaching staff was reported for 57 per cent of the schools, a rather high percentage of the schools which had a professional library in the building. Table 146 Practices Regarding the Use of the Professional Library Total No. % 1. 2. The contents belong to the administrative or teaching staff personally The contents are supplied by the Board of Education 129 219 24 41 ORGANIZATIONAL AUD ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 146 (Continued) rp,..,tal No. 'f, 3. The members of the a.dmini­stra.tive staff use the library 195 37 4. The members of the teaching staff use the library 302 57 5. The ma.teria.ls ma.y be ta.ken from the office 312 59 6. A record is kept of mate­rials from the office 235 44 7. This library forms one basis for faculty study groups 111 21 8. Number of books a.va.ila.ble: 1 -50 129 24 51 -100 54 10 101 -200 37 7 201 -500 26 5 501 -up 18 ./ 7; 9. Number of different period- lea.ls a.va.ila.ble: 1 -5 84 16 6 -10 100 19 11 -20 24 5 21 -30 6 1 31 -up 14 2 No reply (or no professional library) 169 32 Total number of schools 532 Teachers' Ma.il Boxes Ma.il boxes f~r teachers were a.va.il­able in the pr1ncipa.1 1 s office in 42 per cent of the schools (Table 147) . Ma.il boxes were used most commonly for the dis­tribution of ma.il a.nd notices to teachers a.nd were used to distribute supplies in only 17 per cent of the schools. Distribution of Supplies Practices regarding the distribu­tion of supplies were reported for 87 per cent of the schools. Twenty different pra.c tices (Table 148) were identified in the different reports. A system of written re­quisitions wa.s used in 50 per cent of the schools. The role of the principal in supply management is revealed by items 2 and 6 in Table 148. The use of pupil assistants is revealed by items 8 and 14. Table 147 Practices Regarding the Use of Teachers' Mail Boxes rp,.., ..,.,, No. 'f, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. The teachers' boxes a.re used to distribute ma.il The boxes are used to distribute supplies The boxes a.re used to distribute notices The boxes ma.y be locked The principal places the items in the boxes The secretary places the items in the boxes The teachers place the items in the boxes Pupils place the items in the boxes Custodian places mail No reply (or no teachers' ma.il boxes) 210 89 195 8 172 108 90 38 1 310 39 17 37 2 32 20 17 7 -­58 Total number of schools 532 Use of the Telephone Telephones were ava.ila.ble in 78 per cent of the schools. The various practices regarding the use of the telephone a.re port­rayed in Table 149. The prevailing policy wa.s to ca.11 teachers or pupils to the tele­phone only between classes or a.t recess or noon periods a.nd to restrict pupil use of the office telephone to such cases as merit special permission. Use of the Office Typewrit&rs Practices regarding the use of the office typewriter a.re shown in Table 150. Note tha.t office typewriters were not a.vail­a.ble in 27 per cent of the schools. Teachers ha.d access to the office typewriter in 53 per cent of the places whereas pupils were allowed to use the typewriter in only 9 per cent of the schools. OFFICE PRACTICES Table 148 Practices Regarding the Distribution of Supplies 1. Written requisition are placed by the teachers periodically for supplies 2. The principal checks the classrooms periodically to note status of supplies 3, The secretary checks the classrooms periodically to note status of supplies 4. The office maintains an account of supplies obtained by each teacher 5, The secretary is responsible for passing out supplies 6. The principal is responsible for passing out supplies 7. Teachers have access to supplies and check them out for themselves 8. Students deliver the supplies 9, The custodian delivers the supplies 10. The secretary delivers the supplies 11. The principal issued test materials 12. The secretary issues test materials 13. The teacher::i have access to the test materials 14. Pupils assist in distribution 15. One teacher distributes materials 16. Psychologist issues test materials 17. Supervisor issues test materials 18. Superintendent distributes materials 19. Vice-principal issues materials 20. Librarian handles supplies No reply Total No. 268 118 14 197 88 262 132 122 107 42 235 25 110 1 3 1 2 2 2 2 69 "' 50 22 3 37 17 49 25 23 20 8 44 5 21 -­1 -­-­-­-­-­13 Total number of schools 532 Table 149 Practices Regarding the Use of the Telephone Total No. '/> 1. Principal receives the calls 310 58 2. Secretary receives the calls 162 30 3. Teacher receives the calls 124 23 4. Pupil receives the calls 137 26 5, Principal notifies the person called 220 41 6. Secretary notifies the person called 141 27 7. Teacher notifies person called 83 16 8. Pupil notifies person called 145 27 9. People are called to the phone at any time during classes 92 17 10. People are called to the phone only between classes 165 35 11. People are called to the phone only during rest periods (recess. or noon) 137 12. Pupils are allowed to use phone without special permission 36 13. There is a phone primarily for use of students 16 14. Librarian receives calls 1 No reply (or no telephone} 116 22 Total number of schools 532 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 150 Practices Regarding the Use of the Typewriter 1. The principal uses the typewriter 2. The teachers use the typewriter 3. The pupils use the typewriter 4. The secTetary does typing for the teachers 5. The secretary does typing for the pupils 6. The typewriter is not moved from the office 7. Records are kept of its removal from the office 8. Permission for its use is received from a member of the office force No reply (or no typewriter) Total number of schools A. Number of filing cabinets Total No. 'f, 271 51 283 53 47 9 145 27 65 12 208 39 28 5 74 14 146 27 532 Practices Regarding the Use in principal's office: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 and up No reply Table 151 Filing Cabinets and Filing Practices Table 151 summarizes the information submitted on filing cabinets and filing prac­tices. Office filing cabinets were reported as available in 70 per cent of the schools, the number of such cabinets ra~..ging from 1 to 9 or more. Metal filing cabinets were reported by 33 per cent of the principals. In practically all schools which have filing cabinets the filing is done by the principal or the secretary: teachers and pupils participate in filing in only 11 or fewer per cent of schools. Twenty-two different kinds of reports were compiled regularly in the principal's office in 1 or more schools. The attendance report, an annual report and a financial re­port were the only types of reports compiled regularly in as many as 27, 22, and 39 per cent, respectively, of the schools. Whatever reports were compiled in the principal 1 s office were invariably prepared by the prin­cipal or the teachers, secretaries being named in this connection in only 17 per cent of the schools. Among the 291 kinds of records kept of Filing Cabinets* B. Kind of filing cabinets in principal's office: 1. Metal 2. Cardboard 3. Wooden 4. Letter 5. Card None No reply *Percentages throughout this table are based on 532. OFFICE PRACTICES Table 151 (Continued) C. Who usually does the filing? 1. Principal 2. Secretary; clerk 3. Teachers 4. Superintendent 5. Nurse 6. Pupils 7. N.Y.A. assistants 8. Director No reply Total No. 'fv 288 125 60 9 1 7 2 2 122 54 24 11 2 l 23 D. What reports are compiled regularly in your office? 1. Statistical 2. Monthly 3. Attendance 4. Annual 5. Test reports 6. Registration cards 7. Teacher ratings 8. Transportation 9. State reports 10. Age -grade 11. Census 12. Lunch report or milk report 13. Pennanent record 14. Supply reports and book record 15. Faculty data 16. Air-raid data 17. Building maintenance report 18. Semester 19. Reports to central office 20. Health check-up tests, vision, etc. 21. Standings of pupils; promotions 22. Six weeks 23. Quarterly 24. Financial No reply 3 73 144 119 51 29 6 3 17 16 11 14 73 68 19 1 3 24 12 39 63 28 9 39 194 1 14 27 22 10 5 1 1 3 3 2 3 14 13 4 1 5 2 7 12 5 E. Who compiles these reports? 1. Teachers 2. Principal 3. Secretary; clerk 4. Superintendent 5. Director 6. Nurse 7. Librarian 8. Doctor 9. Research assistant 10. N.Y.A. assistant 11. Student No reply 133 266 89 10 21 3 1 2 2 2 1 160 25 50 17 2 4 1 30 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 151 (Continued) Total No. % F. Kinds of records kept in files: 1. Daily attendance reports 2. Periodic summaries of attendance 3. Tardiness and unexcused absences 4. Cumulative individual pupil scholastic and attendance records 5. Cumulative individual pupil folders 6. Class period transfers 7. Record of action taken on discipline cases 8. Spec.ial permits 9. Special reports of unsatisfactory work 10. Health records of individual pupils 11. Daily programs of individual pupils 12. Periodic reports to parents 13. Pupils' examination papers 14. Summaries of test scores 15. Class lists 16. Census cards 17. Applications for teaching positions 18. Qualifications of faculty members 19. Record of teacher absences 20. List of substitute teachers 21. Teacher ratings 22. Inventory of equipment 23. Inventory of books 24. Inventory of supplies 25. College catalogs 26. School supply catalogs 27. Correspondence 28. Copies of official reports 29. Blank fonns No reply 260 310 204 348 163 74 174 142 132 278 108 l18 l16 305 212 142 84 135 247 250 l14 282 341 259 157 327 3.30 302 317 81 49 58 38 65 31 14 33 27 25 52 20 22 22 57 40 27 16 25 46 47 21 53 64 49 30 61 62 57 60 15 G. Which kinds of records are kept in each classroom? 1. Attendance repbrt 2. Textbook record 3. Class record 4. Health cards 5. Cumulative records 6. Reports to parents 7. Supply record 8. Register 9. Library report 10. Scholastic record 11. Census 12. Achievement and other test scores 13. Plan books. 14. Transportation records 15. Guidance records 16. All records kept in classroom 17. Promotions None No reply l19 21 63 24 52 52 1 57 68 4 21 2 1 4 8 1 ll 244 22 4 12 5 10 10 ll 1 13 1 4 1 2 2 46 OFFICE PRACTICES in the office files only 12 were being kept in approximately 50 per cent or more of the schools. These 12 types of re­cords, in order of frequency of mention, were: cumulative individual pupil scho­lastic and attendance record, inventory of books, correspondence, school supply catalogs, blank forms, periodic s-ummaries of attendance, copies of official reports, summaries of test scores, inventory of e­quipment, health records of individual pupils, daily attendance reports, and in­ventory of supplies. Seventeen different kinds of records were reported as being kept in classrooms. The attendance report was the only record kept in the classroom by as many as 22 per cent of the schools. The implication from the data in section G of Table 151 is that records of any kind are kept in the class­rooms in only 52 per cent of the schools. CHAPTER 14 THE PRINCIPAL IN THE ORGANIZATION FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Although the role of the principal in the organization and management of ele­mentary schools was evident in many of the preceding sections of this report, a spe­cial effort was made in this portion of the study to obtain a clearer picture of the administrative status of the principal. When the principals were asked "What are the school board regulations regarding the duties and responsibilities of the ele­mentary school principal?", specific items were named by 51 per cent of the respon­dents. Sixteen per cent of the total num­ber said that there were "no regulations". If the latter group is added to the 51 per cent who listed specific school board regu­lations, the sum includes 67 per cent of the 532 reports, or 87 per cent of the 413 schools for which the position of principal was reported in an earlier section of trn study. Fourteen different types of school board regulations (Table 152) were mention­ ed. Only 2 of these 14 items were listed for 20 per cent or more of the schools. As one index to administrative freedom within individual schools, the principals were asked to name the aspects of elementary school organization and management which were required to be uni­form for the entire city or county in addi­tion to the items expressed in school board regulations. Items of city-wide or county­wide uniformity were reported for 28 per cent of the schools. No one of the 30 different requirements for uniformity (Table 153) was named for more than 9 per cent of the schools. If the information Table 152 School Board Regulations Regarding the Duties and Responsibilites of the Elementary School Principal 1. Put into operation course of study, instructions, and Total No. 'f. standards of achievement 24 5 2. Supervision to check on achievement of standards 34 6 3. Carry out policies of central administration 86 16 4. Evaluate physical, social and educational conditions in the school 16 3 5. Make recommendations for improving conditions 15 3 6. Furnish professional leadership 15 3 7. Maintain comm·.mity relationships 16 3 8. Aid in teacher placement, selection, guidance, and training 9. Aid in determining and putting into operation an adequate 18 3 financial policy 9 2 10. Teaching 26 5 11. Supervise plant maintenance 52 10 12. Clerical work 34 6 13. Supervision of instruction 112 21 14. Administration 127 24 15. No regulations 86 16 No reply 174 33 Total number of schools 532 198 THE PRINCIPAL IN THE ORGANIZATION FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 199 Table 153 Aspects of Elementary School Organization and Administration Which Are Required to be Uniform for the Entire City or County Total No. 'f, 1. Transportation regulations 2. Testing program 3. Course of study 4. Salaries 5. Instructions of State Department of Education 6. Teacher ratings and qualifications 7. Number of years in elementary school 8. Length of teaching day 9. Teacher responsibilities 10. Time requirements 11. Health regulations 12. Entrance requirements 13. Departmental organization 14. Teaching of given subjects 15. Subjects taught 16. General schedule 17. Beginning and dismissal time 18. Permanent record 19. Minimum requirements 20. Report cards 21. Attendance reports and regulations 22. Promotion practices 23. Reports and records 24. Systems of ranking -classification 25. Building care 26. All aspects 27. Size of classes 28. Organization 29. Distribution of supplies and materials 30. Textbooks None No reply 2 6 l 8 30 l 10 6 2 26 2 l 2 23 7 8 l 3 11 12 30 4 3 13 30 14 47 8 5 9 l l 5 4 l 2 l 2 2 6 l l 2 6 3 9 2 l 2 13 13 72 2 2 14 58308 Total number of schools 532 as reported is truly representative of conditions as they prevail, two possible conclusions may be dr-awn, namely, that there is great diversity in the aspects of organization and management about which city-wide or county-wide uniformity is required, and that elementary school principals h9.ve an unusually wide range of freedom and independence in the organi­zation and administration of their own buildings. Special Programs Requested By Superintendents Another index to the administrative freedom of the principal is the extent to which principals ure engaged in carr·ying out special programs or activities re­quested by the superintendent. There is no intention here of implying that prin­cipals should not stand ready and w~lling to give wholehearted cooperatJon ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES to programs suggested by the superinten­dent. The only point that is being dis­cussed is one of fact as to the nature and extent of such requests from the superin­tendent. Table 154 lists 38 different kinds of activities or programs which principals are asked to carry out at the request of superintendents. The entire list of items was tabulate~ from reports from 38 per cent of the schools; presumably the prac­ tice was not sufficiently prominent in the other 62 per cent of the schools to merit a report by the respondent. Note that Table 154 Activities or Special Programs Requested by the Superintendent Total No. 'f, 1. Reports prepared 30 6 18 3 2. Instructional supervision 3. Maintenance supervision 3 1 4. Salvage drives and other war activities 58 11 81 15 5. Special entertainments and programs 2 6. Ticket sales 6 1 7. Testing program 8. Health check-up 5 1 14 3 9. Athletic program 1 10. Budget 11. Course of study 1 2 12. Activities set up by State Department 11 2 13. Professional meetings 14. Inventories 5 1 15. Keep permanent record files 3 1 16. Extra-curricular activities 30 6 17. Air raid drills 7 1 18. Fire drills 9 2 19. Policy of schools must be uniform 3 1 20. Cooperation with comnunity organizations 33 6 21. Public relations 6 1 22. Curriculum study, construction, and revision 10 2 1 23. Pay roll 2 24. Discipline 25. Lunch program, supervise lunchroom 4 1 26. Organization of in-service training 2 27. Visit in other schools 3 1 28. Exhibitions of school work 4 1 29. Interview teachers 1 30. Contribute to bulletin 3 1 31. Wide variety 16 3 32. Prepare transportation schedules 2 33. Remedial measures 2 34. Direct visual education program 1 35. General schedule or program 8 2 36. Furnish professional leadership 9 2 37. Displaying of flag 1 38. Ar·range for conferences 1 None 66 12 No reply 266 50 Total number of schools 532 THE PRINCIPAL IN THE ORGANIZATION FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION item 8, special entertainments and programs, is the only activity reported for as many as 15 per cent of the schools. Apparently principals have no just complaint that their time is being consumed by carrying out special programs or activities re­quested by the superintendent. Assista'nce Sought Fr·om Superintendents Only 59 per cent of the respondents indicated that the assistance of the super­intendent was sought in finding solutions to problems. In this connection it must be remembered that the position of superin­tendent was reported for only 67 per cent of the places represented in the study. The range or problems (Table 155) on which principals sought the advice and assistance of superintendents is broad, a tot~l of 24 different items having been named. Personnel problems were mentioned most frequently and were listed in 17 per cent of the returns. Local School Autonomy In Specific Management Problems The general trend of the data previously presented concerning the admini­strative freedo~ of the elementary school principal is in accord with the facts given in Table 156 which portray the degree of freedom accorded the elementary school principal in selected school management problems. Only with reference to the Table 155 Types of Problems upon Which the Elementary School Principal Solicits Advice and Assistance from the Superintendent 1. Civic problems 2. Promotion and failure problems 3. Truancy cases; irregular attendance 4. Problems of policy 5. Discipline questions 6. Requisitions and supply 7. Public relations problems 8. Instructional questions 9. Legal problems 10. Personnel problems 11. Questions of organization 12. Budget 13. Questions concerning buildings and grounds 14. Transfer cases 15. Financial questions 16. Curr·iculum problems, changes 17. Business organization and operation 18. Transportation problems 19. Pupil welfare questions 20. Administrative problems 21. Supervisory problems 22. Health problems 23. Management questions 24. Any difficult question None No reply Total number of schools Total No. % 3 21 14 61 71 39 37 25 2 92 33 l 19 13 10 29 2 4 2 12 2 l 15 84 12 208 532 l 4 3 11 13 7 7 5 17 6 4 2 2 5 l 2 3 16 2 39 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 156 Degree of Freedom Accorded the Elementary School Principal in Various School Management Problems* Problem No freedom No. % Some freedom within limits Complete freedom No. % No. % l. Classification of pupils 4 l 74 14 328 62 2. Promotion of pupils 7 l 115 22 289 54 3. Daily programs of teachers 6 l 126 24 266 50 4. Assignment of teachers to your building 131 25 134 25 60 11 5. Instructional assignments of teachers 41 8 116 22 177 33 6. Introduction or extension of department teaching 37 7 100 19 101 19 7. Development of co-curricular activities 7 l 89 17 225 42 8. Management of duties and activities of engineers 41 8 100 19 93 17 No reply--32 *Percentages in this tabls were calculated on the basis of 532. assignment of teachers to their buildings do as many as 25 per cent of the principals say th~t they have no freedom; 11 per cent of them, on the other hand, have complete freedo~ on teacher selection. Complete autonomy within their own buildings is ac­corded 62 per cent of the principals re­garding classification of pupils, 54 per cent regarding promotion of pupils, and 50 per cent regarding teachers' daily pro­grams. There were 5 other items in the list on which complete freedom was regis­tered by from 11 to 42 per cent of the respondents. Superintendents' and Supervisors' Relations to Elementary Schools In Chapter 11 certain facts were presented regarding the supervisory acti­vities of superintendents and supervisors so that in a sense the data of the next 2 tables represent a duplication. The only additional points brought out by Tables 157 and 158 are the more direct working relationships as they relate to the elementary school principal. Note that the superintendent's relationship to teachers and to the instructional program in elementary schools is direct to teachers or through supervisors in nearly 50 per cent of the cases and that sug­gestions from the superintendent to teach­ers through the principal were recorded for only 46 per cent of the schools. The "by-passed" role of the principal in the instructional program is even more evi­dent in Table 158 in which the working relationships of supervisors are tabulated. The data seem to show clearly that prin­cipals have only a very minor· role in re­lation to the instructional program in school systems in which general and special supervisors are employed. Administrative Responsibilities Desired by Principals As a final effort to determine the administrative status oft the principal the respondents were asked to describe the supervisory or administrative responsi­bilities which they did not have now. Replies to this inquiry were given by only 19 per cent of the principals. Eight per cent of them said that no additional responsibilities were desired and 11-per cent of them listed the 17 different items shown in Table 159· Note that no 1 of the 17 items was given by more than 3 per cent of the principals. Does this mean that principals are well pleased with THE PRINCIPAL IN THE ORGANIZATION FOR SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Table 157 Practices of School Superintendents in Relation to the Work in Elementary Schools ToNo. tal % 1. Superintendent visits classes 243 46 2. Superintendent makes suggestions directly to teachers 3. Superintendent makes suggestions to teachers through the 203 38 principal 4. Superintendent makes suggestions to teachers through 243 46 supervisors 5. Superintendent directs work of principals through 112 21 supervisors 6. Superintendent directs work of supervisors through prin­ 45 8 cipals 7. Superintendent directs principals and supervisors through 69 13 administrative assistants 44 8 8. Superintendent gives no direction 21 4 9. Superintendent directs work of principal directly 1.0 2 10. Superintendent directs work of supervisors 1 No reply 96 18 Total number of schools 532 Table 158 Practices of Supervisors in Relation to the Work in Elementary Schools Practiced by general supervisors (Frequency) 155 Practice Supervisors visit classes Supervisors make suggestions directly to Practiced by special supervi$ors (Fr·equency) 155 146 teachers Supervisors make suggestions about teaching 148 21 through the principal Supervisors call at the school at their own 26 127 initiative Supervisors call at school at the request 114 39 of principal Supervisors call at the school at the re­ 75 quest of teachers General supervisors direct the work of 82 23 special supervisors Supervisors determine policies and organi­zations to be administer·ed by the prin­ 7 21 cipal within each building Special supervisors direct the work of 10 4 general supervisors 3 4 Supervisors teach classes on visits No supervisors No reply 60 213 15 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Table 159 Supervisory or Administrative Responsibilities or Authorities that Principals Desire but Now do Not Have Total No. '/, 1. Selection of students for admission 2. Would like to assist in selection of teachers 3. Desire to assist in financial planning 4. Assistant principal is needed 5. Assistant is necessary 6. Full time clerk in office 7. More supervisory time needed 8. Supervisory duties more definite 9. Conditions too crowded now 10. More adequate testing program 11. Additional experimental work 12. Responsibility for curriculum development 13. More supervision from main office needed 14. Les·s consulting with main office desirable 15. Control over activities of Superintendent of Buildings, etc. 16. More confidence in Board. of Education 17. Closer contact with School Board None No reply 1 10 5 1 2 1 ll 2 2 316 1 2 1 2 1 ll 2 2 1 1 2 43 433 8 81 Total number of schools 532 their present administrative and super­visory roles and see few if any points at which the administrative channels could be cleared? Summary Comment No doubt the reader who has fol­lowed the discussion up to this point has a feeling that the various types of data which have been presented portray conflict­ing evidence. This seeming conflict in facts becomes more apparent as the data of chapter 11 are compared with the data in the present chapter. On the one hand the evidence shows the direct relationship between teachers and the superintendent and supervisors, thus implying a minor role for the principal in the pr·ogram of supervision and staff education. On the other hand the principals register for them­selves a really large degre~ of autonomy and administrative freedom in their own buildings. This appears like a contradic­tion. Actually it is not a contradiction or· inconsistency, but is merely further evi­dence of the restricted role of elementary school principals. In matters which are largely administrative, organizational, or clerical in nature the principal enjoys freedom and autonomy. Matters pertaining to the instructional progran are largely outside of his jurisdiction and apparently the principals have reconciled themselves to a minor role in the instructional field so that they are not aware of additional duties or responsibilities which might well be accorded them. Related comments on this point were given at the conclusion of Chapter 11. CHAPTER 15 SUMMARY AND COMPARISONS Anyone who has visited elementary schools extensively throughout the United States comes away with several impressions. These var·ious impressions are not alto­gether consistent, the divergencies depen­ding in part upon the care and detail with which the various schools were studied. One impression is that all elementary schools are more or less alike. They are all housed in buildings which have many gross similarities. The children appear very much the same; their age distribution is about the same for all the schools. The teachers, most of whom are women, ap­pear to be a rather homogeneous group. The curricula of the schools are much alike in that all give attention to the 3 R's and the other common elements of the culture. All of them teach children in class groups organized by grades or com­binations of grades and all conduct most of the educational activities within class­rooms of about the same size. Another impression that one gets is that elementary schools are quite different, one from another. Some are conducted in small one-room or two-room buildings; other are in large buildings of 30 or more rooms. Some of the buildings are quite new and attractive, with modern toilet and shower rooms, a gymnasium, an auditorium, and special facilities for the library, music, art, and handicraft; others are old dila­pidated structures with old-fashioned stationary furniture, out-door toilets, and no facilities other than standard-sized classrooms. Some schools have spacious, attractively landscaped playgrounds; others have limited and uninviting play areas. In some schools the educational program is limited to the conventional list of subjects of study, each taught in isolation from the others; elementary school science, health, physical education, art, music, library, pupil participation in school and classroom management, democratic practices, special interest clubs, and community improvement projects are meager or non-existent while in other schools a broad cur~iculum, care­fully formulated and synthesized in the light of modern purposes of education and sound educational principles, is in opera­tion. The educational program of some schools clearly reflects educational pur­poses of limited scope focusing rather singularly upon achievement in academic fields. No doubt the differences between schools in plant facilities, in the pur­poses which guide the educational program, in the scope and organization of the cur­riculum, in the underlying concepts about the nature of the educative process, and in the quality of professional leadership are the underlying factor·s which make for dif­ferences in administrative and organiza­tional practices. Certainly schools differ widely in the way they are operated, as the data of the preceding chapter·s demon­strate. Or is it likely that variations in administrative and organizational prac­tices are at the root of differences in educational program? There are some writers who believe that the character of the educational program actually experienced by children is determined primarily by the administrative and organizational practices which prevail in a school rather than by curriculum philosophy. A sound and well­planned educational philosophy may become completely distorted by actual practices in grouping pupils, promotion policies, the organization of the teacher's daily schedule, or any one of a dozen or more other administrative and organizational practices. Unless there is clear insight into the intimate and inter-dependent relationship between the kind of an edu­cational program one desires for children and the administration of the school, it is entirely possible that administrative and organizational practices may be the con-. trolling factors in determing the true nature of the educational experiences of children. The true impact upon children's 205 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES education of the way in which certain ad­ministrative and organizational features are now handled in some schools is such that the intended pupil outcomes are largely negated or are actually the oppo­site of what was intended Theoretically a school may voice great concern for wholesome adjustment and personality de­velopment but is it likely that such will accrue to a 12-year old child placed in the first grade1 The many ways in which present practices in handling adminis­trative and organizational features are in conflict with commonly accepted edu­cational viewpoints and policies lead the writer to wonder whether decisions about the administrative and organizational matters may not precede decisions about purposes, methods, curriculum organization, and the nature of the educative process in many schools, or whether administra­tive and organizational matters remain rather fixed even though major changes in matters educational may be undertaken. If these assumptions be true, then it seems evident that educational policy is subservient to administrative policy and that the real tone and character of a school program is determined by the ad­ministrative and organizational practices rather than by educational viewpoints. Again, if these assumptions and their accompanying conclusions are true, then it is entirely possible that the dif­ferences between schools may be due to differences in administrative and organ­izational practices and plant f~cilities rather than to variations in educational matters. As far as the writer knows there is no research evidence to indicate which of two groups of factors, educa­tional or administrative, is the true determiner of the character and quality of children's educational experiences. The Mythical Typical School From the data which have been presented in this as well as other studies it should be clearly evident that it would be inaccurate to convey the idea that there is such a thing as "a typical elementary school" in this country. If one's characterization were confined to a few gross features, it might be pos­sible to assemble a description which would be applicable to the large majority of elementary schools in the United States, but as soon as one goes beyond gross fea­ tures, one finds so many differences be­ tween schools that is would be misleading to say that there is a 11typicai" elemen­tary school. Two schools may be alike in 90 per cent of the items compared but the other 10 per cent of items upon which they differ may be sufficiently important to give distinctly different educational experiences to the children. The paragraphs which follow do not attempt to characterize the "typical elementary school". These paragraphs merely represent an effort to bring to­gether in one place a summary of those fea­tures of organization and administration covered in the study which were found in more than 50 per cent of the schools in­cluded in the survey. The tabular arrange­ment seemed the most feasible for this summary. 58% concluded the elementary school program with the 6th grade. 80% housed in the reporting school the complete elementary school program as conducted in the district. 69% had auditorium facilities. 55% had given group mental tests to one or more classes since 1940. 81% gave standardized achievement tests to selected grades as a regular pro­cedure. 95% had available one or more types of information about the cvmmunity. 89% had information available about the occupation of mothers. 71% had information available about the kinds of retail stores in the community. 66% had information available about other business establishments in the com­munity. 66% had information available about traffic and other hazards in the community. 64% had information available about foreign languages spoken in the homes. 63% had information available about other educational institutions in the com­munity. 54% had information available about the socio-economic status of homes. 59% had average size of classes ranging between 26 and 35. 70% had no unused classrooms. SUMMARY AND COMPARISONS 84% had one or more special rooms such as library, auditorium, gymnasium, art, music, or handicraft. 55% started the day's session be­tween 9:00 and 9:14 A. M. 72'/J h&d a school day whose length was between 6 hrs. 15 min. and 6 hrs. 45 min . 83% used last year's program as a source of guidance in program making. 75% use suggestions from class­room teachers in program planning. 67% use professional books as a source of guidance in program planning. 67% use recommendations from the county or city superintendent's office as a source of guidance in program plan­ning. 64% use recommendations in state courses of study as a source of guidance in program planning. 60% use teacher's exper ience i n other schools as a source of guidance in program planning. 58% reported no major changes ce­tween this year's and last year's program. 62% gave no evidence that guiding principles were used in program making. 60% reported complete freedom from external controls in program making. 87% reported one or more internal controls over program making. 72% have principals who check each teachers classroom schedule. 57% have principals who do the general planning of the over-all program. 96% reported one or more types of special occasions which merit temporary schedule adjustments. 83% have one or more co-curricular activities. 59% made some ef fort to relate the noon lunch program to classroom instruc­tion. 66% have departmentalized instruc­tion in some form in one or more grades. 71% admit children to the first grade solely on the basis of chronological age. 51% have entering first grade groups which are not too large for one teacher to handle. 67% subdivide first grade classes into two or more sub-groups for teaching purposes. 50% have more pupils in one or more grades above the firP.t tha~1 one teacher can handle so that there exists the need for allocating the pupils to the several teach­ers. 71% follow the practice of sub­dividing the classes in grades above the first into sub-groups for teaching pur­poses. 51% limit the formation of sub­groups within classes to certain subjects, usually r eading and arithmetic. 92% use non-pr omotion as an ad­justment device. 51% adhere to an educational policy which may require a pupil to attend the elementary school (ending with the 6th grade) 7, 8, or more years. 64% use trial promotions. 70% have general rules or policies governing promotions from one grade to the next. 67% use a printed or mimeographed course of study. 63% report the practice of dif­ferentiated assignments which ma ke allow­ance for pupils of different l evels of ability. 59% report concerted effort to en­rich the program for superi or pupils. 79% do not excuse pupils from sub­jects in which they have sho'Wn superior achievement. 82% do not permit a pupil to fol­low a staggered program in whi ch he takes some subjects in his r egular grade and some subjects in grades above or below his re­gular grade. 93% do not give a special diploma at the time pupils complete the elementary program to pupils who have not atta ined the academic achievement standards thought nec­essary for success in the usua l high school course. 68% did not report any special classes in the school system. 93% encourage pupils to bro"Wse in supplementary books or· magazines when they· have finished their regular assignments, 92% provide special help to pupils who are having difficulties in one or more subjects . 84% endeavors t o meet one or more types of children's physica l needs through cooperative agency effort. 84% reported one or more fire dr ills per year. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES 58'f, conducted one or more air raid drills per year. 57% had officially published air raid instructions available. 7&fo reported division of play­ground into areas for different age groups or different activities. 51% reported no obstructions on play areas. 95% had first-aid kits available in the school. 88% had persons designated to ad­minister first-aid who had had qualified instruction in first-aid practices. 62'/> had teachers designated to ad­minister first-aid. 59'/> had a specially equipped li­brary room used also as a classr-oom or used solely as a library. 71'/> had a reading table in each classroom. 70'/> provided shelves for library books in each classroom. 79% reported the regular use of some out-of-school library resources. 57% had a professional library for teachers within the building. 57'/> do not issue graduation certi­ficates at the completion of the elementary s.chool course. 63'f, take the school census annual­ly. 95'/> make an inventory of attendance at least once each day thac school is in session. 59'/> make daily attendance reports to the principal or the superintendent. 89% require the teachers to keep the attendance register. 66'f, give vision tests at least once per year. 56'f, give hearing tests at least once per year. 58% report pupils' marks to parents once each six weeks. 79% have classroom teachers report directly to parents at each reporting period. 67% use some form of card or folder in per~odic reports to parents. 89% provide basic textbooks free to all pupils. 87% provide supplementary books free ~o all pupils. 56% provide colored crayons free to all pupils. 64% provide colored paper free to all pupils. 61'/> provide construction paper free to all pupils. 60% provide modeling clay free to all pupils. 71'/> requisition books from the central office through the principal of the school. 52% requisition instructional sup­plies from the central office through the principal of the school. 57% check books into the storeroom upon arrival at the building. 83% issue books to pupils through the classroom teacher. 54% have attendance officers avail­able to render services to the school. 51'/> have physicians on the school staff to render services to the school. 78% had a staff member designated as the principal of the school. 77% of the schools with principals had principals who had qharge of only the one school. 77% of the elementary school prin­cipals engage in classroom visitation to study the work of teachers. 72% of the elementary school prin­cipals engage in classroom visitation to evaluate the teacher at work. 75% of the principals call teachers meetings for announcements. 65% of the principals call faculty meetings to stimulate improvement of instruc­tion. 61% of the principals maintain office hours during which teachers may come for consultation. 87% reported the use of the school plant by one or more community groups. 71% have P. T. A.'s which meet in the school building. 66% follow the practice of calling parents to the school for individual con­ferences. 69% have principals' offices speci­fically planned for office purposes when the building was built. 51% of the principals' offices were located near the front entrance of the building. 90% had bulletin boards used in an adm1.nistrative way. 68% have ditto machines. 78% had a telephone in the school, usually in the principal's office. SUMMARY AND COMPARISONS 73% had a typewriter, usually in the principal's office. 70% had office filing cabinets. 52% had school board regulations of some sort regarding the duties and re­sponsibilities of principals. 62% have complete freedom regard­ing the classification of pupils. 54% have complete freedom regard­ing the promotion of pupils. The preceding sum~ary must not be interpreted as reflecting a complete pic­ture of administrative and organizational practices in elementary schools. There were many categories in which practices were so diverse that no one prgctice pre­vailed in as many as 50 per cent of the schools. The list contains only those items found in 50 per cent or more of the schools. The Smaller Vs The Larger Schools At many points throughout the first 14 chapters attention was called to what appeared to be important differences between practices in the smaller and in the larger schools. The term "smaller schools" refers to 1-teacher and 2-teach­er schools. The term 11larger schools" re­fers to schools of 11 or more teachers. The comnents which follow are restricted to those items in the survey regarding which differences between smaller and larger schools were evident. No special classes of any kind were repor·ted for the smaller schools. Neither were auditorium and gymnasium facilities available in any of the smaller schools. Group mental tests were given periodically in only 15 per cent of the smaller as cont~asted with 80 per cent of the larger schools. Guidance in program making is sought from state courses of study in 77 to 92 per cent of the smaller schools and in only about 50 per cent of the larger schools. The smaller schools are noticeably freer from internal con­trols over program making than are the larger schools. Departmentalized teach­ing is confined almost entirely to schools with ~ore than 2 teachers. Welfare services to meet children's physical needs were provided by coopera­tive agency effort in about 25 per cent or less of the smaller and 80 per cent of or more of the larger schools. The com­parative percentages varied considerably, depending upon the type of need, but the general fact remains that welfare services occupy a less prominent place in the smaller than in the larger schools. Safety practices of all kinds receive very little attention in the smaller schools. No fire drills were reported for 77 per cent of the 1-teacher and 56 per cent of the 2-teacher schools as contrasted with 10 per cent of all schools. No air raid drills were reported for 85 per cent of 1-teacher and 78 per cent of 2-teacher schools. Safety patrols were functioning in only about 12 per cent of the smaller as compared with about 60 per cent of the larger schools. Specially equipped library rooms were available in only about 12 per cent of the smaller schools but in more than 60 per cent of the larger schools. Prac­tically all of the instructional supplies provided free to all pupils by 50 per cent or more of the schools were available in as large or a larger proportion of the smaller as in the larger schools; it was largely in the types of supplies that might be called "enrichment materialsu that the larger schools held a distinct advantage over the smaller ones. Out of 64 different types of teaching equipment, only 14 were reported for the smaller schools; except for maps, globes, handwriting alphabet set, paper punchers, hectograph, and printing set, no item of equipment was found in as many as 10 per cent of the smaller schools. Teachers in the smaller schools have regular membersbip in very few local organizations as compared to teachers in larger schools. Smaller schools use a much more limited variety of procedures for acquainting the public with the work of the school than do larger schools. A smaller number of adult groups use the smaller school plants; also the various adult groups use the school plant in a noticeably smaller percentage of the smaller than in the larger schools. A much smaller proportion of the smaller schools receive services from community agencies than do the larger schools. Smaller schools cooperate less frequently with the publicity efforts of outside ORGANIZATIONAL AtlD AIMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES organizations than do the larger schools. Smaller schools participate less frequent! in contests sponsored by outside organi­zations. No doubt various readers will in­terpret these contrasts between smaller and larger schools in different ways. Some may feel that the contrasts are few and tnat S!llaller schools are much like the larger schools. Others may feel that the points on which the smaller schools differ from the larger schools are particularly significant in determining the quality of the children's education. Whichever view­point one explores one must remember that the sum:nary is restricted to those items upon which the present survey revealed differences and that there were many sec­tions in the study in which it did not appear feasible to organize the data by size of school. Also one must remember that many topics covered in the survey were not applicable to small schools. For example, s!llall schools usually do not have principals or principal's offices; hence the entire section on office prac­tices does not apply to the small school. Item 1. Enrollment of 100 or less 2. Enrollment of 301 to 600 How important these "non-applicable" sections are in determining the character and quality of children's education is not known. Texas vs Non-Texas Schools Since the survey was undertaken to serve special purposes in connection with a state-wide project in Texas, it seemed important to organize the data so that a comparison could be made between practices in schools in Texas and schools outside of Texas. Wherever these comparisons were made they were inserted in the appropriate places in the preceding chapters. These comparisons are now recapitulated in sum­mary form. Altogether 77 critical ratios were calculated to determine whether the differences between the percentage of Texas and the percentage of non-Texas schools following a given practice or having certain facilities or conditions were statistically significant. The list of items which follows is limited to those comparisons which showed statistically significant differences. Percentage 200 Texas 286 Non-Texas Schools Schools 25.5 6.0 27.0 40.0 3. No special classes of any kind housed in the reporting school 91.0 80.0 4. School has a gymnasium or gym-audi­ torium combination. 5. Kindergartens are not provided by the school system. 6. Group mental tests given since 1940 to at least selected classes. 7. Standardized achievement tests given once or twice per year to selected grades. 8. Programs recommended in the state course of study are used as a source of guidance in local program ~aking. 9. Programs recommended in local courses of study are used as a source of gui­dance in program ~aking. 10. Suggestions from supervisors are used as a source of guidance in program making. 27.5 51.0 89.5 41.6 33.0 55.0 75.0 81.0 54.o 35.0 51.0 36.0 SUMMARY AND COMPARISONS Item (Continued) Percentage 200 Texas 286 Non-Texas Schools Schools 11. In 11-teacher to 15-teacher schools, state courses of study are used as a source of guidance in local program making. 71.0 12. In 11-teacher to 15-teacher schools, suggestions from supervisors are used as a source of guidance in local pro­gram making. 20.0 58.0 13. In 6-teacher to 10-teacher schools, programs recommended in state courses of study are used as a source of guid­ance in program making. 90.0 14. There are one or more external controls governing program making in the report­ing school . 70.0 53.0 15. School has a specially equipped library used solely as a library or used also as a classroom. 48.o 42.0 In drawing conclusions from this comparison of administrative and organiza­tional practices in Texas and non-Texas elementary schools, several points should be kept in mind. The 15 items previously listed are the only ones out of a total of 77 items on which critical ratios were computed which showed statistically signi­ficant differences between the percen­tages. This represents less than l out of every 5 comparisons. The majority of the compar·isons which do show statistically significant differences are the kinds of items which are influenced materially by the size of the school and, as was pointed out in Chapte r 1, the returns from Texas were more heavily loaded with reports from the smaller schools. In view of these conditions it appears to the writer that the evidence presented in this study justifies the conclusion that there are no important differences between the admi­ nistrative and organizational practices in Texas and non-Texas elementary Schools. The Non-Texas vs The College Campus Demonstration Schools The Group of 286 non-Texas schools were compared with the 46 college campus demonstration schools in a manner similar to the comparisons already presented for the Texas and non-Texas schools. As in the previous case , these comparisons were made at various points in the study and are fully presented a t the appropriate places in the preceding chapters. At this point a r e capitulation will be made only of the items which revealed statis­tically significant differences in the percentages. Altogether 43 critical ratios were computed. The 9 which resulted in statistically significant differences were as follows: Item Percentage 286 Non-Texas 46 College Campus Schools Schools 1. Recommendations in local courses of study are used as a source of guidance in program naking. 51.0 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Items (Continued) Percentage 286 Non-Texas 46 College Campus Schools Schools 2. Recommendations from the superinten­dent's office are used as a source of guidance in program making. 73.0 28.0 3. The first grade is the lowest grade in school in which departmentalized instruc­tion is practiced. 18.o 4. The third grade is. the lowest grade in school in which departmentalized instruc­tion is practiced. 10.0 2.0 5. The fourth grade is the lowest grade in school in which departmentalized instruc­tion is practiced. 10.0 0.0 6. The sixth grade is the lowest grade in school in which_departmentalized instruc­tion is practiced. 4.0 0.0 7. As many as three subjects are taught on the departmental plan. 11.0 50.0 8. As many as six subjects are taught on the departmental plan. 11.0 0.0 9. The school has a specially equipped room used only as a library. In drawing conclusions from the comparisons of practices in the non-Texas schools and the college campus demonstra­tion schools one must remember certain facts. The campus group consisted of a larger proportion of somewhat smaller schools, 64 per cent of them having enroll­ments between 101 and 300 as compared to 33 per cent of the non-Texas group. Only 22 per cent of the campus group had en­rollments between 301 and 600 as compared to 40 per cent of the non-Texas group. Another fact to remember is that less than 1 out of every 4 items compared revealed statistically significant differences between the percentage of the two groups of schools following a given practice. Interestingly enough the items of comparison which revealed statistically significant differences were not the kinds of item~ necessarii.y affected by size of 38.0 78.0 school. Six of the nine items previously listed relate to departmentalization of instruction and (together· viith the other comparisons on this subject not repeated here) show a slight tendency for the campus schools to use departmental teaching more extensively than do the public schools. The conclusion which seems most apparent to the author is that there are no important differences between the public schools included in this study and the college campus demonstration schools in the administrative and organizational practices followed in the elementary grades. If this conclus.ion is sound (and the writer be­lieves it to be) some rather nice questions are raised about the role of campus demon­stration schools in providing leadership, not only in the instructional field, but also in the field of school organization and administration. CHAPTER 16 A HISTORICAL SKETCH -ELEMENTARY SCH00L ORGANIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES PRIOR TO 1848 The american elementary school be­gan its history when the early immigrants settled this country.1 The fact that many of the colonists came for religious freedom, together with the nature and conditions of pioneer life, brought about a very close relationship between the church, the school and the civil government of the towns.2 The groups of immigrants who made their homes in the various colonies repre­sented a variety of denominational inter­ests and attitudes towards education.s-4 As a result of the early endeavors of the different religious sects, there were laid those basic foundations in educa­tion which soon began to characterize the educational policies of the respective co­ lonies. Through a natural growth and de­velopment, the principles underlying the attitudes towards education became rather fixed within each colony or group of colo­nies as time progressed. Thus the various colonies and later the states developed distinctive types of programs for elemen­tary education which influenced materially the subsequent development of elementary school organization in different sections of the country.s The Puritans who settled New Eng­land probably were devoted more to the cause of education than many of the other denominations, and thus furnished the lead­ership in educational progress for ove·r two centuries. As early as 1642 the 1The colonial legislature of Massacnusetts passed a law in 1642 which stated that all children should be educated. G. H. Martin, The Evolutio~ of the Massachusetts Public School System, D. Appleton and Co., 1898, p. 14. 2 "The governing author!ties (in New England settlements) far church and civil affairs were usually the same. When acting as church officers they were known as elders and deacons; when acting as civil or town officers they were known as selectmen. The State, as represented in the colonial legislature or town meeting, was clearly the servant of the Church, and existed in large part for religious ends." E. P. Cubberley, State School Administration, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1927, p. 4. "The churches no doubt served the place of schoolhouses in the early days, and the clergyman, so far as he was able, filled the double office of preacher and teacher." J. P. Wickersham, A History of Educa­tion in Pennsylvania, Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Inquirer Publishing Ccmpany, 1886, p. 15. 3 E. p, Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1919, p. 20-21. 4 "The preceding extracts, taken from the highest official sources, exhibit with sufficient clearness the educational policy of the early friends. Their purpose evidently was to establish schools in suffi­cient numbel\s -----to accommodate all their own children and as many others as might be willing to attend." J.P. Wickersham, A History of Education in Pennsylvania, Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Inquirer Publishing Co., 1886, p. 87. "The Baptists without doubt, like the other religious denominations among the first settlers in Pennsylvania, were alive to the interests of education, and either established schools in connec~ion with their churches, or used their church buildings for school as well as for religious purposes." Ibid., p. 101. "The Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the mother of the Presbyterian Church in America, has a highly creditable educational record. Frcm the first it adopted the school as the most efficient auxili­ary in its work of propagating the Gospel and bettering the condition of the human family." ~'p. 104. 5E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States. p. 15. 213 ORGANIZATION.AL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES Massachusetts legislature recognized the need for the universal education of child­ren and insisted that all parents should be held responsible for the education of their children.a Although most of the early church schools have been either discontinued or changed into public schools, the concept of the values derived from an elementary educa­tion in a denominational school is still prevalent in many localities, as is manifest by the large number of parochial elementary and high schools existing today. Education in the Colonial Period The religious fervor prominent among the settlers of certain of the colonies di­rected the efforts of these coloniest to­wards that form of education which would preserve and foster the interest of reli­gion.7 The colleges, however, which train­ed men for the ministry also provided in­struction in other professional fields. No doubt many who attended college were inter­ested in the cultural training derived. In certain colonies, partioularly those in New England, the dominant motives for education in the early period found ex­pression in the establishment of preparatory schools whose chief function was to prepare men for the university.a The division of the school system during the seventeenth century which cared for the preparation of youth for admission to college was in reality a secondary school, known as the Latin Grammar School. It was modeled after the Latin schools of England ans was distinctly religious and classical in character.s Admission to the Latin grammar schools was restricted to boys who previously had had some rudimentary training in reading and a little arithmetic. Very little information is available regarding the organization of elementary education during the seventeenth century. It is likely that very few elementary schools existed. It is probably a warrant­ed assumption that the elementary schools which may have existed had an organization similar to that of the Latin grammar schools. Type Attitudes Toward Elementary Education As indicated previously, the colo­nist who made their homes in various sections along the Atlantic coast represented a vari­ety of religious denominations with differ­ent attitudes toward elementary education. Cubberley has classified these different points of view regarding elementary educa­tion into the "parochial school attitude," the "pauper-school non-state-interference attitude," and the "compulsory maintenance attitude. 1110 The Pauper Schools and the Laissez Faire Attitude.--In the Southern colonies, particularly in Vi rginia and South Carolina, the historical background of the settlers and the social and economic conditions led to a distinct type of elementary education. The establishment of schools was not re­garded as a function of the state. Child­ren of the well-to-do were tutored in the homes, sent to private pay-schools or to the mother country for their education. 1 1 This left the large mass of children to be educated in charity schools, endowed free schools, and the plantation or "old field schools. 1112 Legislation regarding elementary education in Southern colonies bG. H. Martin, Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System, D. Appleton and Co., 1898, p. 14. 7 F. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School System, United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1916. No. 8, p. 11. 8 "The English colonists had scarcely set foot 1n the New World before they began planning for the educa­tion of their children. Within eight years after the founding of Boston a college with a system of pre­paratory schools was established, and within seventeen years the foundation, in theory at least, of our entire American public school system was laid." F. F. Bunker, op. ~·, p. 2. "The only apparent motive, therefore, a parent had in sending his son to the one public school in Boston was his desire to educate him for the ministry." T. D. Appollonio, Boston Public Schools, Past and Present, Boeton: Wright and Potter, 1923, p. 18. 9 F. F. Bunker, op. cit., p. 11. l. o E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, pp. 15-22. ].]. Ibid., p. 22. 12 E. w. Knight, Public Education in the South, Ginn and Co., 1922, p. 40. A HISTORICAL SKETCH -ELEMENTARY SCHOOL during the seventeenth century included the compulsory apprenticeship training (usually agriculture) of orphans and the children of 13 the poor. The schools which were provid­ed for these children were called pauper schools and were considered as the preva­lent uype of school in the South until after 1800. The Parochial Schools.--Colonists coming to Pennsylvania and other Middle At­lantic states represented a large variety of nationalities and religious sects, each settling in a given section of the state and quite separated from the other groups. Each little settlement was more or less of an independent unit in educational affairs. Consequently there was never a unanimity of ideas regarding the way in whi ch a common elementary education should be administer­ed.14 Immigrants coming from Germany, Holland, Scotland, and the Scandinavian countries had formed, through custom and law in the old country, close association between the church and the school. The re­sult was that parochial schools, with pri­vate efforts for education among the ~ore 15 well-to-do. Wickersham points out that the Dutch at Manhattan had established schools as early as 1633 and supported them a t pub­lic expense, but the school was held in the 13 E. P. Cubberley, op. cit., p. 22. church, and probably supported by the reli­ gious denomination i n that settlement. The provincial authorities of Pennsylvania did nothing to promote the cause of general ed­ ucation during their entire rule, which ended i n 1776.16 State Influence in New England Schools.--Although the prevailing thoughts and actions of the seventeenth century in New England colonies were concerned with the Latin gr ammar school, there is evidence that an elementary education was in demand. Education in most of the New England colonies undoubtedly began with ~rivate in­struction as a predominant type. 7 But with­in a relatively short period there developed a distinct New England state attitude toward education. The state assumed the right to compel towns to establish schools and to expect parents to have their children taught reading and religion.18 The Massachusetts Law of 1642 delegated to local authorities the responsibility of ascertaining whether the children were being taught to read and to understand the principles of religion and the capital laws of the land. A sub­sequent law in the same state, passed in 1647, ordered that every town with fifty. householders should at once appoint a teach­er of reading and writing.19 · This definite state attitude placed a hardship on private schools and centered l 4 . "Members of the Church of England came to this country be&ring with them the influences of the train­ing and instruction acquired under this system, believing it and knowning little of any other. It is easy to see, therefore, that as soon as they began to establish church~s in the new world, they would begin to establish schools, and that they would seek to preserve the relations between the two to which they had always been accustomed." J. P. Wickersham, A History of Education in Pennsylvania, Lancaster, Pennsyl­vania: Inquirer Publishing Co., 1886, p. 95. ""'"iS"i. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, p. 20. 16 J. P. Wickersham, A History of Education in Pennsylvania, p. 9 and p. 78. 1 7 "Private schools of one kind or another existed from the earliest iimes. The first dame schools were private; so were the schools that ministers often kept to prepare boys for college." w. H. Small, Early New England Schools, Ginn and Co., 1914, p. 311. "About this time private schools seem to have flourished. In 1738 Mt-. Ebenezer Swan appearing, prays that liberty may be granted him to open a school in this town for teaching writing, arithmetic and mer­chants and accounts." Ibid., p. 314. 18 See Massachusetts La~f 1642 and 1647. E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States,. p. 17-18. 19 "Dedham, early in its history--in 1644--set up a free school, and built a house for it, and supported it by a general tax. It furnished elementary instruction in English, writing, and the art of arithmetic." G. H. Martin, Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School Syste~ D. Appleton and Co., 1898, p. 51. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTP~TIVE PRACTICES the attenticn on the public schools.2 0 It is to be expected that the transition to "free" sch:::>ols was slow. Many of the so­called free schools were free largely in that they admitted anyone who might wish to come, the school still being supported by tuition, or a combination of tuition and town tax. School Buildings in the Colonial Period State influence in New England, as exemplified by the Massachusetts Laws of 1642 and 1647, tended gradually to withdraw education from the home and the artisan's sh:::ip and to place it in schools designated and directed by the voters of the town. Al though some New England towns built school houses rather ear1y;1 the majority of towns continuec to operate the common ele­mentary schools in churches, "vacant car­penters' shops, spare rooms in old dwell­ings, unoccupied barns, basement rooms, and other places as chance presented. 11 22 The New England towns which did b~ild separate school houses constructed them "of logs with a rough puncheon board running around the walls. Paper greased with lard often took the place of glass in the windows • " 2 s School houses in Pennsylvania and other Middle Atlantic states during the co­ lonial period were as infrequent in number as in the New England states. The fact that so many of the schools in the Middle Atlantic states were parochial schools tended to re­tain them in the churches. 24 The few sepa­rate school houses which were built were constructed similar to those in New England~5 The conditions under which elemen­tary education in the Southern colonies was carried on we£-e not conducive to the esta­blishment of a large number of school houses. Those which were constructed were built of logs and primitive in character.2 e The Elementary School Curriculum Before 1800 The curriculun1 of the early schools consisted largely of reading and writing.2 7 In Massachusetts thcue two subjects were the only ones specifie~ by law until after 1789.27a The Hornbook, the Primer, the Psalter, the Testament and the Bible were the books used. In 1690 the New England Primer appeared and partially supplemented or supplanted the other books. Arithmetic was common but by no means universal in colonial curricula. Few teachers were com­petent to give instruction in this subject~6 There is no doubt that in some places a few other subjects gradually found their way into the curriculum, but it was not until after the War for 20 "At other places in Connecticut, however, private schools sometimes interfered with the public, for ln 1670 Stam:ford made this agreement; 'The town doth grant and agree to put down all petty schools that are or may be prejudicial to the general school.'" w. H. Small, op. cit. p. 312. 21 "The first records of the town (Watertown, Ml.ssachusetts)--'!n 1649 show a committee of one on the build­ing of a schoolhouse, and that the selectmen were probably delegated to get a schoolmaste.r." Henry Suzzalo, The Rise of Local School Supervision in ~nssachusetts, Teachers College, Columbia University, Contricu­tions to :Education, No. 3, 1906, p. 16. 22F. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School System, p. 2. 2 3E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, p. 35 -36. 2 4 "so far as can be ascertained, there is no record showing the existence of a school house in the colo­nies on the Delaware up to the year 1682." J. P. Wickersham, A History of F.dueation in Pennsylvania, p. 11. 25Ibid., pp. 189 -191. 2sE. w. Knight, Public Education in the South, p. 43. 27F. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School System, p. 3. 27as. c. Parker, The History of Modern Elementary Education, Ginn and Co., 1912, p. 72. 128Ibid~., P· 83. A HISTORICAL SKETCH -ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Ind~pendence that the States took a materi-I Admission to the early schools seems al interest in the subjects to be offered and state laws began to specify the courses 2aa to be taught. By 1830 subjects commonly found in the elementary schools were reading, spel­ling, pen..ianship, arithmetic, geography, grammar, manners and morals, history of the United S~ates, and sewing and darning for girls.280 The Organization of Colonial Schools The organization of elementary ed­ucation, at least during the first half of the seventeenth century, can hardly be dig­nified by the term "organization." The home was largely responsible for instructio in reading and religion, while the artisan's shop provided the apprenticeship trainingFe The elementary schools that were established separately in some towns were simple ungraded schools, housed in crowded, undesirable quarters. Instruction was largely individual and was conducted by means of limited and crude devices. Writ­ing was taught by dictation. The same me­thod was used for teaching the little arith metic found in some of the schools. Equip­ment was very limited and teachers were poorly trained. Enrollments gradually in­creased so that by 1740 it was not uncommon to find two hundred pupils crowded into one . 29 room. to have been restricted largely to boys seven or eight years of age. Whether girls should be admitted was left to the discretion of the elders or selectmen. 29a Consequently, practices varied greatly among the New Eng­land towns. Some of them admitted all chil­dren, while others admitted girls only a 20b part of the year, or alternate years. Prerequisites for admission to the elementary schools were the ability to read simple syllables, knowledge of the A, B, C's, and the capacity to spell simple words. To meet these scholastic entrance requirements, children were taught in homes or in dame schools. The Dame Schools The rudimentary facts of reading, spelling and frequently arithmetic were taught in the homes during the first half of the seventeenth century. After 1650 it was not uncommon for several families to club together and to hire some woman to instruct their children for them. Thus the "dame school" began in this country. Once the practice had become common, the dame schools increased rapidly during the last half of the seventeenth century, and continued to flourish for most of the eighteenth century~0 The different conditions under which the elementary school developed in the vari­ous sections of the country, as indicated previously, placed the dame school in a more 2aa -----the curriculum of the American elementRry school down to the Am,erican Revolution included reading and writing as the fundamental subjects, with perhaps a little arithmetic for the more favored schools. Spelling was emphasized toward the end of the period. The subject s that had no place were com­position, singing, drawing, object study, physiology, nature study, geography, history, secular literature, and nanual training." Ibid., p. 84. 2ab E. P, Cubberley, ~cEducation in the United States, p. 222. 2ac Ibid., P• 16. 20 W. H. Small, F.a.rly New .England Schools, Ginn and Co., 1914, p. 305. 2sa "In the exercise of this discretion they tacitly or otherwise decided against coeducation, and until the Revolution, girls graduated from the dame schools and entered early upon domestic duties. The dis­trict schools in the smaller towns opened their doors to boys and girls alike, but few of the girls ad­vanced beyond reading and writing." G. H • .1-Rrtin, Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System, D. Appleton and Co., 1898, p. 130. 2sb W. H, Small, £E_, cit., Chap. II. so "There is evidence of its (dame school) existence from the beginning of the colony, though mention of it ~oes not become frequent until toward the close of the century. From that time on through the whole of the eighteenth century it was common in the towns of Massachusetts except possibly in the smallest settle­ments." Harlan Updegraff, The Origin of the Moving School in Massachusetts, Teachers College, Columbia University Contributions to Education, No. 17, 1907, p. 137· ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES strategic position a s an essential part of the educational system in the New England colonies than in the Middle Atlantic or 31 Southern colonies . The Organization of the Dame School. --Dame schools were very informal and non-systematic in their organization. At the beginning of their development, the dame schools were kept around the family fireplace or in other vacant rooms in the home of the dame, on porches, or in the ves tibule of the church. Frequently dame schools were in session only during the sum­mer months, in which case they could be held in the school houses. The length of term of the dame s chools varied from a few weeks to six months. Occasionally they were not in ses­sion in certa in towns for a summer or two, while other towns maintained several dame -schools in various sections of the town. The enrollment in any one dame schools usually did not exceed thirty pu­pils. Boys were admitted a t the age of four and retained until the age of seven, at which time they were transferred to the English grammar or elementary school. Girls of all ages from four years old and upward were admitted, but as the elementary schools gradually were opened to girls, the dame schools confined itself more and more to the instruction of younger children. Instruction in Dame Schools.--Dame schools were kept rather than taught. In­struction wa s individualized or in small groups. Books and readers were used but little, if at all. The A, B, C,'s, simple reading, ciphering, and sewing constituted the curriculum. Equipment was meager, re­stricted largely to benches without backs, a little sand, birchbark, and charcoal. Pupil a ctivity was rather free and informal, 32 although strict discipline was intended. Dame School Merged with the Reading and Writing School.--Towards the beginning of the eighteenth century, at about the time that the district system of New England was evolving, the dame schools frequently merged in a loose way with the r·eading and writing schools. This tendency to unite the two types of schools was particularly prom­ inent during the time the "moving school" 33 held away. 31 "The drune school was a necessity of the times. Boys were not generally admitted to the master's school until they could 'stand up and read words of two syllables and keep their places'; girls were not admitted at all. The teaching of the simple rudiments was made a family, not a public, matter," w. H Small, Early New England Schools, p. 182. 32"The floor was scoured to whiteness and covered with the finest sand. Her instruction in arithmetic was oral, Miss Betsy J:lB.king the figures on the sanded floor with her rod,--and her pupils, with their square pieces of birch bark and bits of charcoal, copying the SU!llS she gave them. "The children, having walked long distances, were made very comfortable at the long recess, as their dinners were many times frozen, and sometimes their food required cooking. Miss Betsy was devoted in her care for them in preparing their frugal repast. Apples were roasted and nuts were cracked in profusion, and then with their old-fashioned games they had an enjoyable time." w. s. Small, Early New England Schools, p. 163. "The school benches on which we sat were without backs and sometimes so high that we beguiled the weary school hours by swinging our feet violently back and forth, by which process we worked off a good deal of animal vigor. We sometimes tipped off the bench backwards, and fell atop the children behind us, when we all set up a prodigious howling; not because we were hurt, but we enjoyed the noise hugely and prolonged the commotion as long as we could. When the drowsiness of the dame deepened into a snoring nap, we ran about the roam and with the zest that accompanies the doing of forbidden things, we swiftly over­turned the benches, misplaced the articles on the table, threw the spelling cards out of the window, and not infrequently ran out into the street." Ibid., p. 185. 33Harland Updegraff, The Ot-igin of the M~School in Massachusetts, Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 17, 1907, p. 142. A HISTORICAL SKETCH -ELEMENTARY SCHOOL The gradual movement to support the dame school through a town tax helped to foster the union of these two units of the educational system. Brookline, Massachu­setts, in 1710, ruled that the dame school and the English grammar school be housed in the same building. Sutton, Massachusetts, in 1731, provided town support for the dame school. 34 In those towns in which there de­veloped a closer relationship between the dame school and the English grammar school, the former gradually merged with the readi and writing school, thus fonning the school of the three R's. 35 The Change of Conditions During the Colonial Period The colonial period of one and one­half centuries witnessed many changes in th social, economic, and religious life of the colonists which influenced the development of elementary education. The period up to 1660 was charac­ terized by small towns in which the resi­ dence of families was restricted within a certain distance from the town commons. The dominant interests were those of small groups. 36 Westward Expansion.--About 1660 be­ gan a second period. New settlements were made near the older towns and new towns wer established farther inland by people who were breaking the frontier. The nature and purposes of the people who founded the in­ land towns were quite different from those who established the original settlements. A gradual westward movement began, popula­ tion increased rapidly, and a new and dif­ ferent type of immigrant came to this count try. By the end of the seventeenth century, the forces which had required a compact settlement began to disappear.s7 The conditions surrounding the new frontier life br ought about inter-colony trade and commerce. A civil government as opposed to a religious form of government arose, and the aristocratic traditions brought from the Old Country gradually broke down. The various nationalities and religi­ous sects began to mix more freely within the same town.se Paralleling these social, economic, and religious changes, there was a decline in intelle~tual interests. The new occupa­tions and the problems associated with the founding of an independent nation left little time for the consideration of educational matters. Consequently schools of all kinds experienced a decided neglect during the last half of the seventeenth and the first part of the eighteenth century.s9 This neglect is evidenced by the fact that so many towns were fined duri~ this period for failing to provide schools. 0 The Origin of the Moving School D.lring this period of transition from 1650 to 1700 it had become common prac­tice, at least in New England, to have the town school supported by a town tax. The inhabitants of outlying sections of a town frequently derived no benefits from a central town school which they helped to support. The result was that the school was moved about to the various sections, opera­ting in eacn part a length of time corres­ponding to the amount of contribution from a particular section, or sometimes an equal period in all divisions of the town. Con­sequently, children in many divisions re­ceived a very small amount of schooling in 34 Ibid., p. 148. 35 E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, P· 26. se Harland Updegraff, ~· cit., p. 97· 37 E. p, Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, P• 42. SS Ibid., p. 39. 39 "Though it is difficult and probably impossible to get at the exact intent of this general indif­ference to schools at the close of the seventeenth century, yet it seems plain that there was a visible tendency to dispense with the reading and writing school as well as the grammar school in SCllJB towns." Harlan Updegraff, The Origin of the Moving School in Massachusetts, p. 115. 4o Ibid., chap. 7 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES 41 any one year. Thus the "moving school" of New England had become well known byl700 and flourished about 1725.;2 Sub-division of Towns Establish Their Own Schools The undesirable features of the "moving school" soon brought about its aban­donment. Many towns sought to solve the problem by returning to each section or dis­trict the money it had paid into the gen­eral fund and then permitting each division to operate its own school. The natural out­come of this step was a demand by the out­lying section for complete local autonomy in school affairs. No doubt many of the districts did exercise complete authority. The only remaining step was to provide lega sanction for complete independence and cor­porate powers. This was accomplished in al the New England states shortly after the Revolution. 43 The Moving School thus passed by the board as each district began to have its own school and school house, thereby initiating the district schools. Summary of School Organization in the Colonial Period Although the last century of the colonial period was pregnant with forces which tended to alter the location, support, and general administration of elementary schools, it is questionable whether the internal organization of the schools was influenced much. A summary, picturing the organiza­tion of elementary schools during the co­lonial period, would present them as two distinct divisions:--the dame school and the English grammar school. Both of these units were ungraded schools, housed in crowded quarters, with crude equipment and very lim­ited instructional materials. 44 The classi­fication of children by age or achievement was hardly known. Each child was a class by himself, making his own progress in the books which he happened to bring to school. The Departmental School Towards the close of the eighteenth century there came into prominence, parti­cularly in the New England states, a type of school organization known as the "depart­mental school. 11 The chief characteristic of the departmental organization was the vertical division of the course into a read­ing school and a writing school. Each of these units had it.s own master, its own room and set of studies, and a corps of assistants. The pupils attended each de­partment alternately, changing from one school to the other at the end of each day's session•..i, 5 The Origin and Developm~nt of the Departmental School.--Information regarding the origin and developement of the depart­mental school is very inadequate and con­fusing. Dedham established, in 1644, a free school in which was offered instruction in English, Writing and Arithmetic. 46 The 41 "As changing economic and social conditions operated to disperse the hitherto compact settlements, the school was often rotated from place to place within the comnunity to meet the demands of those who settled at some distance f'rom the center. In some towns it was kept far a third of the time in each end and a third in the middle; in other places it remained four months in each of three places; and in still others it was shifted among five places within a single school year. Gloucester probably holds the re­cord--for in 1751 the gr-ammar school rotated among so many places that the children at a given locality secured but one and a half months of schooling once in every three years." F. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School System, United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1916, No. 8, p. 3. 42Dates when certain towns established moving schools: Newbury, 1691; Watertown, 1701; Woburn, 1706; Baintree, 1719; Andover, 1719; Sutton, 1730; Manchester, 1738. Dates f'rom Harlan Updegr-aff, The Origin of the Moving School in Massachusetts 43E. P. Cubberley, State School Administration, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1927, pp. 145-148. 44"The school of the seventeenth century was a simple thing. It consisted largely of some one to teach and some to be taught. Complex systems of education, with costly plants, complicated course of study ---there were none." Henry Suzzalo, Rise of Local School Supervision in .Massachusetts, Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 31 1906, p. 10. 45 F. F. Bunker1 Reorganization of the Public School System, p. 29. 4 6 G. H. Martin, Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System, D. Appleton and Co., 1894, p. 51. A HISTORICAL SKETCH -ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Massachusetts Law of 1647 ordered each town of rifty or more householders to appoint one within the town to give instruction in ~ead­ ing and writing. Worchester., in 1731, or­ dered the continuance of a school in the 47 center of the town, as before. Wickersham, in his History of Education in Pennsylvania makes no reference whatever to departmental organizations among the parochial schools of that area. The town of Plymouth, in 1716, voted to have three free schools with­in its borders. In two of these, reading and writing were to be taught; the other was 48 to be a grammar school. All the references cited above seem to indicate that the schools, at least well into the eighteenth century, were not de­ partmental schools as defined heretofore. On the other hand, Boston, in 1667, granted Will Howard the liberty to establis a writing school. 49 Watertown, in 1650, a­ greed to have Richard Norcross open a writ­ ing s·chool for young maidens •50 Cubberley states that the conditions in small rural districts (about 1750) made it necessary to have ona school in which both reading and writing were taught. SJ. Thus he infers that some of the schools in the larger towns were departmental in character. Writing, of cour;e, was not taught in the Latin grammar schools. The Boston school-movement in 1785 provided three new reading schools in which reading, spelling, grammar, and perhaps ge­ ography were taught. The old writing schools were to be continued and one new one established. Each reading school had its corresponding writing school; frequently the latter was at some distance from the former. While the boys were in the reading school the girls attended the writing school. Eac reading or writing school had its own inde­ pendent master. Even after new school houses were built, the reading school was in the upper room and the writing school in the lower room; the masters never changing rooms, while the boys and girls alternated as be­ fore. 52 It thus became very difficult to ascertain just when and how the departmental school originated. It is likely that the early private tuition schools were reading or writing schools, depending upon the com­petence of the instructor to teach reading or writing and ciphering. As the schools became publicly sup­ported, some towns probably continued the departmental plan while circumstances forced other towns to establish composite schools of the three R's. No doubt both types ex­isted'simultaneously, with the departmental schools becoming more prominent after the Revolution and flourishing during the first half of the nineteenth century. The depart-­mental schools demonstrated the first step in the segregation of the school into units, although it classitied the teachers accord­ing to subjects, rather than the pupils ac­cording to age or achievement. 53 The Organization of the Departmental School.--The organization within each of the reading and writing departments was very si­milar at first. Each department had one room, large enough to house 180 pupils. 54 The master usually had two or three assist­ ant teachers carrying on recitations, mostly with individual pupils, at the same time. It is not known to what extent grading a,nd classification of pupils were introduced in­to the writing schools, but by 1823 the pu­pils of the reading department in Boston were crudely segregated into four divisions, according to progress and subjects studied. 55 A later departure in the organization was to annex two or three small recitation rooms to the large hall. In these small recitation rooms the teachers "heard the lessons". Admission to the departmental school 47Harlan Updegraff, The Origin of the Moving School in Massachusetts, P• 144. 48G. R. Martin, op. cit., p. 63. 4 9Harlan Updegraff, op. cit., p. 146 50w. R. Small, Early New E!lgland Schools, Ginn and Co., 1914, p. 276. siE, P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, p. 216. s2W. R. Small, op. cit., p. 280. 5 3F. F. Bunker,~e~nization of the Public School System, p. 28. 54Ibid., p. 29. 55E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, p. 226. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES in Boston was restricted to children be­tween the ages of seven and fourteen, pro­vided they had previously &:l;tended a woman's or primary school and had learned simple reading and ciphering. The Primary Schools The preceding discussion has pointed out several times that the English grammar school, even up to and after 1850, required for admission some knowledge of simple read­ing and arithmetic. It has also been point­ed out that during the colonial period this preliminary education was offered in the private dame schools. By the beginning of the nineteenth century some of the dame schools had merged with the grammar schools; some had passed out of existence; and the remaining few were tO'J inadequate or else many of the families were too poor to send their children. Consequently there arose a movement to establish free primary schools to educate children between four and seven or eight years of age. These primary schools were most common during the first half of the nineteenth century. The Origin of Primary Schools.--Cub berley implies that the primary school move ment grew out of the Infant-School idea 56 which reached this country about 1816. By the time the movement reached America it had become quite formalized, and as such stimulated the agitation for infant or pri­ 57 mary schools. Wightman, on the other hand, states that the Sunday School movement created the demand for public primary schoo1s:8 It seems that the attempt to organize Sunday Schools to prov-1.de gratuitous instruction in reading and writing for those children who could not attend school otherwise, re­vealed so many illiterate young children that it caused the struggle for free primary schools to begin. 59 During the period from 1825 to 1840, as primary schools became more common, the dame schools passed out of exis­tence. Relation of Primary Schools to Gram­mar Schools.--The relationship between the primary schools and the grammar school vari­ed in different states. In New York the In­fant School Society obtained permission in 1828 to open schools, in the basement of certain public school buildings, for child­ren from two to six years of age. Two years later the Public School Society organized primary departments, modeled somewhat after the Infant Schools. 60 Wherever possible these primary departments were combined with the existing schools. The Administration of Primary Schoolsr-In Boston, twenty primary schools were organized in 1818. 61 They were publicly supported and administered by a Primary School Committee which had little or no re­lationship to the Grammar School Board. The establishment of primary schools was a pub­lic venture, independent of any other school governments in the city. Under the 56The first Infant-School was started by Robert Owen in New Lanark, Scotland, in 1(99· E. P. Cubberle;y; Public Education 1n the United States, p. 97. 57Primary schools were first organized in Boston in 1818; Providence in 1828; New York in 1827; and in Philadelphia in 1828. Ibid., pp. 98-99. 58"From a careful investigation of all available evidence, it appears, that one of the most pran.•'1ent. illl.pulses which resulted in the eF°t'lblishment of tre Primary Schools of Boston, was undoubtedly derived frcm the introduction of Sunday Schools." J. M. Wightman, Annals of the Boston Primary School Cammittee. Boston: G. c. Rand and Avery, 1860, p. 11. 59Two different dates are given for the establishment of the first secular Sunday School in America. "The first Sunday School in the United States was instituted in the year 1791." J. M. Wightman, Ibid., P• 12 . "The first school on the new basis (Sunday Schools in which secular instruction was given) was or­ganized in 1786 ---". F. P. Graves, A History of Education in Modern Timas, The Macmillan Co., 1922, p p. 51. 60J. F. Reigart, The Lancastrian System of Instruction in the Schools of New York City, Teachers Col­ lege, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 81, 1916, p. 4. 61G. H. Martin, Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System, D. Appleton and Co., 1894, _p. 145. A HISTORICAL SKETCH -ELEMENTARY SCHOOL direction of the Primary School Committee, 193 schools were organized 1n Boston. Near ly twelve thousand children were being taught in these schools at the time of the dissolution of the Committee in 1855.e2 The Organization of Primary Schools. --The organization of the primary schools ls clearly pictured by Wightman. The pri­mary schools were placed so as to be con­veniently near the homes of the pupils. Until 1835 the schools 1n each ward were housed 1n vacant rooms, basements, or any available space that the committee might rent. From 1835 to 1855 forty-five primary school houses were built in Boston. They were constructed of wood, contained but a single room, and were unplastered.es It was not until 1864 that a number of these small primary schools were combined and that a . e4 single structure of six rooms was built. In the beginning, each primary school was a one-room, ungraded school in charge of one teacher, very similar to the one-room rural school of today. At first the enrollment was restricted to forty pupils, but as the Lancastrian plan of in­struction spread, the enrollment was in­creased to one hundred, and monitors were asked to assist the teacher.es The course of study was arranged into "four classes, vis: those who read in the Testament shall be 1n the first (highest) class; those in easy reading 1n the second class; those who spell in two or more syllables in the third class; those learning their letters and monosyllables in the fourth class; and that the books be the same in all schools.---"ee Promotions were made annually or every six months. Complete mastery of the limited curriculum was demanded for promo­ tion. Primary Schools Unite With Grammar Schools.--By a gradual transitional process the primary schools in those states in which they were to be found were made a part of the elementary school. In New York this took place as early as 1830. In Boston in 1820 one primary school was held in the base­ment of a grammar school; in 1833 a request was made in Boston that all children more than eight years of age who had not yet learned the baste elements of reading and arithmetic should be admitted to the grammar schools.e7 Finally, in 1855, the Primary School Committee of Boston was dissolved and all the schools of Boston were placed under the one School Committee.ea The final outcome of this unifying movement was that it resulted in better ar­ticulation and government of the entire pe­riod of elementary education. It did not, however, bring about as complete unification as might have been desired.es Many of the schools retained a horizontal grading. In some places the primary and grammar schools covered the entire period of elementary edu­cation while in others the divisions were primary, intermediate, and grammar; or pri­mary, secondary, intermediate and grammar. Lancastrian Schools A third type of school organization well known during the first half of the nineteenth century was the Lancastrian, or monitorlal school. Modeled after the Lan­castrian schools of England, it was first introduced into this country by the Free School Society of New York .in 1806. 70 Lancastrian School Organization.-­ 62J. M. Wightman, Annals of the Boston Pr:llllary School CCllllllittee, Boston: p. 251. 63Ibid., p. 224. 6 4E'. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School System, p. 31. 65J. M. Wightman, op. cit., p. 42 and p. 109. 66J. M. Wightman, op. cit., p. 46. e 7J. M. Wightman, .£E.· ~., p. 148. 68J. M. Wightman, op. cit., p. 259. 6 9F. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School System.; p. 31. G. C. Rand and Avery, 1860, 70"In 1797, Dr. Andrew Bell published in England an account of an experilllent in education by means of monitors, which he had made same years earlier in an orphan asylum in Madras, India. About the same tillle --~oseph Lancaster (an English Schoollllaster) was led independently to a similar discovery----." E. p. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, p. 90. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES The organization of the monitorial school was rather unique for the times. It con­sisted of a large room in wnich were seated from two hundred to a thousand pupils. 71 At one end of the large room was a platform for the teacher's desk, flanked on each side by a small desk for the principal monitors. The center of the large room was filled with two rows of benches, leaving >n aisle in the middle and one on each side. Each benc was long enough to seat nine or ten pupils. At the end of each bench arra~ements were made for seating the monitor. The Classification of Pupils.--The pupils were classified into groups, accord­ing to attainments, the numbe~ of groups varying from seven or eight to as many as twenty-five or more. 73 The course of study consisted largely of the memorization of a limited amount of content, so that promo­tions could be based on rigid standards of accomplishment. The system, although high­ly organized and strictly disciplined be­cause of its size, was so flexible that pro­motions were readily made every six months, or whenever a pupil was qualified to go on to the next higher class. 74 The Curriculum and Instruction in Lancastrian Schools.--The subjects of study included spelling, reading, writing, arith­ metic, English grammar, geography, and re­ ligion. 75 Frequently pupils were classifi­ ed separately for reading and arithmetic. Instruction was carried on by moni­ tors, who were usually selected from among the older or brighter children of the group The master taught tnese monitors the lesso for the day, and they in turn imparted them to their groups. Each monitor was usually in charge of a group of nine or ten pupils, all seated in one row. He supervised their work while they were at their seats, and when the time for recitation came, he called the group into a semi-circle in one of the side aisles. Group instruction was used. Instructional materials were usually limited to a few placards and an alphabet wheel, both of which could be hung on the wall where all in the group could see them. The pupils responded individually or in a body as the monitor pointed to the letters or figures. Because of the large number of pu­pils in one school, many such recitation groups had to go on simultaneously. 76 Once the Lancastrian system had be­come known, it spread rapidly in Europe and in this country. 77 Introduced into the United States shortly after the War for In­dependence, when the finances of the new States were low, it rapidly became a favor­ite method for extending education to the poor. It flourished extensively in the Middle Atlantic and Southern states, and partially in New England, from 1810 to 1830!8 But its popularity was short lived. It gradually faded away after 1830, so that by 1840 only a few traces remained. The enor­mous size, inadequate equipment, and poor instruction could not stand up under the increasing interest in education. But it had served its purpose. 79 It provided a cheap education when none other could have been provided. It created the opportunity for the educational revival during the second quarter of the nineteenth century. n J. F. Reigart, The Lancastrian System of Instruction in the Schools of New York City, Teachers Col­lege, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 81, 1916, chap. 4. 72 Ibid., chap. 4. 73 c. c. Ellie, Lancaetrian Schools in Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Preas, 1907, P• 11 and P· 21. 74 Ibid., p. 21. 75 E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, P• 223. 76 J. F. Reigart, op. cit., chap. 5· 77 "It became the basis far elementary education in England; it was adopted as a national system in Ireland; was used in Scotland---and the British colonies, India, West Indies, CBDB.da, and Africa." ~·, p. 8. 78 E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, P• 223. 79 "Seldom has an educational exper1lllent had a trial so complete and adequate, and few have resulted in so signal a failure." J. F. Reigart, ~· cit. , p. 6. A HISTORICAL SKETCH -ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Changes in Organization Foreshadowing the Graded School The graded elementary school as it is known today was not the outcome of a revolutionary movement which created order out of chaos. The graded elementary school was merely another stage in the evolution~ ary process which had been going on for half a century. The first step in this development was the horizontal division of the period o elementary education into schools of two or more different grades. 80 The nomenclature for these different grades varied consider­ably. In Boston the period of elementary education was divided into primary and gram­mar schools; in Concord, New Hampshire, in­to primary, intermediate, and grammar; whil many other variations were to be found in other towns. This aspect of the movement had spread to nearly all the New England towns by 1840. The second step in the process was housing two or more of these broad grade-units in one building. In Boston, in 1820, the Primary School Committee frequently housed the primary school in the basement of a grammar school. In New York, in 1810, these two units were frequently housed in one building. Latep, as three story gram­mar school buildings were constructed, the first floor was devoted entirely to the teristic of the movement, but out of it finally evolved the elementary school as it is known today, retaining some of the old names for various groups of grades, but all combining to make a composite, unified whole. 83 The third step in this gradual e­volution of the graded school associates itself with the classification of pupils. The departmental school, from its earliest inception, classified the pupils into groups in reading and writing. Although this was a vertical division, it was one form of classification. The primary schools, so common in New England from 1818 to 1850, had their pupils grouped into four or six classes, depending upon the progress they had made. 84 The Lancastrian schools of Philadelphia and other Middle Atlantic states had the pupils grouped into eight classes. 85 With the extensive use of monitors, each of whom taught nine or ten scholars, it was possible to grade the course of study very minutely, and to classify pupils accordingly.88 Even in the departmental reading school, it was common practice by 1823 to divide the work of the seven years into four divisions, thus permitti~ the pupils to be divided into four classes. A fourth factor, no doubt an out­growth of those previously mentioned, was the change in building construction. At first each of the reading and writing depart­ a1 d primary school. In some places the inter-ments occupie one large room or hall in mediate and grammar classes were housed in which the master and one or more assistant one building, while the primary schools teachers held recitations at the same time. 88 remained scattered in small units. 82 Innu-The resulting confusion soon revealed the merable variations in practice were charact-practicability of adding two or more small 8 °E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, p. 229. 81F. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School System, p. 29. 82"The characteristic fact in the pedagogical organization of our city schools is the division of the schools into three grades: the high, grammar, and primary. ----In the Western states most commonly the elementary schools comprise both the primary and grammary grades under the same principal and are housed in the same building. In the Middle and Eastern states, on the other hand, primary and grammar grades of pupils are generally instructed in separate schools, the schools of either grade having the~ own principal." J, D. Philbrick, City School Systems in the United States, United States Bureau of Educa­tion, Circular of Information, 1885, No. 1. pp. 19-21. 8 3F. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School System, p. 31. 84J. M. Wightman, op. ~·, p. 46. 8 5c. C. Ellis, Lancastrian Schools in Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 190~, p. 11. 86J. F. Reigart, The Lancastrian System of Instruction in the Schools of New York City, Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 81, 1916, p. 33. 87E. P. Cubberley, Public Education in the United States, p. 226. 88J. D. Philbrick, City School Systems in the United States, United States Bureau of Education, Cir­culars of Information, 1885, No. 1. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES recitation rooms in which the teachers could instruct smaller groups in private. The next logical step was to break down the departmental plan of organization, to increase the number of small rooms, and to reclassify the pupils so that each teach er occupying one of these small rooms taught all the subjects to the pupils assigned to her. This step was taken by J, D. Philbrick in 1848. A fifth factor OP,erating in this transitional half-century was the education al revival stimulated by such men as Horace Mann and Henry Barnard. Guided somewhat by European models, the educational leaders of this period exerted innumerably influ­ ences to bring about a better organization of elementary schools. The chapter which follows is devoted to a description of the first American graded school as the accepted plan of city school organization, and a review of some of the devices and procedures which have been ap­plied in an effort to improve and modify the formalized, graded elementary school which had developed. Also a brief account is given of the major forces which, during the present century, have been at work in an endeavor to create an elementary school organization which would meet in a more ade­quate way what appear to be the current edu­cational needs of children. CHAPTER 17 A HISTORICAL SKETCH--THE AMERICAN GRADED SCHOOL The Quincy Grammar School of Boston, organized in 1848 by J. D. Philbrick, was the first city graded school in America.1 Its organization was similar to that deve­loped in the German gymnasiums. 2 The Organization of the Quincy Gram­mar School.--The graded organization of the Quincy Grammar School was the next step in the evolution of elementary school organi­zation. The movements which made possible this new advance have been set for·th pre­viously. The building in which the Quincy School was housed was a four story struc­ture, the fourth floor being a hall or assembly room large enough to accommodate the entire school of about 660 pupils. In buildings constructed at a later date this large fourth floor was eliminated. The three lower floors provided twelve separate classrooms, each room being large enough to seat fifty-five pupils. It was probably the first gram:nar school which contained a separate desk and chair for each pupil. The division of the building into twelve classrooms made it rossible to place in each room, under the charge of one teacher, pupils of about the same age.3 The Extension of Graded Schools The advantages of the grades organi­zation were soon recognized, and many of the large halls of departmental schools were partitioned so as to form a number of smaller classrooms. Although school ad­ministrators readily recognized the feasi­bility of the graded plan, the difficulty of adjusting the old buildings to the new organization prevented many cities from ef­fecting the graded organization as a city­wide practice. The complete reorganization of the elementary schools of a district could be brought about only as the older buildings were remodeled or new buildings erected. Consequently the extension cf graded schools was slow at first, but with,­in twelve or· fifteen years after the es­ tablishment of the ~uincy Grammar School of Boston, nearly every city or town had adopted the plan, at least in the newer buildings.4 Criticisms of the Graded School As the graded plan of organization became the accepted practice in a larger number of communities, those responsible for the schools were not unaware of the possibilities for perfecting it. As a result, there was a tendency to organize schools which w-0uld operate more systemati­cally and with greater facility. In time, they became so highly organized that the perfection of organization, rather than the educational needs of the children, F. E. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School System, United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1916, No. 8, P• 29. 2 "The birth of the first graded school (a German gymnasium) occurred in 1537 when Johann Sturm organized his famous school at Strasburg. His plan originally contemplated nine classes, corresponding to the nine years that pupils spent in his gymnasium, each class having its own teacher, its prescribed studies, examinations, and promotions, in very much the same way that our schools of today have." J. c. Boykin, Class Intervals in City Public Schools, Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1890-1891, Vol. 2, P· 981. 3 F. F. Bunker, on. cit., p. 29. 4 -=-~­ "The movement toward graded schools developed slowly at first, but by 1860 nearly every town and city of any conseq_uence in the country, as well as many populous rural communities, had its own unified system of schoolsorganized on a graded basis with a defined course of study, embracing definite time limits, the whole sanctioned and protected by legislative enactment." Ibid., p. 54. 227 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES appeared to be the chief concern of certain school superintendents.5 There was, how­ever, "a growing conviction among the more intelligent observers of our graded system of schools, that there are serious defects either in the system itself or in its ad­ministration. This conviction is strong­ est where the schools have reached the highest degree of system and uniformity." 5 a By 1870 new methods and practices which it was hoped would correct the most pronounced weaknesses of the formalized graded school made their appearance. Elementary School Organization in St. Louis Those cities which adopted the graded system for elementary schools at a later date were able to avoid some of the pitfalls into which many of the earlier graded schools had fallen. The St. Louis, Missouri, school system formally adopted the graded plan in 1857. But owing to a large number of small buildings and other buildings which were not well designed for the new type of organization, consi­derable time elapsed before all elementary schools in the city were made into graded units. During the interval following 1857, many modifications were made in the St. Louis organization. When a new course of study was prepared in 1862, the new cur­riculum divided the work of each year into four ten-weeks units and promotions were made every ten weeks. The St. Louis sys­tem had, in reality, adopted a quarterly promotion plan, a unique variation from the annual promotions which were· generally in vogue. 6 The quarterly promotion plan is still in vogue in the elementary schools of St. Louis, In actual present practice the promotion in November and April, at the end of the first and third quarters of the school year, are essentially pape.r pro­motions. The records are merely closed on one quarter and the pupils enrolled in another, usually with the same teacher and a continuous program. The break, however, does afford a convenient place for indivi­dual special promotions or demotions. Also, most of the schools maintain one or more classes in each quarter of the grade at all times. The extent to which the quarterly promotion plan has been adopted by other cities is not clearly established. Boykin 1 s study in 1890, including returns from four hundred sixty-five cities, showed that the interval between promotion periods varied from grade to grade. The number of cities in which the class intervals were between a quarter of a year and a half year ranged from sixty-eight for Grade I to fourteen f'Or Grade VIII. The number of cities which reported a quarter of a year or less be­tween promotion periods ranged from thirty­two for Grade I to three for Grade VIII. For Grade III and above, nine or less cities reported quarterly promotions. A study made by Otto in 1929 of promotion practices in cities ranging in population from 2,500 to 25,000 revealed only four cities out of three hundred ninety-five in which promo­tions were other than annual or semi-an­nual.7 A similar summary from five hun­dred fifty-five school systems in cities of all sizes, reported in 1931, showed only five cities in which was evident a tendency to promote pupils at any time during the year; in three of these cities quarterly promotions were favored. Al­though there may be a number of school sys­tems which did not report when any of the above named studies were made, it seems safe to conclude that quarterly promotions have not been adopted widely and that this particular administrative innovation has 5 "Gradually others adopted the plan (graded schools) and by 1860 the schools of most of the cities and large towns were graded. By 1870 the pendulum had swung from no system to nothing but system." w. J. Shearer, The Grading of Schools, New York: H. P. Smith Publishing Co., 1899, p. 21. saE. E. White (Superintendent of Public Instruction, State of Ohio), Several Problems in Graded School .Management, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1874, p. 254. 6 J. C. Boykin, Class Intervals in City Public Schools, Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1890­1891, Vol. 2, p. 982. Henry J. Otto, Current Practices in the Organization of Elementary Schools. Northwestern University Contributions to Education, School of Education Series, No. 5. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern Uni­versity, 19)2. A HISTORICAL SKETCH--THE AMERICAN GRADED SCHOOL been confined in the main, at least over a period of years, to the city in which it was first established. Modifications in School Organization, 1870-1890 The developments in school systems of which St . Louis is a type, were so unqiue at the time that they have generally been described as the first practical il­lustration of a marked deviation from the graded system with annual promotions. The advantages of these variations from the usual practices, together with the dynamic leadership of the men who were instrumental in effecting these or similar reorgani­zations, undoubtedly were potent influences in bringing to the front the disadvantages of form~l graded schools. There followed a period of about twenty years (1870-1890) during which re­medies were sought for the large amount of elimination in the upper grades, over­crowding in the lower grades, failures, and the retardation of bright pupils, all of which were then being recognized as defects of the graded schools. Many superinten­dents hoped to solve these problems by increasing the numbe~ of promotion periods per year. One might safely conclude that most of the changes in elementary school organization effected from 1870 to 1885 consisted of variations in the number of times pupils were promoted during the year. Although other features of re­organization began to appear at this time, the problem of promotions continued to be a much debated issue. This is evidenced somewhat by the studies which were made to ascertain the promotional practices fol­lowed by school systems. Surveys of Promotional Practices.-­Boykin, in 1890, sent a questionaire to the 816 cities with a population of four thousand and over, asking the opinion of superintendents on certain issues. 8 Out of the 465 who replied, 367 favored, in whole or in part, class intervals of less than a year; 365 believed that rigid 8 op. cit., p. 1003-1004. annual promotions were a handicap to bright pupils; 385 thought that yearly intervals in some ways discourage the dull and waste the opportunities of the bright; 251 wore of the opinion that year-long intervals caused the progress of the whole class to be at. the pace of the slowest pupils; annual promotions were more common in the upper than in the lower grades. White made a similar study in the same year (1890} of the promotional prac­tices in the seventy largest cities. He found great variations between schools and within the same systems. Sixteen cities promoted semi-annually in the grammar grades, but annual promotion into the high school continued in practice. Ten cities promoted three or more times, or whenever the classes were ready, in the primary grades, but only twice a year in the gram­mar grades, and annual~y in the high school. Thirty-six of the seventy cities had the yearly interval in the grades be­low the high school, but only thirty-one of these promoted annually in the primary grades. Thirty-five of the cities pro­moted twice a year in all the elementary grades. Several cities had short but varying intervals in the primary grades, usually promoting whenever the classes were ready. 9 Prince, in 1898, presented ques­tions regarding promotions to a number of New England superintendents. His replies from eighty of the superintendents indi­cate that two-thirds of the cities had annual promotion, and that one-half of the cities provided for special promotions whenever individual pupils were qualified.1 0 The three studies just reported indicate rather clearly that, except for a few isolated cases, the general movement for reorganization, even up to about 1898, still centered largely in promotional periods. An inquiry directed by the Edu­cational Research Service in 1938 to all cities over 30,000 population and to 103 school systems in cities under 30,000 which were subscribing to the Research Service revealed that 48.9 per cent of the 9 E. E. White, Pre.motions and Examinations 1n Graded Schools, United States Bureau of Education, Circular of Information No. 7, 1891, pp. 16-21. 10J. T. Prince, Some New England Plane and Conclusions Drawn From a Study of Grading and Promotfon. Addressee and Proceedings of the National Education Associatibn, 1898, pp. 423-432. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES 366 cities from which replies were received had annual promotions and 47.8 per cent had semi-annual. The semiannual plan was found in 65.1 per ~ent of cities above 100,000 population and in 22.6 per cent of the cities under 30,000 population. During the preceding 5-year period 68 cities had changed their promotion plans, 53 of them having changed from semiannual to annual.11 Other Factors Influencing Elementary School Organization During the two decades after about 1885 other factors began to exert some in­fluence on the organization of elementary schools. Differentiated curricula, ability grouping, the child study m~vement, 12 the beginning of educational measurements 13 and a new educational philosophy14 afford­ed stimulation fo~ new ways of reorgani­zation. These newer forces which were af­fecting educational thought, just before and just after the beginning of the twen­tieth century, led to a more careful con­sideration of the other practices associ­ated with elementary school management. Thus attention was being directed to im­prove methods of organization of classes and the materials of instruction, and less thought was given to promotional practices~ 5 Studies in retardation by Maxwell (1904), Thorndike (1907), 16 and Ayres (1909), 17 challenged the machinery of the elementary school. But by about 1910, cur­riculum modifications and special classes of various kinds had become rather common, at least in the larger cities, so that remedies in organization were sought in other aspects of elementary school proce­ dure.18 Measures Usea for Promotion During the Colonial period, and when the schools were largely under the direct control of the school committees, the educational achievement of pupils was determined through oral examinations admi­nistered by members of the school com~ittee. As the schools of any one city became centralized under one governing body and the position of superin~endent was created,lS the promotion of pupils was usually determined periodically by an ex­amination prepared by the superintendent. Those pupils who did not receive the re­quired percentage of correct answers were not promoted:1° This practice, no doubt, was Promotion Policies in City School Systems, Educational Research Service, American Association of School Administrators and Research Division of the National Education Association, Circular No. 9 (1938). 12G. s. Hall, in about 1883, made a study of the contents of children's minds. G. s. Hall, Adolescence. D. Appleton and Co., 1904. 13E. L. Thorndike, Social and Educational Measurements, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1904. 14John Dewey, School and Society, University of Chicago Press, 1900. 15J. R. Kirk, Should the School Furnish Better Training for the Non-Average Child? Addresses and Pro­ ceedings of the National Education Association, 1907, pp. 221-7. C. N. Kendall, 'What Modifications in Organization are Necessary.to Secure Suitable Recognition for Pupils of Varying Ability, Particularly the Ablest? Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1908, pp. 147-152. c. R. Frazier, At 'What Should the Ungraded School Aim and For 'What Class of Pupils Should it Provide? Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1907, pp. 216-218. J.BE, L. ThoniJ.ike, The Elimination of Pupils From School, United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1907, No. 4. 17L. P. Ayres, Laggards in Our Schools, Russell Sage Foundation, 1909. 18D. E. Phillips, The Child Versus the Promotion Machinery, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1912, PP• 349-3~5· w. R. Siders, In Class Instruction How Can the Individual be Reached? Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1909, pp. 175-182. C. E. Chadsey, Our Educational Advance in the City, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Edu­cation Associaticin, 1911, pp. 203-209. 19 The first city superintendent was appointed in Buffalo, New York, in 1837. F. C. Ayer and A. s. Barr, The Organization of Supervision, D. Appleton and Co., 1928, p. 9. 20110ne method of administration places the several grades, as it were, in a series of roams adjoining, but separated by a wall in which is a closed door. Once a year the door is opened for the passage of A HISTORICAL SKETCH--THE AMERICAN GRADED SCHOOL 231 another one or the evils or the early graded schools. It was severely criticised during the same period that schoolmen were struggling with class intervals. But in spite or the skepticism with which the superintendent's examinations were viewed, their disappearance has been slow. No doubt they are still round in some schools. Philbrick, writing in 1885, recom­mended that mental capacity, physical con­dition, age, and scholastic attainments should be considered when promotions are made. He also suggested that the promotion oi-primary pupils should not depend on examination results.21 That changes were being made in the bases used ror promotion is indicated somewhat by the rindings or White in l890F2 His report shows that promotions in the primary grades in thirty-six cities were based on the teachar's estimate, in rour­tee:i. cities on the results or examinations {chierly), and in twenty cities on a com­bination or examinations and teacher's judgment. In the gram:nar grades, sixteen cities promoted on the basis or teacher's estim.ate; twenty-one on tee results or examinations; and thirty-three cities com­bined these two measures. Those cities which used a comQination or examinations and teacher's judgment exhibited innumer­able variations in weighting the two. The gradual change in this aspect or school administration may be noted in general by comparing wi~h the above study the rindings or Prince in 1898.23 The latter reports that only rour cities promoted to high school entirely on the bqsis or the superintendent's examination; in promoting rrom one elementary grade t~ another, two­ thirds or the cities combined the judgments or the teacher and the superintendent or principal. Another transitional keynote was sounded in an address by Harvey in 1900?4 He made a plea ror the abolition or the standard or seventy-rive or eighty per cent as the basis ror promotion, substituting ror it the class average as the basis and railing those who came more than twenty per cent below that average. Shearer, in 1901, urged the complete elimination or the written examination as a basis ror promotion.25 A similar stand was taken by Boone in 1903. 26 Determining the qualirications or a student ror promotion by examination or otherwise and setting the intervals when promotions are to be made are so closely allied that the s.s.me ractors which inrlu­enced a change in attitude and emphasis on the latter also arrected the rormer. It is not surprising to rind, thererore, that both or these were minimized in educati.onal literature arter about 1910. The education­al growth or the child was beginning to be recognized as a continuous process,27 and grading and promotion were looked upon as service agencies to be used to racilitate the educational development or the child.28 With the advent or a newer point or view in educational philosophy and the development or educational psychology {through the increasing use or educational those who are provided with cards bearing the requisite percentage mark, and then closed for another year.'! J. L. Pickard, School Supe~ision, D. Appleton and Co., 1890, p. 91. 21J. D. Philbrick, City School Systems in the United States, United States Bureau of Education, Cir­cular of Information, 1885, No. 1, p. 147.· 2 2E. E. White, Promotions and Examinations in Graded Schools, United States Bureau of Education, Cir­cular of Information, No. 7, 1891, p. 28. 2~. T• Prince, Some New England Plans anel. Conclusions Drawn From a. Study of Grading and Promotion, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1898, pp. 423-432. 2 41.. D. Harvey (State Superintendent of Wisconsin), Two Opportunities for Improvement in the Adminis­tration of Graded School Systems, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1900, PP• 203-210. 25W. J. Shearer, Grading for Efficient Organization in the Interests of Pupils, Addresses and Proceed­ings of the National Education Association, 1901, pp. 285-286. 26R. G. Boone, The Lock-Step in the Public Schools, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Edu­cation Association, 1903, pp. 408-412. 27W. H. Elson, Waste and Efficiency in School Studies, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Edu­cation Association, 1912, PP· 335-343. 2 8 J. Rosier, A Satisfactory Basis for the Promotion of Pupils, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1915, pp. 477-480. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES and mental measurements) the old attitude toward examinations as an instrument for promotion m9.y have changed materially. The extended use of standardized tests in schools has probably created a new point of view regarding promotional practices. A study made by Otto in 1929 which included reports from 307 school systems in 31 states showed that school systems dif­fered very widely in the choice of measures to be applied when pupils are promoted from one grade to another. A total of 17 dif­ferent measures were reported. These measures were applied singly or in combi­nation in 122 different arrangements. Al­though about one-fourth of the districts permitted the promotion of pupils to be determined entirely on the basis of one measure, the large majority of school sys­tems preferred a combination of several measures. No one combination of criteria particularly outranked any of the others in the frequency of use. The fact that a summary of the number of times each measure was reported showed "teacher's m9.rks plus teacher's estimate of industry and initi­ative" to have been posited most frequently (by 206 out of 307 school systems) indi­cated the trend away from w.r~tten examina­tions as a sole basis for promotion. The fact that standardized educational tests were named by 140 out of 307 school systems indicated the trend toward the use of standardized tests as one of the measures used ~n determining promotions.29 In 1934 200 superintendents and principals of elementary schools and 1,702 classroom teachers in 35 representative school systems in northern Illinois, ex­clusive of the city of Chicago, were re­quested to list the item or items which they considered most important or gave greatest weight in determining whe.ther a pupil should be promoted or retained. Twenty-eight different measures were men­tioned, achievement in subjects of study being named more than twice as often as any other item. Usually a combination of measures was applied, the 28 items being reported in 75 different combinations. Standardized educational tests were given a noticeably less important role than in the 1929 study~0 A general view of prac­tices in 1943 is found in Chapter 4 of this bulletin. Chau[::es in Orc;anization Through Modificati::ms in Curriculum and Teaching Method Modifications in the administration of tne curriculum and changes in teaching methods had made small beginnings before 1885. Direct eff'ortf' were made by those who were bold enough to break away f'rom tffi con­ventional, 'to enrich the curriculum by supple­mentary materials of various kinds. Other districts were more conservative and fol­lowed the usual prnctices.3i Some superintendents, however, did break away from the customary practices and tried to reorganize their schools and to adopt procedures in instruction to meet the needs of the children. A number of rather unique plans of organization were developed (Table 160). These historical plans of revision of the elementary school practices embody many phases of organization which, in slightly modified form, characterize some of the elementary schools of today. Preston W. Search has been named as the first one in America to voice loud protests against the class lock-step meth­ods of teaching and to urge complete indi­vidual progress for each pupil. He put 29Henry J. Otto, Current Practices in the Organization of Elementary Schools, Northwestern University Contributions to Education, School of Education Series, No. 5 (1932), pp. 66-68. 30Henry J. Otto, Promotion Policies and Practices in Elementary Schools. Minneapolis: Educational Test Bureau, 1935, PP· 29-33· 3 1."Recently the plan of supplem:inting the readers by the introduction of other reading matter has came into vogue quite extensively. With a view to meet the demand for this supplementary reading, a good many books have been compiled and published. Besides books designed for this purpose, juvenile periodicals and newspapers, and sometimes a second series of readers, have been introduced; and finally, biographical histories, and works of fiction have been more or less used for supplementary reading. "In a short time this supplementary reading business was in some quarters greatly overdone. Fortunate­ly a reaction has set in, and much of this supplementary rubbish is finding its way to the junk shop, while the regular readers are again coming to the front in the school roam." J. D. Philbrick, City School Systems in the United States, United States Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1885, No. 1, p. 68. A HISTORICAL SKETCH--THE AMERICAN GRADED SCHOOL Table 160 Variations from the Usual Type of Elementary School Organization 1862-1932 Person Associated With its Date of Es­Plan or Practice Establishment tablishment St, Louisa Pueblo b Cambridge0 Elizabeth, New Jerseyd Portland, Oregone Batavia:f North Denverg Santa Barbara Concentrich Platooni Burk's individualJ Dalton laboratoryk Winnetkab Detroit X-Y-Z groupingb Cooperative Group Plan ­ W. T. Harris P. W. Search Francis Cogswell W. J. Shearer Frank Rigler John Kennedy J. H. Van Sickle Frederic Burk W. A. Wirt Frederic Burk Helen Parkhurst C. W. Washburne C. S. Berry J. F. Hosis 1862 1888 1893 1895 1897 1898 1898 1898 1900 1913 1919 1919 1919 1930 a. J, c. Boykin, Class Intervals in City Public Schools, p. 983. b. E. P. Cubberley, Public School Administration (1929), p. 449-63. c. Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1894, p. 333. d. w. J. Shearer, The Lock-Step of the Public Schools, Atlantic Monthly 79:749-57, 1897. (The main features of the plan were worked out in 1885 at Carlisle, Pa., and later at New Castle, Pa., but it was not given a comprehensive trial until 1895). e. w. H. Holmes, School Organization and the Individual Child, chap. 3. f, John Kennedy, The Batavia System, p. 9. g. Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1898, p. 434. h. C. F. Burk, Discussion, Educational Review 19:296-302, 1900. i. w. S. Deffenbaugh, Significant Movements in City School Systems, United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1929, No. 16. J. M. A. Wat:'d and Others, Individual System as Developed at the San Francisco State Teachers College, Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, p. 60. k. Helen Parkhurst, Education on the Dalton Plan. his ideas into practical operation in Pueblo, Colorado, while engaged there as superintendent of schools from 1888-1894;2 The work in each subject in the high school was outlined in such a way that each child progressed at his own rate. All units in each course were studied by each pupil, but were completed at different rates. No marks were given. The teachers• records merely indicated the number of units each student had completed satisfactorily.33 Although the plan perhaps was applied more extensive­ly in the high school, Search also describes its application in the intermediate grades~4 In the latter grades all pupils were not expected to do the same amount of work; 32 "Adapting the Schools to Ind~vidual Differences~' Twenty-fourth Yearbook, Part II, National Society for the Study of Educati.on. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Co., 1925, p. 59. 3 3F. w. Search: ''Individual Teaching and the Pueblo Plan." Educational Review, Vol. VII, February, 1894, PP• 154-170. 3 4F. w. Search: "An Ideal School." D. Appleton and Co., 1901, Chap. X. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES the brighter pupils were cared for by enlarged and supplemented assignments. Search's plan experienced only a short history in Pueblo, it being dis­continued in 1894, the same year that he left the Pueblo schools for the superin­tendency of Los Angeles. During the one year that Mr. Search was in Los Angeles he was unsuccessful in establishing the plan there. How extensively the basic principles of the Pueblo plan were adopted elsewhere is difficult to state. In the writings by Search numberous illustrations are given from practices in other cities in which one or more elements of the Pueblo plan were adopted. A survey made by a Joint Com.nittee of the New York Teach­ers' Associations and reported by c. S. Hartwell in 1910 showed that 203 out of 965 cities reporting had tried ~he Pueblo plan and that in 278 other cities the plan was favored~5 The report by Hartwell does not make clear whether the Pueblo plan was adopted en toto by these 203 cities or whether only certain elements were intro­duced; neither does it show in what grades or subjects the Pueblo ideas were used. It is likely that only certain phases of the plan were adopted in the majority of these 203 cities. A questi~nnaire sent to 200 superintendents in 1922 by Ayer re­vealed the Pueblo plan in operation in 13 of the 124 cities from which replies were received.36 In Ayer 's investigation the various promotion plans were defined in sue a way that an item might be checked with a positive reply if a school system was using only one or more of the elements basic to a given plan. The report of the study does not indicate clearly the extent to which the cities reporting the existence of a certain plan were following it in its entirety. There are no recent data on the extent to which the Poeblo plan is in operation in public schools. Perhaps tha term "Pueblo Plan" has been obscured or lost as the elements of individualization and enrichment for brighter pupils have undergone new developments in the hands of educators who have worked in this field since the time of Search's work in Pueblo. It is sometimes difficult to trace the direct line of influence f'rom one type of innovation to another. Obviously the Pueblo plan had many elements which are similar to certain phases of the programs developed on the elementary level by Fred­eric Burk at the San .Francisco State Normal School and by Carleton W. Washburne at Winnetka, Illinois. On the high school level there are some similarities between the Pueblo plan and the Dalton Laboratory plan and the Mastery Technique developed by H. C. Morrison at the University of' Chicago High School. Doubtless each of these, as well as others that might be named, have inf'luenced directly or indirect­ly many other similar variations which may be found in public schools today. A leaf­let f'ro~ the United States Bureau of Edu­cation in 1926 listed 44 cities which were using the Dalton plan and 43 cities which reported the use of the Winnetka technique~7 Mo~t of these reports ~howed that whatever plan had been adopted was used in one or more buildings, in one or more grades, or in certain subjects. Doubtless there are also many other schools or classrooms in which various methods are used to provide for individual differences in pupils but the devices have not been given a special­ized title. Data from the National Survey of Secondary Education regarding provision for individual differences in secondary schools show at least 12 different types of provisions which in one way or another have characteristics similar to those found in the Pueblo plan~8 The items most frequent­ly checked as having proved unusually suc­cessful, and the number of schools checking each, are as follows: differentiated as­signments to pupils in the same class sec­tion, 788; contract plan, 465; laboratory 35 c. s. Hartwell: "The Grading and Promotion of Pupils." Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1910, p. 296. 3 sF. c. Ayer: "The Present Status of Promotional Plans in City Schools." American School Board Journal, Vol. LXVI, April, 1923, PP· 37-39· 37"Cities Reporting the Use of Homogeneous Grouping and of the Winnetka Technique and the Dalton Plan:• City School Leaflet No. 22, December, 1926. Washington, D. C.: Department of Interior, Bureau ofEducatl.on. 3a"Provisions for Individual Differences in Secondary Schools of the United States." School Review, Vol. XXXVIII, November 1930, pp. 641-643. A HISTORICAL SKETCH--THE AMERICAN GRADED SCHOOL plan of instruction, 323; individualized instruction, 309; Morrison plan, 174; modified Dalton plan, 52; Dalton plan, 13. The original Cambridge plan, established in 1893, outlined the same work for a·11 pupils for the first three grades of a nine-grade elementary school course. The work of the last six grades was arranged into two parallel courses, the regular course which required six years for its completion and a special course for brighter pupils which could be completed in four years. In 1910 the nine-year elementary school course was re­duced to eight years and the double-track plan was extended to include all eight grades. The Cambridge program provided chiefly for the average and superior children. The study by Hartwell previous­ly referred to showed that 78 out of 965 cities reporting had tried the Cambridge plan and that it was favored in 235 other cities. Hartwell's study, published in 1910, apparently was made before the orig­inal Cambridge plan was modified. Ayer's study in 1922 showed only 3 cities using the Cambridge plan. It is reported that the New Cambridge Plan, as established in 1910, has been discontinued in the City of Cambridge •39 The Elizabeth plan was developed and perhaps best carried out during W. J. Sheare~•s superintendency at Carlisle and New Castle, Pennsylvania~0 The ideas in­volved in Shearer's program did not re­ceive publicity until he attempted to put it into operation in Elizabeth, New Jersey. Although several articles and a book41 were written describing the plan, it was never carried out in a thoroughgoing manner in Elizabeth. In a letter (May, 1933) Mr. Chapman, the superintendent of schools, stated that as far as the city of Elizabeth is concerned, the plan is merely a memory. The only remaining vestige of it is the fact that some of the teachers now in the public schools have had considerable dif'­ f'iculty in meeting the requirements for certif'ication of' secondary school teachers because they attended high school only three years under Shearer's plan. Mr. Chapman, who had been in the Elizabeth school sys­tem since 1923, stated that as f'ar as he had been able to ascertain f'rom the older school people in that area, the plan was as much of a paper plan as a practical one in real operation. Apparently it had been discontinued in Elizabeth a long time ago. Hartwell's report (1910) showed that 270 cities had tried the Elizabeth plan. Here again the figures may be misleading in that a large number of' the 270 cities had adopted only certain features of the Eliza­beth plan. Ayer's study in 1922 showed that 45 cities were following this plan. In the questionnaire used by Ayer the Elizabeth plan was described as f'ollows: "pupils promoted whenever ready f'or ad­vanced work, regardless of time of' year." Doubtless some superintendents were led to check this item with a positive answer even if only an occasional student pro-f'ited by this policy and the plan was not the standard, prevailing practice. The extent to which the Elizabeth plan is found in public schools at present is not known. It is likely that the plan as such has lost its identity but that such elements of' it as individualization, division of' pupils of any one grade into three or f'our ability groups, and more rapid progress for capable pupils have round ready ac­ceptance in a variety of schools. Ability grouping, f'or example, was used in 1926 in the elementary grades in 145 cities of 10,000 to 30,000 population, in 66 cities of 30,000 to 100,000 population, and in 36 cities of' 100, 000 or more population.4 2 A study by Otto in 1929 showed that 108 out of 319 cities with a population. of 2,500 to 25,000 permit able pupils to advance more rapidly than the usual one grade per year, but without actually skipping any of the grades, thus embodying the rapid promotion 39 F. S. Breed, Classroom Organization and Management. World Book Co., 1933, :P· 202. 40 w. H. Holmes: School Organization and the Iridividual Child. Worchester, Mass.: The Davis Press, 1912, :P• 31. 41 W. J. Shearer: The Grading of Schools. New York: H. P. Smith Publishing Co., 1899. 42 City School Leaflet No. 22, op. cit., pp. 1-2. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES feature of the Elizabeth plan. 43 In the Portland, Oregon, plan for the organization of elementary schools the nine-grade course of study was divided into 54 units. A child who was a member of a regular progress group would cover 6 of these units each year or 3 per semester. The more capable children of each class were placed in a separate division which vas permitted to cover 8 units of the course per year (except the last year, in vhich only 6 units were covered), thus completing the full course in seven years. The two courses articulated at various points so that pupils might be transferred from the rapid progress to the regular groups and vice versa. According to a letter (June, 1933) from Superintendent C. A. Rice, thls plan vas discontinued in Portland about eighteen years prior to 1933. The extent to which it was adopted by other schools or is now in vogue in public schools cannot be clearly established. The plan as such may have lost its identity, but elements of it, particularly the division of the course into specific units vith more rapid progress for superior children, have been developed by other schools. The plan at Batavia, Nev York, made special provision for slov learning children in a school in which large classes (80 or more pupils per room) prevailed. Each room had tvo teachers, one a direct instruction teacher and the other an as­sistant teacher vho coached the laggards at a desk in the rear of the room. The as­sumption underlying the arrangement was t~t vith extra individual instruction each child could come up to the one definite standard. The plan has been gradually eliminated in Batavia. C. P. Wells, the superintendent of schools, stated (in a letter, May, 1933) that ten years ago there were ten classrooms in the city in which there were two teachers in the same room. At present (1933) there vere only tvo such classrooms. The plan has also been modified by departmentalization, where­by each of the two teachers altern.q,ted on subjects of their special choice as direct instruction and individual instruction teacher. Hartwell's report (1910) showed that 135 out of the 965 cities reporting 43 Op. Cit., p. 69. had tried the Batavia plan. Ayer's study in 1922 revealed 12 cities in vhich certain features of this plan had been adopted. Accurate information as to the e~tent of its present use is not available, but it would seem safe to conclude that there are few cities at present in which may be found two full-time teachers in a classroom. Elements of the Batavia plan may be recog­nized, however, in various special classes, especially those designed to bolster up the achievements of over-age and retarded children. The North Denver plan represents the reverse of the Batavia idea, the bright pupils being singled out for special help rather than the slow ones. The class organization remained largely intact, with all pupils covering the minimum assignments and with enriched assignments on each topic provided for the brighter pupils. That the scheme for enriching the curriculum for superior pupils might vork out more ef­fectively, each classroom was equipped with a carefully selected reference library of from 50 to 75 volumes. Hartwell's report (1910) showed that 162 cities had tried the North Denver plan. Ayer's investiga­tion of 1922 shoved 15 cities using it. Recent data as to the extent of its use are not available. In Denver itself (according to a letter of May, 1933, from C. L. Cush­man} there had not been anything by that name in effect in the schools for a con­siderable number of years. Perhap~ as vith other plans, the name has been obscured as elements of it have found expression in other schools. Differentiated curricula and differentiated assignments bear similar characteristics. Of course, as noted pre­viously, the direct relationship of one plan to another cannot be stated positively. The Santa Barbara Concentric plan divided the pupils df each grade into three groups, A, B, and C sections. All pupils did the basic content included for the C level, but the B pupils did more extensive work than the C groups and the A groups did still more than the B pupils. Pupils from the A sections were transferred to the C sections of the next higher grade vhen transfers were made. No data are at hand as to the extent of adoption or the extent A HISTORICAL SKETCH--THE AMERICAN GRADED SCHOOL of present use of the plan. In the city of Santa Barbara (according to a letter, May, 19~3, from P. E. Stewart, Superin­ tendent of Schools} the plan was found impracticable after a short trial and has not been in use for many, many years. Ayer reported 4 cities using it in 1922. It is likely that the plan as such was not extensively adopted. The direct lineage between the Santa Barbara experiment and present plans for providing for individual differences can be implied from the fact that Frederic Burk established the Santa Barbara plan and later started the indi­vidual work at the San Francisco State Normal School. C. W. Washburne of Winnetka, Illinois, and Willard Beatty of Bronxville, New York, were associated with Burk at the San Francisco school. The remaining innovations listed in Table 160 are well known to educators of today. The platoon school was started by W. A. Wirt in Bluffton, Indiana, in 1900. In 1929 there were 1,068 platoon schools in 202 cities ~4 It has been re­ported that the number of cities using the platoon system today is two and one-half times as large as the number using the plan in 1929.45 Burk's individual work has been developed in public schools by Washburne, Beatty, and others. The extent of adoption of the Dalton laboratory plan has been note previously. It may be found today in both elementary and high schools, both public and private. The extent of ability group­ing, similar to the X-Y-Z plan developed at Detroit, has also been mentioned. The most recent of the administrative innova­tions is the Cooperative Group plan. Some of its essential underlying principals are teacher cooperation, teacher specialization,. teacher leadership, specialized facilities, and a synthesis of the curriculum into a few, four to six, fields for educational stimulation and guidance· 46 Although the latter plan has been outlined in pub­ lished form only recently, a number of school systems are endeavoring to work it out at the present time. 47 Ability Grouping and Promotions.-­The communications received by Boykin in 1890 showed that several cities sectioned pupils of any one grade into two divisions, each division advancing at its own rate. 48 Frequently the division of pupils was sup­plemented by an ungraded room. In Malden, Massachusetts, the pupils were divided into bright and dull sections with equal time for both groups, but a difference in t~ comprehensiveness of instruction. In Owens­boro, Kentucky, the bright and dull sections advanced at unequal rates but covered the same work. Cairo, Illinois, supplied ad­ditional work for the bright pupils. Elgin, Illinois, allowed the better scholars to take work in a higher grade, while Sidney, Ohio, provided electives for the bright pupils. In 1898, Prince49 reported that a few cities which operated on the yearly in­terval plan had opened ungraded rooms; some had divided the pupils into small sections in two or three essential subjects, permit­ting pupils to progress as rapidly as pos­sible in each subject. In cities which had other than yearly intervals of promotion, the variations were equally large. Hartwell, in 1910, conducted a study to find out the extent to which school sys­tems had adopted the various plans of ele­mentary school organization which at that time were considered radical departures from 44 R. D. Cass, The, Platoon School in America. Stanf'ard, California: Stanf'ard University Press, .1931, p~ 30. 45 R. D. Case, "The Platoon School and the Depression." The Platoon School, Vol. VII, February, 1933, pp. 18-20. 46 J. F. Hosie: The Cooperative Group Plan. New Yark: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1929. 47 These historical accounts of administrative innovations were first published in Educational Admini­stration and Supervision, XX (March, 1934), 161-172. 48 J. c. Boykin, Class Intervals in City Public Schools, Report of the Camnis'sioner of Education, 1890,­1891, PP• 984-1003. 4 9 J. T. Prince, SClllB New Ji:ngland Plans and Conclusions Drawn From a Stuc1y of Grading and PrClll.otion, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1898, pp. 423-432. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES the conventional.so Some of the results of his investigation may be of interest. For example, he found that 270 districts had tried the Elizabeth plan, 203 the Pueblo plan, and that 275 school systems maintain­ ed ungraded rooms. Seattle, in 1891, had developed a rather complete system of ability grouping. The primary and grammar schools were each divided into A, B, C, and D classes. The pupils of any one class, like the primary D, were subdivided into divisions according to the ability of the pupils; all pupils pursued the same course, but the lower the ability of the pupils in any division, the longer it took them to complete the course~1 In 1926, 145 of the 163 cities of 10,000 to 30,000 population were dividing some or all of the pupils of the elementary grades into ability groups.s 2 To this array of developments which were taking place during the period under consideration must be added several other movements, Among these are the increase in the number of districts establishing specia classes of various kinds, the extension of departmental teaching, the development of junior high schools, the increase in the number of school systems which had pro­vided kindergarten training for children four or five years of age, reports and investigations by committees, developments in educational psychology, in educational philosophy and method, the influence of sur­veys of city public schools, and the train­ing of educational workers, particularly administrative officers. Each one of these will be reviewed briefly. The Growth of Kindergartens in Public Schools The first kindergartens affiliated with public school systems in this country were established in Boston, cieveland, and St. Louis during the years from 1870 to 1873 .ss !>tiring the past 42 years (1900­1942), their growth has been very marked (Table 161). In 1900, only 250 school systems reported kindergartens, while in 1924, 1,479 districts reported 8,515 kin­dergartens. During the depression years of the early 1930's there was a decrease in the number of cities operating public school kindergartens. By 1936 the number of cities reporting kindergartens had decreased to 1,164. That the kindergarten movement is beginning to reach the smaller communities is evidenced somewhat by the fact that during the academic year, 1919­1920, 255 new kindergartens were established in 22 states in 189 towns of less than 2,500 population.s4 The extension of kindergartens in city public school systems has been ac­companied, as one would expect, by a de­crease in the number of private kinder­gartens. In 1914, 1,571 private kinder­gartens were reported while by 1924 this number had decreased to 1,319. The en­rollment in private kindergartens decreased approxim~tely 29 per cent during this ten year interval.5 s Between 1900 and 1940 the enrollment in private kindergartens dropped from 93,737 to 57;341. State legislation has been a potent factor in promoting the extension of kin­dergartens. In 1886, Connecticut and Vermont passed the first laws giving school authorities permission to support kinder­gartens through local taxation.se By 1925, forty-four states had placed some kind of kindergarten laws on the statutes~7 Since the kindergartens, when first established, were a separate unit in the educational system, problems have arisen soc. s. Hartwell, Grading and Promotion of Pupils, Addressee and Proceedings of the National 100.ucation Association, 1910, p. 294. s i F. J. Barnard, The Seattle Plan of Pramotion and Classification, Report of the Camniseione;r of Edu­cation, 1898, pp. 335-341. s 2 Cit1es Reporting the Use of Hcmogeneous Grouping and the Winnetka Technique and the Dalton Plan, United States Bureau of Education, City School Leaflet No. 22, Dec., 1926. s 3 Report of the Camnissioner of Education, 1887-1888, p. 816. s 4 J. w. Abbott, Kindergarten 100.ucation, United States Bureau of 100.ucation Bulletin, 1922, No. 40. p. 1. ssM. D. Davis, Nursery-Kindergarten-Primary Education in 1924-1926, United States Bureau of 100.ucation Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1927, No. 28, p. 15. s 6 Louise Schofield, Kindergarten Legislation, United States Bureau of 100.ucation Bulletin, 1916, No. 45, p. 1. s 7 N. c. Vandewalker, Kindergarten Legislation, United States Bureau of 100.ucation Bulletin, 1925, No. 7, p. 4. A HISTORICAL SKETCH--THE AMERICAN GRADED SCHOOL Table 161 Growth of Public Kindergartens in City School Systemsa Number Number Number Number Year of of of of Cities Kindergartens Teachers Pupils 1873 42 73 1,252 188ob 232 524 8,871 1888b 521 1,202 31,227 1900c 250 1,815 3,326 131,657 1912d 867 6,563 7,391 301,327 1924e 1,479 8,515 l0,852 564,363 1930 1,197:f 723,443 1938 607,034 1940 594,647 1942 625,783 a. Data were adapted f'rcm Report o:f the Camnissioner o:f Education, 1899-1900, Vol. 21 p. 2563; the United States Blll"eau o:f Education Bulletins, 1914, No. 6, and 1925, No. 20; and subsequent biennial surveys o:f education .• b. The data were only :for those actually reporting; the data included private and public kindergartens. c. The data were :for cities o:f over 4,ooo population. d. Size o:f towns vae not given. e. In cities, towne, and villages. . :f. Fating the Lower Education," School Review 12:436-458, June, 1907. s oy. E. Kilpatrick and C. s. Hartwell, Discussion, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1909, P• 501. 91 Departmental Teaching in the Grades, Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1913, Vol. l, p. 139· A HISTORICAL SKETCH--THE AMERICAN GRADED SCHOOL Columbus, Ohio, and Berkeley, California, in 1919. Los Angeles followed in 1911. Since then the number of reorganized high schools has increased rapidly. In 1920, there were 326 junior high schools in 158 cities with a population of 10,000 and over. By 1926, there were 980 such schools in 383 c1ties.e2 The reorganiza­ tion has affected all states and all sizes of comm'.lllities, In 1940, in cities of all sizes, there were 2,372 junior high schools, 6,203 junior-senior or undivided high schools, and 959 senior high schools, or a total of 9,534 reorganized high schools out of a total of 25,308 high schools of all kinds in the United States. Measurements in Educational Psychology It is difficult to measure in exact terms the direct influence that psychology has had in determining school reorganization. Likewise it is difficult to ascertain the point where the influence of psychology ends and that of educatjonal philosophy begins. There are, however, certain developments in psychology which no doubt have played their part in school reorganization during the twentieth cen­tury. In the measurement of achievement, crude beginnings were made by J. M. Rice in 1897,e3 By 1910 Thorndike had developed his handwriting scale. This was soon followed by the Hillegas composition scale. The testing movement was under way by 1912 and since World War I, hundreds of achie~e­ment tests have been placed on the market and have found their way into schools. In the field of mental measurement Binet is usually given credit for the pro­duction of the first instrument in 1908.e4 The revisions of the Binet test by Goddard, Kuhlman, and Terman have made it a valu­able measuring instrument in America. After World War I, group mental tests won popu­larity, and by 1920 these began to find a place in the work of public schools. As all these measuring instruments became the service tools of the school administrators, they helped to point out more specifically than ever the great variations among individuals and the need for differentiated treatment.es School organizations, courses of study, and meth­ods of teaching were subjected to new and more critical evaluation. Special classes, opportunity rooms, ~nd differentiated cur­ricula grew in numbers. It is likely that the Junior high school movement has grown largely out of the study of adoles­cent youth.es Changes in Educational Philosophy As pointed out before, psychology and educational philosophy have exerted their influence in close relationship during the twentieth ceatury. At the beginning of this period, educational philosophy gave a new slant to educational thought.e7 The center of attention shifted from the convenience of organization to the interests and activities of the child. ea The school was looked upon as life itself, rather than a preparation for life, and as the agent which provided desirable social and civic participation. The child and his intrinsic interests and needs became potent 92The number of segregated Junior high achoola reported in the Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence, page 212, is l,lo8 for the year 1926. Size of cities not given. esH. A. Greene and A. N. Jorgensen, The Use and Interpretation of Educational Tests, Longmana, Green and Co., 1929, p. 3° e4 F. N. Freeman, Mental Testa, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1926, p. 84. esG. D. Strayer, The Uae of Testa and Scales of Measurement in the Administration of Schools, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1915,.pp, 579-582. 96David Snedden, The Peculiar Psychologic~l Conditions and Needs of Seventh and Eighth Grade Pupils, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1916, pp. 398-402. 97Jobn Dewey, School and Society, University of Chicago Press, 1900. John Dewey, Interest and Effort in Education, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1 1913. w. H. Kilpatrick, The Project Method, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1919. 98w. F. Ruaaell, "American Education and Democracy, II Teachers College Record, 30:13-23, Oct., 1928. w. H. Kilpatrick, "The Philosophy of American Education," Teachers College Record, 30:13-23, Oct. 1928. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES influences in educational policy.ss Newlon, in speaking of Dewey's influence in schools, says, "Dewey focussed the attention of teache~s on the nature and the needs of the child. He makes child growth rather than the demands of subject matter the center of the school's activities, a distinction of utmost importance.--The influence of these theories (doctrine of interest and moral education) is clearly discern9.ble in present-day school buildings and equip­ment. The modern school C·::mtains assembly roo~s, libraries, gymnasiums, shops, art room'3, dining rooms, social rooms, and frequently certain other rooms more or less specialized in character. Buildings are designated to house schools that are in fact embryonic communities. Distinct provision is made for the social life of the pupils.---­ "Nothing short of a revolution h9.s occurred in school equipment. Dewey had movable desks in his experimental school. -----By 1906 a movable deak was on the market." 100 To the influence of Dewey must be added the work of m.9.ny others who re­flect this point of view. Whether all the changes in schools essayed above are directly 9.ttributable to the influence of a changing philosophy may be questioned. Nevertheless, it is beyond doubt that edu­cational philosophy, along with all the other forces, has played its part. Changes in Method and M9.terials of Instruction The increasing importance given to differences among children and the need for recognizing those differences in the educative process h9.ve resulted in the pro­duction of m9.terials of instruction which m9.ke it possible to adapt the content as well as the methods of teaching to the va1•ying needs or' pupils. Such devices as differentiated assignments, individuali­ zed drill materials, and the organization of the content into small units for indi­vidual pupil progress have been designed. The development of instruments for the diognosis of pupil difficulties has, no doubt, brought about a more effective ap­plication of these newer methods and mater­ ials. One m9.y -t;hus find in the schools of today types cf instruction which vary from the form9.lized, routine, group method to completely ir,1i · idualized methods and materials. The development of individualized teaching procedure m9.kes it possibl.e to have some individual instruction regardless of the organization o~ the school. As instructional mate~ials of this type are used m?re extensively, it is not mere fancy to assume that in the future materials of instruction and methods of teaching will have marked influence in the organization of elementary schools. City School Surveys The surveys of city schools during the past 35 years have treated nearly every phase of elementary school organization and administration.101 Many of the surveys have made recommendations for the rapid advancement of bright pupils; the enrich­ment of content for the more able ones; the recognition of individual differences; the adoption of individualized instruction; and the establishment of special classes. The organization of junio1· or six-year high schools has been encouraged. Nearly all aspects of kindergarten organization and practices have been treated in certan sur­ veys .102 Caswell made a study of the changes in organization which h9.d been effected in city schools after a survey had been ~ade,103 ssEllsworth Collings, An hperiment With the Project Curriculum, The ~cmillan Co., 1924. Harold Rugg and Ann Shumaker, The Child Centered School, World Book Co., 1928. iooJ. H. Newlon, "John Dewey's Influence in the Schools," Teachers College Record, 31:224-2;8, Dec., ·1929. 101A. J. Kiein and othsrs, Educational Surveys, United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1928, No. 11. 102G. Waite, The Kindergartens in Certain City School Surveys, United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1926, No. 13. 103H. L. Caswell, City School Surveys, Teachers College, Columbia University Contributions to Education, 1929, No. 358. A HISTORICAL SKETCH--THE AMERICAN GRADED SCHOOL 1 247 Those elements of his study which relate such reorganizations were the direct result to the elementary school have been assemble of the survey. (Table 163). The findings of Caswell show Caswell summarizes his study by Table 163 Changes Reported by Superintendents in Elementary School Opportunities and Organization Which Have Followed Comprehensive City School Surveys in Fifty Citiesa Following Direct Indirect Not a the Survey Result of Result of Result of Change in School Practice Per Survey Per Survey Per Survey Per Number Cent Number Cent Number Cent Number Cent Average size of elementary classes was changed 10 20~ 3 4 3 Platoon school organization was adopted 4 8 0 0 l 3 75 Schools were reorganized on the K-6-3-3 plan 20 40 11 55 3 15 6 30 Ability grouping was adopted 26 10 38 6 23 10 Per cent of over-age pupils reduced 33 66 11 33 10 30 Per cent of failures re­ duced 64 10 31 10 31 12 38 Age of entrance to first grade was changed 13 26 4 31 3 6 46 Definite promotional policies adopted 26 11 42 8 31 7 27 Kindergartens were estab­ lished 6 12 2 33 l 17 3 50 Special classes were organ­ ized 18 2 11 6 33 10 Summer schools were organ­ ized 9 18 l 11 l 11 7 78 Curriculum was differentiated for slow and fast pupils 25 50 8 32 4 16 13 52 Time allotted to physical education increased 23 46 10 6 7 30 a. Adapted :from H. L. Caswell, City School Surveys, Teachers College, Columbia University, Contri­butions to miucation, 1929, No. 358, Chap. 4. that the authors of 10 city school surveys made some recommendations regarding the size of classes. In 3 of the 10 schools the change in the size of classes was a direct result of the survey; in 4 of them the change in the size of classes was an indirect result of the survey. Thus 70 per cent of the changes in class size had been influenced by the recommendations made in surveys. Among the other items of interest is the reorganization of the school on a K-6-3-3 basis; 55 per cent of saying, "-----in a large group of school systems surveyed since 1914, survey influ­ence has played a vital part in accomplish­ing change; in addition to the results in local school systems, surveys have contri­buted significantly to the development of standards and methods of measurement for use in the administration of schools.104 The Training of Administrative Officers In the development of educational l 04 Ibid., p. 106. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES practices it has been hoped that, through the reading of educational literature and institutional study, a more extensive pro­fessional training of teachers and admini­strative officers would aid in bringing about better and more effective schools. The last half century has witnessed a con­tinuous increase in the printed material dealing with the multitudinous aspects of the education of children from pre-school age through adolescence and even into col­ lege. ios Some of the educational literature found expression, especially since 1890, in institutional courses designed for the training of educational workers~06 In 1900 content of courses designed for the training of administrative officers consisted largely of the elements of theory and practice of teaching, history of edu­cation, and school man9.gement.1 07 The courses were taught largely by the success­ful, experienced type of school man who had turned college professor· .ios The early books in sch0ol administration (Table 164) treated largely of classroom management and Table 164 Certain Early Books Giving General Treatment to Elementary School Organization and Administration Date of Author Title Publica- W. H. Payne Joseph Baldwin J. L. Pickard E. E. White Joseph Baldwin W. J. Shearer S. T. Dutton W. E. Chancellor s. T. Dutton and David Snedden A. c. Perry A. c. Perry w. H. Holmes A. c. Perry E. P. Cubberly P. H. Hanus J. L. Horn A. s. Gist Chapt~rs on Sch0ol Supervision The Art of School Management School Supervisiona School .Management School Management and School Methods The Grading of Schools School .Management Our Schools--Their Adminlstration and Super­visiona The Administration of Public Education in the United States The Management of a City School Problems of the Elementary School School Organization and the Individual Child Outlines of Scheel Administration Public School Administrationa School Administration and School Reports The American Elementary School The Administration of an Elementary School 1875 1881-1891b 1890 1893 1897 1898 1903 l904-1908b 1908-1912 1908 1910 1912 1912 1916-1929b 1929 1924 1928 a. Have been used extensively in college courses in general administration. I. L. Kandel, Twenty-Five Years of American Education, The Macmillan Co., 1924, p. 181. b. Revised at this date 105w. S. Monroe, Ten Years of Educational Research, University of Illinois Bulletin, 1928, No. 51. H. B. Chapman, Organized Research in Education, Ohio State University Studies, 1927, Monogt"aph No. 7. 10611The most significant development in the whole field of education in the United States has been the organization of facilities and opportunities for its study." I. L. Kandel, Twenty-Five Years of American Education, The Macmillan Co., 1924, p. 29. The first permanent chair of education was established at Iowa in 1873. In 1891 there were only ten such departments of education. .!E.!!,., p. 183. 107I. L. Kandel, Ibid. 1 p. 30. 108I. L. Kandel, Ibid., p·. 194. A HISTORICAL SKETCH--THE AMERICAN GRADED SCHOOL school control. It was not until Dutton and Snedden, in 1908, wrote The Adminis­ tration of Public Education in the United States that a text treating of nearly all pnases of school organization and admi­nistration was available for use in col­lege courses. Towards the beginning of the sec­ond decade of the twentieth century there began to appear books which treated of special aspects of elementary school ad­ministration (Table 165): Since 1920 1927 to ascertain the opportunities for the professional training of elementary school principals.110 A tabulation of the courses which treated largely of admini­strative problems or were intimately re­lated to the administration of elementary schools, showed 936 courses available during the summer session of 1926, and 1,237 residence courses during the academic year of 1926-1927. If to this number are added 125 extension courses and 173 cor­respondence courses, a total of 2,471 Table 165 Certain Early Books Treating Special Aspects of Elementary School Administration Date of Author Title Publication V. E. Kilpatrick Departmental Teaching in Elementary Schools 1908 L. P. Ayres Open-Air Schools 1910 F. L. Burk Lock-Step Schooling and Remedy 1913 John Kennedy The Batavia System of Individual Instruc­ tion 1914 c. L. Spain The. Platoon School 1924 E. A. Irwin and L. A. Marks Fitting the School to the Child 1924 J. L. Horn The Education of ExceEtional Children 1924 J. E. W. Wallin The Education of HandicaEEed Children 1924 H. H. Goddard School Training of Gifted Children 1928 educational literature has stressed the need of providing specialized education for atypical children. Courses Available for the Training of School Administrative Officers.--A study by Edminster in 1928 revealed 52 public and 28 private institutions which main­tained a separate college or school of education: 09 An analysis of the offering of these 80 institutions showed a total of 592 courses which could definitely be calle administration and supervision courses. Sixty-two per cent of these courses were classified in the field of administration. A study of state universities, state colleges, and semi-public and private colleges and universities was made in 1926­ courses were available during the period under consideration. Hosie made a similar study, in­cluding 140 institutions, to find the number of courses specifically designed to train general supervisors.1 11 Out of 140 institutions, only 17 offered courses during the academic year of 1926-1927 de­signed specifically for the training of general supervisors. During the summer session of 1926 only 16. institutions of­fered such courses. The offering in­cluded nearly 40 different courses with a total frequency of 98 for the academic year and 81 for the summer session. The last 20 years have witnessed further expansion of college and university lOSJ. M. Edminster, Administration and Supervision Courses 1n Colleges and Universities, Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Minnesota Library, 1928. 11 0Department of Elementary School Principals, Seventh Yearbook, 1928, Chap. 21. 111J. F. Hosie, "The Training of General Supervisors," First Yearbook of the National Conference on llrlnnRtional Method. 1928. Chap. 11. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES courses in school administration, finance, and supervision. An ever increasing num­ber of superintendents and principals have taken advantage of the advanced training available at higher institutions and many of them have achieved the master's or doctor's degree. Various investigations made since 1926 h~ve shown that year by year an increasing number of elementary school principals have secured the bache­lor's degree, the general average now being well over 50 per cent holding the bachelor's degree with nearly 20 per cent holdin_g a master's or doctor's degree. Men far surpass the women in the amount of training. Two studies of the status of elementary school principals in New York state, made 14 years apart, reveal rather clearly the improvement during the inter­val in the training of principals.112 In 1927 only 21 per cent of the principals were college graduates; in 1941, 69 per cent held college degrees and 54 per cent had either the master's or the doctor's degree. The most striking change in edu­cational qualifications had occurred in the case of principals of village ele­mentary schools; in 1927 only 14 per cent were college graduates as compared to 69 per cent in 1941. The Department of Elementary School Principals of the National Education Association was organized in 1920. In 1942 the membership of this department was 6,240. There were also 37 state principal's associations, 167 sectional organizations for .counties and districts, and 136 local city associations. To the professional improvement of the elementary school principals must be added the group of elementary school supervisors who have been working as dili­gently as the principals and the superin­tendents in the reorganization and improve­ment of elementary schools, the influence of the increasing body of literature in ele­mentary education, and the curriculum revision movement. There are no ways of measuring exactly the influence of each of these forces but it is certain that each has played an important role in bringing about changes in the organization and administration of elementary schools and thus creating the organizational and admini­strative practices which are revealed in the first 14 chapters of this bulletin. 11 2w. w. Coxe, Study of the Elementary School Principal in New York State. University of the State of New York Bulletin No. 926 (June 15, 1929) · s. c. Sumner (Chairman), The Status of the Elementary School Principal in New York State. New York State Association of Ele~ntary Principals, 194). APPENDIX A List o.f Schools Represented in the Study State and City Alabama 1. Anniston 2. Birmingham 3. Birmingham 4. Spring Hill 5. Tuscaloosa Arizona 6. Flagsta.f.f 7. Peoria 8. Phoenix Arkansas 9. Blevins 10. Ft. Smith 11. Helena 12. Little Ro·ck 13. Paris Cali.fornia 14. Clearwater 15. Cotton 16. Dos Palos 17. Fresno 18. Los Angeles 19. Maxwell 20. Oakland 21. Orange 22. Pasadena 23. Pasadena 24. Palm City 25. Petaluma 26. Piedmont 27. Pittsburg 28. Pittsburg 29. Sacramento 30. Santa Cruz 31. Santa Rosa 32. Van Nuys 33. Ventura 34. Williams 35. Woodbridge Colorado 36. Boulder 37. Boulder School A. Public Schools Noble Street Edgewood South Highland Baker Jamison Elementary South Beaver Dysart #89 Osborn Blevins Elementary Peabody Je.f.ferson Parham Paris Grade School Los Cerritos Grant Dos Palos Elementary Heaton Elementary Micheltorena Maxwell Union Elem. Prescott Center Street Hamilton James Madison Elem. South Bay Union Wilson Elementary Havens Ambrose Elementary Intermediate David Lubin Laurel Fremont Hazeltine Ave Mound Williams Woods Elementary Highland University Hill Address 901 College Homewood 2030 Magnolia Ave. Route 1 Greenshow Road 212 s. Beaver Rt. 1 N. Central Ave. 21st and Rogers 429 Pecan 15th and Vance 818 Compton Blvd. 1246 McKinley 1511 Micheltorina 920 Campbell 437 South Center 2089 Rose Villa 515 Ashtabula Bay Blvd. & Coronado Bodega Ave. 320 Bonita R. F. D. 1025 Black Diamond 3540 K Laurel & Center College Ave. 7150 Hazeltine RFD 2 Box 196 9th & Arapahoe 16th & S. Broadway Name o.f Respondent Mrs. Fred Bryant Mrs. C. A. Carlisle R. C. Johnston Mrs. N. B. Hutchens Ward Green T. R. Weitzel Edward L. Riggs Howard M. Soule Mrs. Russell w. McCrachen Thos. H. Allen Fannie Haraway M. Justus Matlock Beulah Hames Mrs. Josephine Ellen Hurley Mabelle H. Logan Mrs. Blanche Schmidt Hattie May Hemmat Maryle Flynn Lyrel D. Bullard Alfred E. Baker Matie.Dannemann DeRoy F. Cobb L~e Roy Hall Lillian M. Olivier Inex Kaartinen Jane Sherrod Harold DeFraga Emma Linscheid Ray B. Dean Viola Meints Helen R. Wright Helena Niegosch Wincklen Ethel Henderson Dena Burrows Erma B. Reese Lucile Bowman Marie Meble 251 ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES State and City Colorado (Continued) 38. Boulder 39, Denver 4o. Englewood 41. Fort Collins 42. Fort Morgan 43. Greeley 44. Pueblo 45. Salida 46. Windsor Connecticut 47. Bridgeport 48. Bristol 49. Bristol 50. Darien 51. Darien 52. Middletown 53, Naugatuck 54. Waterbury 55. Willington Florida 56. Bradenton 57. Jacksonville 58. Palm Beach 59, Sarasota 60. St. Petersburg Georgia *61. Atlanta 62. Savanah Idaho 63. Burley Illinois 64. Aurora 65. Berwyn 66. Boomington 67. Blue Island 68. Chicago 69. Chicago 70. Cortland 71. Glen Ellyn 72. Peoria 73. Springf'ield 74. Springfield Indiana 75, Bloomington 76. Clinton 77. Evansville 78. Frankfort 19· Goshen 80. Hobart 81. Michigan City 82. Muncie School Whittier Garden Home Hawthorne Boxelder Lincoln Elementary Central Platoon Minne qua Longfellow Park Elementary Platoon Beardsley Mary.A. Collen T. H. Patterson Baker Holmes Central Grammar Salem Hendricken Hall Memorial Ballard West Springfield Palm Beach Public Central Child's Park School John B. Gordon Waters Ave. Southwest Center Lincoln Edwards Whittier Belding Burnside Cortland Benjamin Franklin Douglas Bunn Iles Hunter Central John M. Culver James Whitcomb Riley Parkside Roosevelt-Main Jefferson Blaine Jr. High Elem. Address 2008 Pine 3600 w. Kentucky 4100 S. Barrack Rt. 4 State 8th St. & 11th Ave. 1708 E. Orman H Streat Huntington Road 72 Maple St. Noroton Ave. Hoyt College Meadow East Main 18th West 9th 352 Seaview Golf 21st Ave & 39th 1205 Metropolitan s. Conant Root & E. Park Keth & Elmwood Market & Allin 13043 Maple Ave. 4257 N. Tripp Ave. 650 E. 9lst Bryant Ave. 225 Reed 12th at Division 15th & Laurel 2nd at Maple Blackman 1301 Judson 303 s. Williams 7th South Main 4th s. Wabash Shipley & 7th Name of Respondent Jessie K. Fitzpatrick Helen K. Bailey Donald w. Harper Wayne R. Simpson Mrs. Edna A. McKay Wilma Scott Edna Hellstern Mrs. Nellie Hightower Agnes Cofell GrE>.ce Sterling Garriett D. Tompkins MJ's, King P. G. Porter Ethel H. Miller Mary F. Anderson Hoyden K. Greeley Helen G. Moroney Anna M. Skehan Viola M. Larson Mrs. Blanche H. Daughtrey Beulah Beal Clara Hunter Ca~ron Doris Brownell Mary I. Bainum Mary c. Barker E. R. Blauer Ruth E. Bradshaw Iva J, Crisp Effie M. Munson Lovisa A. Young Marion A. Franco- Ferreira Turner c. Chandler Ila E. Webster Flo~ence R. Kroeger C. E. Lange Allen J, Black R. c. Wagner Frederick G. Neel Agnes McG1nty David Dudley D. F. Pitman w. E . . Pletcher ·Esther Mae Ashley Mrs. Jessie R. Barnett Omar M. Mitchell APPENDIX A 253 Stat~ and City Indiana (Continued) 83. Muncie 84. South Bend Iowa 85. Clarinda 86. Grinnell 87. Marion 88. Muscatine 89. Waterloo Kansas 90. Colby 91. Cottonwood falls 92. Hutchinson 93. Junction City 94. Kansas City 95. Kingman 96. Lawrence 97. Parsons Kentucky 98. Ashland 99. Covington 100. Danville 101. Frankfort 102. Ft. Thomas Louisiana 103. Amite 104. Baton Rouge 105. Delhi lo6. Waverly Maine 107. Mariaville Maryland 108. Baltimore 109. North Bast 110. Princess Anne Massachusetts lll. Boston ll2. Gloucester ll3. New Bed.ford 114. North Adams 115. Revere 116. Revere ll7. Reve;re ll8. Salem ll9° Springfield 120. Springf'ield 121. Worcester Michigan 122. Batavia 123. Berkley 124. Coldwater 125. Escanaba 126. Flint 127° Grand Rapids 128. Grosse Pointe School Lincoln Benjamin Franklin Lincoln Davis Emerson Garf'ield Longfellow Colby Consolidated Roosevelt Washington Primary Oak Grove Central School McAllaster Lincoln Charles Russell Fifth District East End Consolidated Second Street Samuel Woodf'ill Shiloh (Dist. 1) Nicholson Andrews Waverly Washington Dundalk N. E. Elementary Princess Anne Elem. Beethoven School Dist. Babson I. W. Benjamin Mark Hopkins Julia Ward Howe Max Achenbach Wolcott Bowditch Brightwood Washington Thorndyke Road Station Angell Branch Barr Elementary Walker Lexington Mason Address 12th & Sampson 838 Clinton North 19th Hamilton Ave. 10th Ave. 314 Steward Rd. 416 Lincoln City School 16th at Adams 328 West 6th R.R. 2 Spruce Rhode Island Lincoln & Stevens Russell 18th & Holman Walnut Alexandria Pike Rt. 2 North Street R-1 s. Playf'ield William Pleasant Division Street Church Crescent Ave. Park Ave. Campbell Ave. Flint 471 Plainf'ield Washington Woodlawn Throndyke Road R. R. 3849 Beverly 5th Ave. South East 2nd Lexington & Calif'. Vernier Name of Respondent Charles E. Lyhins c. M. Harris E. Dale Buchtol Mrs. Merle A. Wilson Hattie E. Frager A. Marea Othermer Florence Beverley Bill E. McArthur Wylie V. Harris Grace Casebolt Alice Campbell Elizabeth Lallier Jessie H. Lowe Suzan Todd Mrs. Caroline w. Porter Edward w. Mathis Park Strother H. w. Betts Richard Van Hoose Sheila Johnson Jack F. Lanier Mrs. L. w. Peters Mrs. F. P. Talbert Elizabeth Piper Mrs. Merle Foster Geo. W. Schluderberg Frances M. Cleaves William B. Evans, Jr. James E. Dolan Nine E. Low Edith M. Astley Hazel B. Mileham Ruth E. Annia Ma~·ion L. Bartlett Mary B. Lof'tus Patrick T. Fallon Fanny M. Bemis Roas M. Bowker Gertrude M. Dodge Ethel M. Flynn Marguerite McCrimmon Esther Libert Mary Teusink Fanny Bradley Jessie Mitchel Ethel M. Tucker ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES State and City Michigan (Continued) 129. Hartford 130. Hastings 131. Hazel Park 132. Middleville 133· Muskegon 134. Muskegon 135· Muskegon Heights 136. Port Huron 137· River Rouge 138. Ypsilanti Minnesota 139· Duluth 140. Eveleth 141. Fosston 142. Grand Rapids 143. Minneapolis 144. Preston Mississippi 145. Columbus 146. Greenville 147. Greenville 148. Jackson Missouri 149. Aurora 150. Brentwood 151. Normandy 152. Richmond Hts. 153. St, Louis 154. Webster Groves Montana 155· Billings 156. Dillon 157. Helena 158. Lewistown Nebraska 159· Aurora 160. Pierce Nevada 161. Battle Mt. New Hampshire 162. Concord 163. Portsmouth New Jersey 164. Asbury Park 165. Bloom.field 166. Bradley Beach 167. Delaware 168. Glan Rock 169. Hammonton 170. Harrington Park 171. Hoboken 172. Montville School Brague Hastings Public Hoover Thornapple-W.K. Kellegg Froebel Nelson Chas. A. Lindbergh Fillmore Ann Visger Prospect Irving Benjamin Franklin Fosston Public Riverview Lake Harriet Preston Public Demonstration Carrie Stern Central Jefferson Davis Aurora Mark Twain Garfield Richmond Heights Roe Bristol Taft Dillon Public Central Lincoln David Stone Rural Elementary Elementary Walker Sherbur-ne Bradley Brookside Bradley Beach Delawanna #8 Richard E. Byrd Grammar Harrington Park No. 8 Montville Address Broadway 23700 Hoover 417 Jackson Washington Barney 813 Hancock 22 Abbott 503 Oak 56th Ave. West Fayal Ave. Upton & W. 2nd M.s.c.w. 500 McAllister Broadway 750 N. Congress 7636 Litzsinger 6506 Huzen Ave. 7330 Glades 1921 Prather 20 Gray Ave. South 26 8th and Warren 7th Ave. N. State, Chur9h Boston Sherburne Road 3rd and Pine Essex Ave. Brinley Ave. Oak St. 640 Donemus Ave. Vine Main Road Name of Respondent Minnie Smith Helen M. Wade Marjorie w. Long Julius F. Schipper Mrs. Jessie s. Albert Ruth A. Lewis Eunice M. Castle Louise M. Wagner G. o. Lockwood Olive M. Adams Elso Becker Marvin L. Berge s. P. Johnson Edna I. Murphy K. Wind A. A. Schwieger Mrs. Janie A. Robinscn Norma C. O'Bannon Mattie Houston L. Moody Simms Roy F. Litle Marvin Kinsey Ward E. Barnes o. J. Chaney _:a.ta v. Bear Egbert w. Nowlin Nellie v. Brown O Kay Mae Linus J. Carleton Mrs. Zella K. Flores Minnie Dixon Clara E. Parks Mary s. Black Mrs. Mary A. Chase Margaret I. Simpson Iva F. King M. A. Byelow F. J, Gronde Laura F. LaVanee Mrs. Ethel T. Wright Grace s. Oakes George Bainbridge L. J. Taistra Mrs. Bessie Decker Franklin 42 Park Ave. Francis H. Budd 173· Newark APPENDIX A 255 State and City New Jersey (eontinued) 174. Passaic 175· Plainf'ield 176. Princeton 177· Ridgefield Park 178. Tenafly 179. Vineland New Mexico 180. Albuquerque 181. Albuquerque 182. Carlsbad New York 183. Cedarhurst 184. Delmar 185. East Aurora 186. Eggertsville 187. Elmira 188. Floral Park 189. Forest Hills 190. Geneva 191. Ithaca 192. Jamestown 193· Johnson City 194. Kenmore 195. Londonville 196. Long Isiand City 197· Malverne 198. New Hartford 199. Niagara Falls 200. Pelham 201. Pelham 202. Port Jervis 203. Poughkeepsie 204. Pt. Richmond North Carolina 205. Hillsboro 206. Leicester 207. Salisbury 208. Wilson North Dakota 209. Fargo 210. Jamestown 211. Minot Ohio 212. Bedford 213. Cincinnati 214. Conneaut 215. Euclid 216. Gallepolis 217. Marion 218. Tiffin 219. Wadsworth Oklahoma 220. Depew School #6 Evergreen Elementary School Washington Irving Maugham Dr. Geo. Cunningham North 4th Street Valley Edison Cedarhurst #5 Delmar Public East Aurora Elem. Eggertsville Elem. Hendy Ave. John Lewis Childs The School in the Gardens, p, s. Cotland Street St. John Falconer Street Harry L. Johnson Geo. Washington Londonville Public School # 83 Lindner Place Elementary Pacific Ave. Colonial & Siwanoy Prospect Hill East Main Street Benjamin Franklin Public Sch. #20 Hillsboro Leicester A. T. A'.llen Frederick A. Woodard Hawthorne Roosevelt Elementary Central Interstate Westwood Lake View Bldg. Noble Washington Pearl Street College Hill Lincoln Depew Address 5th Courtland c. Dav 106 Euclid Ave East Ave. 106 N. 4th Bernallillo Co. N. Alameda C Ave. Delaware Ave. Main 1360 Eggert Rd. Hendy Ave. Tyson Ave. 101 Queens, Russell Place Cortland Clinton & Geneva Falconer Harry 1. Drive 3425 Vernon Blvd. Genesee Clay Ave. East Main 50 Delafield Heverton Ave. East Innes Kenan 424-9th Ave. So. 2nd. St. S. E. 55 Justin Harrison & Montana Lake View Ave. Babbitt Road 4th & Locust Pearl 268 N. Lyman Name of Respondent Anne C. Brown Courtland c. Davis Mrs. Helen c. Brearley Mr. Merrill s. Burnham Kenneth A. Woolf Mrs-. A. Virginia Adams Harry L. Hogrefe Ellen Arledge Edward c. DeMuth A. E. Kent Arlington F. Smith Frances A. Rosen A. c. York Mathilde s. Hoagland Rena C. Hoyden Louise F. Specht Reba E. Owen Mary L. Arnold Mary A. Bargar Bertha E. Clarke Fred H. Duffy Edgar s. Pitkin Frank c. Arnold G. Mercer Guerry Herman F. Lybarger Eva M. Abbott Georgia Ann Coleman Winifred w. Cotes Ruth M. Abbott Franklin A. But.ts Mary M. Blair Annie Sutton Cameron S. O. Wilde Annie E. Bostian Mrs. Edwina L. Wells Ivy Brandt Wm. W. Gussner Kathryn M. Waldron Ida DeLoreto Earl H. Applegate Bessie M. Grant Bessie F. Wells Ben R. Evans Mabel Lea Earl E. Joachim Myron Cunningham ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES State and City Oklahoma (Continued) 221. Pryor 222. Shawnee 223. Texhoma 224. Tulsa Oregon 225. Albany 226. Ashland 227. Corvallis 228. Hood River *229. Portland 230. Roseburg 231. Roseburg 232. Vida Pennsylvania 233. Abington 234. Altoona 235, Allertown 236. Ardmore 237. Darby 238. DuBois 239, Homestead 240. Lancaster 241. Milton 242. Osceolo Mills 243~ Scranton 244. Swissvale 245. Upper Darby 246. Wilke-Barre 247. York Rhode Island 248. East Greenwich 249. Harmony 250. Newport 251. Providence south Dakota 252. Aberdeen 253. Mitchell 254. Mitchell 255. Sioux Falls Tennessee 256. Knoxville 257. Lexington Texas 258. Abilene 259. Abilene 260. Abilene 261. Abilene 262. Alice 263. Alvin 264. Amarillo 265. Amarillo 266. Amarillo School Pryor Grade Jefferson Texhoma, Texas John Burrought Maple Lincoln Harding Oak Grove Beaumont Fullerton Rose McKinzie Highland Adams Garber-Horne Ardmore Ave. Walnut Street Hubert Street 5th Ward M. J. Bricht Central Grammar Consolidated Daniel Webster #15 Dickson Bywood Conyngham Madison James H. Eldredge Harmony Carey Summitt Ave. Henry Neill Eugene Field Longfellow Longfellow Belle Morris Antioch Alta Vista College Heights Lamar Locust Elementary Hobbs-Strickland Alvin Elementary Alice Landergin Glenwood Long School Address 600 East Main 800 North Louisa 1924 N. Cinncinati West 7th Beach 31st & Harrison Rt. # 3 4303 N. E. Fremont w. Madrone Ave. Orcut 6th Ave-24th St. 31 South Penn. Ardmore 6th & Walnut 6th and Hubert 11th and West 1250 Lititz Pike Center Highway s. Webster and E. Locust Schoyer Westminster Madison at West 1st Ave. Putnam Pike Carey 86th 901 Court Merrill 922 E. 2nd Ave. 20th and· 4th Av~. 2630 Washington Pike Rt. 4 1929 s. 11th N. 17th and Beeqh N. 8th and Hickory s. 8th and Locust 300 N. Reynolds 3209 Taylor 2400 Mirror (35 Mi. North of Amarillo) Name of Respondent Ruth Stanford Gladys Risher Jo Ann Wright w. B. Balley Anna F. Mcconnel Edith L. Bork Austin E. Haddock Vienna Annala H. w. Ager Ruth Swinney E. H. Campbell T. Russell Fr~nk Ethel M. McCormick Mary D. Rausch Ralph F. Davenport .Mary V. Cooper Earl L. Magill Alice Hirth Caleb w. Bucher Bura E. Raup Mary L. Carlin Joseph M. Dunleavy Marguerite Tennis D. J. Mahoney Julia C. Sprenkel John A. Whitehead Caroline Burton Hermann C. Patt Ursula M. Berry Edna J. Durland Thora o. Sanger Gertie Belle Rogers Grace Haas Gerald, L. Bell Mrs. Ruby Webb Brooks Ike w. Jay s. E. Pass James A. Roberson M. M. Sheffield Mary E. Steel T. A. Smith Violet B. Davidson Louise Orr APPENDIX A 257 State and City Texas (Continued) School River Road Woodrow Wilson Amherst Elementary Andice Colorado Fiskville Pilot Knob Bandera Public Myrtle Creek Grammar Jefferson Davis Junker Beeville Elementary La Vega Edhube Dodge South Ward Bremond Brookshire Elementary BI'ownsboro South Ward Bowie Buda Burnet Elementary Burton High Call Co. Line Calvert Elementary Ada Henderson Campbellton Public Prarie Hill Charlotte Elementary Wilson Green Valley Dist. 30 Cleburne Cleveland Elem. Tarkington Prarie Midwar District 30 Commerce Elementary Ben Milam Primary- Intermediate Sam Houston Elementary Edward Furman George Evans M. Menger Elementary Dalby Springs Darrouzett San Felip #2 Dry Creek Bell Springs Sam Houston Northside Elem. Elbert 267. 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 273, 274. Amarillo Amarillo Amherst Andice Austin Austin Austin Bandera 275, Bandera 276. Bartlett 277. Bay City 278. Beaumont 279. Beeville 280. Bellmead 281. Bonham 282. Brady 283. Brady 284. 285. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290. 291. 292. 293. 294. Bremond Brookshire Brownsboro Brownwood Bryan Buda Burnet Burton Call Calvert Cameron 295, Campbellton 296. 297. 298. 299. 300. 301. 302. 303. 304. 305. 306. 307. 308. 309. 310. Celeste Charlotte Childress Cibalo Cleburne Cleveland Cleveland Collingsworth Co. Commerce Conroe Conroe Corpus Christi Corpus Christi Corpus Christi Dalby Springs 311. Darrouzett 312. Del Rio 313. Del Valle 314. Dripping Springs 315. Edinburg 316. El Campo 317· Elbert Address Rt. 3 1619 Taylor Rt. 2 Rt. 3 112 Caldwell Tyler West 11th Box 1243 West 26th West 19th RFD #1 310 Ave. G. Rt. 1 311 Featherston 1115 Alameda 1315 Comanche 2209 S. Alamada 1200 Broadbent Rt. l w. Mcintyre Name of Respondent Clay Hale Sarah Miller Thelma Stevens Mrs. Hester Davis Mrs. James Warren Mrs. Lenora Speir Mrs. Vivian c. Horn Vivian Keese Mrs. Selma Meadows Lena B. Meeker John H. Cherry Walter L. Williams Mrs.P. W. Laine Clo Dossey Nita Mae Gamblin Olan L. Petty Mrs. Alma Heggte Bennett Mrs. w. D. Bains c. H. Corse R. B. Lee c. M. Bethany R. c. Barton Mrs. Maud B. Wetzel Lula M. Blasienz w. E. Poteet Garland Capel Mrs. Vallie N. Dunford Loree Smith Mr~. Madge Warren Mrs. Mamie R. Dunn J, B. Bright Mrs. Ethel Roark J, L. Biggs Mrs. L. G. Vandagriff Jackson Massey Joe A. Smith B. B. Rice U. D. Henslee, Jr. Erwin Brand J, B. Parr Eva Kate Joiner Minnie Lee Popham J. B. Pena Mattie B. Morgan H. R. Gross Jo. Archer Eulalia Mitchell ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES State and City Texas (Continued) 318. Eldorado 319. El Paso 320. El Paso 321. Era 322. E"ant 323. Fairy 324. Floresville 325. Fort Davis 326. Fort Worth 327. Fo1·t Worth 328. Foster 329. Franklin 330. Georgetown 331. Gilmer 332. Gilmer 333. Gilmer 334. Granbury 335, Grand Prairie 336. Grand Prairie 337. Happy 338. Harlingen 339. Hearne 340. Hebbronville 341. Henderson 342. Hillsboro 343. Hillsboro 344. Houston 345. Houston 346. Huntington 347. Iowa Park 348. Jacksboro 349. Jasper 350. Jourdanton 351. Jourdanton 352. Junction 353. Karnes City 354. Kaufman 355, Kerrville 356. Kingsbury 357. Krum 358. La.scasle 359, La.mesa 360. Langtry 361. Leonard 362. Liberty 363. Liberty 364. Linn 365. Lipscomb 366. Livingston 367. Llano 368. Longview 369. Longview 370. Longview 371. Lorenzo School Eldorado Grade Morehead San Jacinto Era Consolidated West Point Fairy Floresville Grade Anderson D. McRea Peter Smith Foster Elliott Grammar East Mountain Gilmer Ward Kelsey Granbury Dallas Co. Elem. Idlewild Happy Elementary Sam Houston Hearne Elementary Primary Church Hill Franklin Harris Franklin Montrose Huntington Elem. Valley View Elem. Jacksboro Elem. Jasper Elementary Jourdanton Ward Tobey Junction Elem. Carnes City Elem. Kaufman Elem. Kerrville Elem. Kingsbury Krum Lascasle Lamesa Elementary Langtry Public Leonard Elementary Fregia Liberty Elementary Sam Lane Lipscomb Independent Livingston Elementary o. Henry 1st Ward Northcutt Heights White Oak Grade School Address Arizma and Kansas 1216 Olive Rt. 1 2216 Ave. N. 715 w. 2nd Rt. 6 107 w. 12th Rt. 1 Scott Rt. 4 Rt. 1 East Jackson 801 Magnolia RFD 5 East Franklin Duncan 7100 Canal Stanford Rt. 1 Box 58 Barnett Box 788 RFD 1 Box 181 Padon and 4th Northcutt Ave. RFD 4 Name of Respondent E. A. McMillan Mabel v. Keeney Lillian Phillips A. H. Gordon Winnie Hampton W. M. Horsley Lewis R. Fisher V. E. Smith Harold Graves Allys Jean Rich Mrs. R. E. Yelderman Buna McMillan Annie Purl Obie A. Baker Clarice Buie Annie Lewis Brat Nettie .Baccus Mabel G. Trigg Mrs. Edyth R. Bosse Mrs . . H. B. Wesley Marvin T. Hill Lonnie E. Ricketts Mrs. Delia Glasscock Mrs. Minnie Pool Mrs. Mary Baskow Elsie Sawyer J. H. Hood Mrs. R. E. Doty T. P. White Mrs. Grace Reaves Truett McClung C. J. Jackson L. Henderson Mrs. Allie Coward R. D. Kothmann A. Y. Benge Harold L. Smith T. F. Daniels w. Lee Yantis L. s. Kammerdrener M. D. Murphy M. D. Murphy Pualine w. Burnes Fred R. Hamilton s. T. Arredondo Dixter Sell Ethel Mccardell w. Ray Witcher L. R. Sharp Mrs. Mary Alice Bell J. L. Gibbons Vivian Keaster Mullings APPENDIX A 259 State and City Texas (Continued) 372. Lott 373. Luf'kin 374. Luf'kin 375. Marshall 376. Mathis 377• McAllen 378. McAllen 379, Medina Co. 380. Mercedes 381. Memphis 382. Meridian 383. Mexia 384. Midland 385. Milam 386. Millsap 387. Mineral Wells 388. Montague 389. Montgomery 390. Mt. Pleasant 391. Muldoon 392. Newlin 393· Nocona 394. Odem 395. Odem 396, Orange 397. Overton 398. Overton 399. Palacios 400. Palestine 4.01. Percilla 402. Petrolia 403. Pharr 404. Placedo 405. Plainview 406. Port Arthur 407. Port Neches 408. Post 409. Post 410. Pt. Lavaca 4ll. Quail 412. Quanah 413. Rosebud 414. Rosenberg 415. Rowena 416. San Angelo 417. San Angelo 418. San Angelo 419. San Angelo 420. San Angelo 421. San Angelo 422. San Antonio 423. San Antonio 424. San Juan School Lott Elementary Biloxi Kurth Sam Houston Elem. Mathis Grammar Lincoln Wilson Murphy South Grammar Eli Meridian Point Enterprise South Elementary Ross Springs Millsap Houston Montague High Montgomery Elem. East Ward Pin Oak Newlin Farmers Creek Elroy Ward Grammar Curtis Leveretts Elementary Overton Elementary Palacios Elementary Pleasant Grove Percilla Petrolia Ward Buell Placedo Highland Elem. Franklin Port Neches Elem. Graham Grassburr Central Elem. Quail Rural Consolidated Willowview Rosebud Grammar Robert E. Lee Of'f'en Ft. Concho John H. Reagan McGill #9 Mirabeau B. Lamar San Jacinto Santa Rita South Elementary Woodrow Wilson Elem. South San Juan Address Raquet East Houston Austin 12th and Hackberry Rt. 1 Main SW. 4th Ave. East 3rd 102 College Box 42 10th and Mobile Star Rt. Virginia Rt. 3 110 Blk. Ave. C. 1600 Blk. Volney W •. Harris & David Spaulding 500 S. Madison Name of' Respondent A. C. Akridge Mervin Smith Ina Mae Townsend Mrs. Bella Wyatt Victor Fields w. s. Graham w. Edward Perry Nada v. Of'f'holter Mrs. o. w. Larson W. T. McDaniel Mary Wilson Mrs. Ross Vickers J. H. Watson A. H. Pritchard Mrs. Lenna Bert Hodge Mrs. Dora Broydon Mrs. Vivian Fowler Mrs. Jewel Leming Mrs. C. H. Cheves Mrs. Eloise Steadman Mrs. Ellen Wilkinson Lula Johnson Belle Corder Kennerly E. T. Pater G. H. Andrews Mrs. Claire Burton Mrs. Ruth D9.vis Dorothy Carlton W. A. Hall Gertie M. Napper T. L. Nicholson Sev. Reeves Frank D. Austin Mrs. Madie Harrison Mrs. Bob Lusk Mrs. Clara J. Earhart M. H. Meadows Elver J, Brown Mrs. Marie Swindell Joyce Benbrook Sister M. C. Freitag Sue M. Probandt Jack H. McKay Mrs. Evelyn c. Phil­ lips Lida Gibbs Ora Sproul Ella Timms Jones R. E. Rogers Mrs. Mae Tompkins ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES State and City Texas (Continued) 425. Seguin 426. Silsbee 427. Silver Valley 428. Slocum 429. Snyder 430. Sonora 431. Stephenville 432. Streeter 433. Sugar Land 434. Sweetwater 435. Taft 436. Tanglewood 437. Taylor 438. Taylor 439. Terrell 440. Texarkana 441. Texarkana 442. Texarkana 443. Texarkana 444. Thrall 445. Tyler 446. Vernon 447. Vernon 448. Victoria 449. 'Waco 450. 'Waco 451. 'Weatherford 452. 'Weimar 453. 'West 454. 'Wichita Falls 455. 'Windom 456. 'Winters 457. Woodlawn Utah 458. Delta 459. Salt Lake City Vermont 460. Burlington 461. Pas sumps ie 462. Peacham V.irg1nia 463. Danville *464. Lynchburg 465. Petersburg 466. Richmond 467. Salem 'Washington 468. Colville 469. Prasser 470. Spokane 471. Yakima 472. Wash. D. c. 473. Wash. D. c. School Mary B. Erskine Smart Silver Valley Slocum Lloyd Mountain Sonora Elementary Central 'Ward Long Mountain Sugar Land Elem. John R. Lewis Green Ave. Tanglewood Hc:i1::ie 12 Street Elementary Akin Central G:rim Liberty Thrall Elementary Swan East Vernon Northside Mitchell North 'Waco Provident Heights Fox Osage 'West Urammar City View Allens Chapel Baldwin 'Woodlawn Delta Elementary Holladay Converse Passumpsie Ewells Hollow Robert E. Lee Thomas c. Miller Virginia Ave. Chimborazo Broad Elementary Riverview Jefferson Adams Wallach Wheatley Address 216 E. College Rt. 1 Mrs. Lida Rhodes 'Washington 403 W. Arkansas Rt. 3 North Catherine New Boston Rd. 10th and Lucas Rt. 2 Box 74 Rt. 5 Rt. 2 Rt. 4 2015 Alexander 2415 Basque North. Harrison Rt. 1 Rt. 4 4600 S. 23 E. Pine and Cherry Loyal Mansfield Ave. Va. Ave and Diamond 33rd and Marshall 33612 Grand Adams 7th D St. NW Neal and Montello Name of Respondent L. c. Liston and Joe F. Saegert Mrs. Alllla Ward Mrs. Kenneth Croom F. E. Day Mrs. Lida Rhodes Ben Featherston G. E. Massey Orlan Stewart E. K. Barden Rufus F. Walker o. Dan Carter Irma Avrett Dorothy L. Anderson F. E. Wilks Grady L. Coates Mrs. Tom Watts c. Clyde Mitchell H. L. Lamb c. K. Bender Willard N. Ander Mrs. Mae Lynn Walker Bessie Rex J. N. Fulcher Floyd Schiewitz Mrs. Maureen Johnson Mrs. B. B. Baker Mrs. Johnnie Boyd Mrs. Ruth Ramsey Mrs. Horace Holland Mrs. Elizabeth u. Stephensen Arthur o. Clark Margaret S. Cotey A. John Holden, Jr. A. John Holden, Jr. Mary E. Powell Helen D. Urguhant Mrs. Eunice S. Byus ·w. Carter Bleight Annie Hancock Mabel Summers Edna L. Keene Jack H. Allbaugh Nellie McKinney Ella M. Crook Mrs. Bessie w. Cramer State o.nd City West Virginia 474. Apple Grove 475. Crab Orchard 476. Leawood 477. Morgantown 478. North Charleston *479. Paw Paw Wisconsin 480. Eagle River 481. Kenosha 482. La Crosse 483. Manitowoc 484. Merrill 485. Milwaukee 486. Milwaukee 487. Superior Wyoming 488. Casper 489. Frontier 490. Powell B. California 1. Ancata Florida 2. Gainesville Idaho 3. Lewiston Illinois 4. DeKalb 5. Evanston 6. Normal Kentucky 7. Morehead Louisiana 8. Natchitoches Maine 9. Farmingto11 Massachusetts 10. Hyannis 11. Salem 12 • Fitchburg Michigan 13. Marquette 14. Ann Arbor Minnesota 15· Mankato 16. Bernidji APPENDIX A School Address Sunnyside Carb Orchard Leawood Second Ward Wilson Ave. Grandview Paw Paw Graded Evergreen Durkee 839-62nd. Emerson 21st and Campbell McKinley N. 11th and Herron Jefferson W. Main Atwater Bldg. 2100 E. Capitol Dr. u. s. Grant 2920 w. Grant Peter Cooper 1812 Wyoming Grant 5th and Bonnie Brae The F School Grade College Campus Demonstration Schools College Elementary P. K. Yange Lab. Univ. of Fla. School L.s.u. Lab. School Eighth St. McMurry Training State Teachers School College Children's School Nat 11. Col. of Ed. Metcalf Elem. Ill. State Normal University Breckinridge Training State Teacher's School College L.S.N.C. Elem.Tr. Sch. Training School 1 Quebec Hyannis Taining Ocean Horace Mann Training Loving Ave. State Teach. Col. Edgerly Training John D. Pierce Training School u. of Mich. Univ. Elem. State Teach. Col. College Elem. State Teach. Col. Lab. School 261 Name of Respondent Marguerite Asher E. C. Stover R. v..Braham Cecil R. Gates Paul J. Stevens Oscar C. Clark Antoninette T. Kukanich Lena Nelson Myrtle Oltman Edward Eblert Priscilla Rothlisberg Laura E. Kellar Peter Bickler M. R. Steffens Margaret Chambers Anna L. Meyer Ralph Witters Dorothy E. Romero A. R. Mead Margaret Sweet Stuart D. Fink Clara Belle Baker J. w. Carrington Chiles Van Antwerp A. T. Browne Arthur Dinsmore Ingalls Wm. G. Currier Geo. T. Moody Louis Wingate Olive G. Fox Myrtle Firestone Anna M. Wilcking Ruth Jessnl ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES State and City Mississippi 17. Cleveland Missouri 18. Kirksville 19. Springfield *20. Warrensbury New Hampshire · 21. Plymouth New Jersey 22. Paterson 23. Glassboro New York 24. Buffalo North Carolina 25. Greenville 26. Boone North Dakota 27. Dickinson 28. Valley City Ohio 29. Athens 30. Parma Oklahoma 31. Tahlequah Oregon 32. La Grande Pennsylvania 33, Bloomsburg 34. Millersville 35. Mansfield 36. Lock Haven 37. California 38. Shippensburg 39, East Stroudsburg 40. Slippery Rock South Dakota 41. Spearfish Tennessee 42. Memphis Texas *43. Denton 44. Huntsville 45. San Marcos Washington 46. Cheney School Hill Demon. School Greenwood Lab. School Greenwood Trng. School Col. Lab. School Ply. Tow Grade # 15 Demons. School School of Practice Trng. School Boone Demons Central (Demons. and Practice School S.T.C. Trng. Sch. Univ. Elem. Sch. Thoreau Park Bagley Trng. Sch. Ackerman Campus Elem. School Benjamin Franklin Millersville Trng. School Campus School Campus EL Sch. Cross Lab. Sch. Rowland Lab. Sch. Campus Trng. Sch. Elem. Division of Lab. School Trng. School Teacher Trng. Sch. Dem. School Elem. s. Marcos Elem. Lab. School Address Delta State Teach. College St. Teach. Col. Summer Oak St. Teach. Col. St. Teach Col. East Caro. Teach. College 3rd Ave. St. Teach. Col. E. Union Street 5401 W. 54th St. Teach. Col. Spruce St, Teach. Col. St, Teach. Col. St. Teach. Col. St. Teach. Col. Black Hills Teach. Col. Memphis St. Teach. Col. Teachers Col. Ave. K and 8th Eastern Wash. Col. of Ed. Name of Respondent Jane Oliver C. H. Allen H. A. Wise Cloyd Anthony Marion K. Seavy Edith R. Shannon Ora Lee Everts c. A. Pugsley Frances Wahl John T. Howell Pelagia Kosmoski Mrs. Opal Wooldridge Edith E. Beachel Susie Mccreery J.M. Hackler John M. Miller Earl N. Rhodes s. B. Stayer Geo. A. Retan Allen D. Patterson Thomas Gilland Ertr.a K. Rolar Thos. J. Breitwieser Emma Graham Heard M. o. Skarsten Flan H. Rawls J. C. Matthews Mrs. Malvin Stewart Buford w. Williams Clark M. Frasier Wisconsin Emery w. Leamer 47. La Crosse Teachers Col. Trng. Sch. w. E. Van Patter 48. Superior McCaskill 18 and Grand *To late to be included in the survey. APPENDIX B DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND SUPERVISORS TEXAS STATE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION SURVEY CHECKLIST ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATIVE AND ORGANIZATIONAL PRACTIC£S Dear Principal or Superintendent: The department of Elementary School Principals and Supervisors of the Texas State Teach­ers Association has undertaken a comprehensive survey of present practices in the organization and administration of eleme"ltal'Y schooJs. This survey is one phase of a state-wide program in Texas which endeavors to create better criteria for evaluating elementary schools. Will you lend a helping hand by filling out this blank and returning it promptly? Each section of the questionnaire has many items so that persons in every size and type of school would find ample opportunity to record their practices. Obviously no one school would have all the practices, so please select and reply to those practices in each section which apply to your school. Cordially yours, KYLE K. BA TES, President Please Note: In cities having several elementary schools a separate blank should be filled out for each building. If you are the superintendent or principal of several schools, choose one of the buildings and check this blank. I. Identifying Data. 1. Name and address of school whose practices are recorded in this blank : _______________________________-----------____________________________________ ______________________ _ ___________ _____ ________--------__________ (School) (Street) (City) (State) 2. How many regular full-time teaching positions are there in this school?----------------3. What is the total enrollment?------------------------4. In your district, for what racial groups are seg­regated schools maintained? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5. In your district, what grades compose the elementa-ry school?--------------------------------------------------6. What elementary grades are housed in this building?------------------------------------------------7. What special classes (for crippled, blind, hard of hearing, etc.), are housed in the building?----------------------­------------------------------------------8. Does the building have (a) gymnasium-auditorium combination? --------------------(b) separate gymnasium? __________________ (c) separate auditorium?________________ 9. Does the district operate kindergarten? ___ __________________If so, is there a kindergarten in this building? 10. Give name and position of person filling out this blank_______________ ______________ _ (Name) (Title) II. Detennining the Educational Status Within the School and the Community: A. Age-grade data: 1. When was the last age-grade study made in the school? -----------------­ 2. How frequently are age-grade studies made in this school?-----------------------------------------------------­ 3. Who made the last age-grade study in your school -------------------------------------------------------------------­ 4. Explain fully what was done with the data after they were assembled ---------------------------------­ 5. Name and illustrate the types of changes in the school which were made as a result of the making of an age-study study ________________ ·----·_ .-------------------------------------------------·------------------------------­ -------..----.:. ------------------------------· ----··-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ B. Age of entrance to first grade: 1. Is a summary made each year of the ages of pupils who are entering the first grade?__________________ If, so, describe the general findings of the last study 264 2. Illustrate the problems of school organization and management which arise because of the variations in the ages of entering pupils. Describe how each of these problems is met -------·..----·-----------------·------.----..-------------·-------------·----------..·-------··-------------------------------------·--------------­ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------..------------------------------------------------------------------------·­ C. Grade-progress data: 1. When was the last grade-progress study made in the school? -·----------------------------2. How frequently are grade-progress studies made?----------------------------------­ 3. Name and illustrate the types of changes in the school which were made as a result of the making of a grade-progress studY--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­-----------------------------------------___________________.., _______ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ D. Determining the mental Abilities of Pupils: 1. When was the last group mental test given to pupils in the school?------------------------------------------------2. Was it given to all the :JUpils in the school?------------------------If not, to which groups was it given?-------------------------------------------­ 8. How frequently are mental tests given to all pupils in the school?----------------------------------------­ 4. What is done with the mental test data after they have been secured?-------------------------------­ 5. Illustrate the types of changes in the school which were made as a result of obtaining a survey of the mental abilities of the pupils-----------------------"---------------------------------------------------------------­ E. Determining the achievement of children: 1. As a general policy of the school, how frequently are standardized achievement tests given in the school?---------------------------------------------­ 2. Name the tests given at the last testing and give the grades in which each test was admin­istered ------------------------· --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 3. Who gave the tests? _ _______________________________________ Who scored the tests?-------------------------------------­Did each teacher receive for her own use a set of the results from her class?---------·-------------------­ 4. Illustrate the types of changes in teaching and in the organization of the school which were made as a result of giving the achievement tests ---------------------------------------------------------------­ ---------------..-----···-----------------------·...----------------------------------------·-----------------------------------------------------------­ F. Com,munity data: Check the kinds of data about the community and its people which are on file in the school office or which are so well known that they could be tabulated on short notice. 1. Socio-economic status of the homes. 2. If a rural community, the chief centers to which people go to do· shopping. 3. If a rural community, the chief centers to which people go to do banking. 4. The kinds of retail stores in the community. 5. The kinds of other business establishments in the community. 6. Other educational institutions in the community. 7. Traffic and other hazards in the district. 8. Occupation of fathers. 9. Occupation of mothers. ____________10. Foreign languages spoken in the homes. ____________11. The educational needs of adults. ____________12. The educational interests of adults. ____________13. Needed community improvement. ____________14. The churches attended by the people. ____________15. Others, (list) : ____________16. Describe the changes in the program of your school which have been inaugurated as a result of study of the comm unitY-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·---­ III. Organization of the Program for Instruction: A. Pupils and classes: 1. What is the average class size that you try to adhere to?______________ 2. How much above this average do you permit classes to get before you place some of the pupils in with another grade group?------------------------------3. Do you now have any class groups which represent a combination of grades?----------------------------If so, indicate what combinations you have -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Does the total number in attendance fluctuate much during the year?----------------------------If so, what reasons or conditions cause the variation?---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 5. Is the variation in attendance great enough so that you employ more teachers during cer­tain months of the year than during others?--------------------If so, how many additional teachers do you employ during the peak season?___________________ 6. At what grade levels does the great­est variation in enrollment occur? ---------------------__--------------------------------------------------------------------------· B. Teachers: 1. How many persons do part-time classroom teaching in this school?__________ 2. For each part-time teacher give: (a) Grades or subjects taught on a (b) What the person does with the part-time basis. rest of his time. 266 C. Teaching apace: 1. Total number of rooms in the building (including gymnasium, auditorium, library, playroom, shops, lunchroom, etc.) available for use by elementary school pupils: -------------------2. Out of this total number of rooms, name the ones you regard as special rooms (i. e., non-regular classrooms) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 3. Do you have available rooms that are not used?__ __ __________ If so, how many? ______________________ Are they classrooms or special rooms?----------------------------------4. If your building is overcrowd­ed, describe the conditions and tell how you are meeting the situation -----------------------------------­ 5. If you are now using rooms that are really unsuitable for teaching, describe the nature of these rooms ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------___________ ----------------------------------------------­ D. General time schedule: 1. What is the opening hour of the school day?-----------------------­ 2. What is the closing hour of the school day?----------------3. If the school day is shorter for certain grades, give the grades and the amount which the day is shorter for each such grade 4. For children riding on school buses, what grades are dismissed sufficiently before bus-leav­ing time so that special provisions are made to care for these children during the interim? _______ 5. How do you provide for these pupils while they are waiting for the bus?-----------------------------­ 6. What provisions, if any, do you make to care for pupils who arrive early by bus? ---------------­ E. Sources of guidance in program making: In preparing the general schedule whereby the school carries forward its work, persons are likely to consult various sources for ideas or plans which might be feasible in the local school. Please check which sources, if any, were consulted in preparing this year's program for your school. a. Last year's program_____ ______ . b. Programs in other nearby schools____________. c. Programs recommended in state course of study____________; county course of study____________ : local course of study____________. d. Recommenda­tions from the superintendent's office (county or city) ____________. e. Professional books___________. f. Suggestions from classroom teachers__ _________ . g. Suggestions from supervisors__ _________________. h. Suggestions from parents____________________. i. Your own experience in other schools________________. j . 0thers, (list) ________----------------------------------·-----------------------------------------______ ______________ _ ___ ________________ F. Guiding principles utilized in program making: Some schools have developed or adopted certain guiding principles relating to sequence of subjects in daily classroom sched­ules, alternation of periods requiring much physical activity with periods requiring less phys­ical activity, length of periods, etc., which the school endeavors to follow or endeavors not to violate in the arrangement of daily classroom schedules. Are any such guiding principles In what major ways does this year's program differ from last year's?---------------------------------------­ 267 used in your school? ________________ If so, please name them and describe how each is applied in the making of classroom schedules______________________------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ G. Extemal controls governing program making: Is your school free to plan its program without reference to the programs of any other schools?--------------------If not, please check the items with which you must coordinate the program in your school. a. Supervisory visits of the principal who has charge of several buildings____________________.. b. Periodic visits of special teachers___ ________________, special supervisors____________________, general supervisors__________________. c. Chil­dren from other buildings use some of your facilities____________________ . d. Some of your pupils spend part-time in another building____________________ --·. e. Time allotments prescribed by the cen­tral office_______________. f. 0thers, (list) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ H. Internal controls governing program making: Usually in every school there are some factors which exercise some control over program making. Please check the items which re­quire recognition in program making in your school. a. Part-time teaching done by princi­ pal or vice-principal________________. b. Size of playground requires staggered lunch periods____________. c. Size of lavatories requires staggered recess periods. d. Staggered use of gymnasium_________, auditorium______________, library______________. e. Staggered use of specialized equipment and facilities in science________________, art________________, music________________, shop__________________ , home economics_________________. f. Overcrowded condition______ ------------· g. Others, (list) -----------------------------------------------------------------­ I. Program planning: 1. Who in your school plans the general over-all program for the school as a whole so that all phases operate smoothly, that all events occur at properly sched­uled times, and that there are no conflicts?________________. 2. Is the daily classroom schedule for each teacher planned by the principal and handed to the teacher?----------------· If not, what is the procedure in securing a daily schedule for each teacher? -----------------------------------------------------­ 3. Describe the extent of individual teacher freedom in the preparation of daily schedules 4. If teachers are given considerable freedom in planning their daily schedules, does the prin­cipal check each teacher's schedule?----------------· If so, at what times?---------------------------------------· What features of the schedule does the principal check?-------------------------------------------------------------­ -----------------------------6. Please describe in sequential order the steps taken at the beginning of the year or semester in preparing an instructional program for the school ---------------------------------­ 268 &.. If the program needs changing during the year or-semester, describe the steps that are taken to bring about such change ----------------------·-----­ --------------------·-----­ J. Proaram flesibility: Many schools do not adhere rigidly to the general schedule but J)ermit variations for special occasions. Please cheek the items which merit occasional sched­ule adjustments in your school. a. A class goes on an excursion______. b. Presence at school of an important speaker or entertainer -· c. Visits by a school or public health nurse . d. Visits by school physician or dentist__________. e. Absence of a teacher_______. f. Use of building by adult groups . g. Athletic contests ________. h. Others, (list) ______ --------------------------------·--------------------------------­ K. The carricul_. to' be progr•mmed: 1. List the subjects and the grades in which each of these subjects has its own time allotment and a designated class period. (applies to non~epartmentalized schools as well as departmentalized schools) Subject Grades Subject Grades ---------------­ ---------·______________ ----·--­-·----------­---------·--------· ------­---­-­,__,_____________ -!-----­·-------­-------------------­--­------·-------­·--------­-----­ --------­-------­-----------­------------------­-------­-------­ 2. If any subjects have been combined into broader areas, name the areas, the subjectswhich were combined, and the grades in which the practice prevails. 3. List the co-curricular activities (assemblies, athletic events, student council, safety patrol, Areas Subject Combined Grades in which the Practice prevails. ---·--------------­-~------------­---------------­ ------------------­·--------·-------­------·------­------­--------­--------­-----­ ----------------------------­--­ clubs, etc.) w·hich are regularly scheduled features of your program and indicate the grades represented in each activity________________ _ ·---.-------------------------------­ ---------------~-------------------------------------------------­ ·----------------------------------------­ ·------------------------------------~-------------------­ Please underline (in the above list) those co-curricular activities which meet outside of regu­larly scheduled school hours. 4. By what methods, if any, are the data gathered by the health 269 service utilized in the health instruction program? --------------------------------------------------------------­ 5. By what methods, if any, is the noon lunch program related to instruction in the classrooms? 6. What community improvement projects, if any, do children engage in under the auspices of the schoo1?_________________----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ L. Special program features: (Please check only the items which apply in your school) Program Features a. A home-room system is used in grades which are departmentalized b. Planned home-room programs lasting at least 15 minutes are con­ducted each day____, two or three times a week____ , c. Each day there is a free period which pupils may use for individual work, extra help from the teacher, or exploration of special interests d. Each day there is a period set aside for co-operative teacher-pupilplanning e. Some class periods nre over 60 minutes long f. Radio programs are listened to regularly. . g. Instruction is supplemented frequently with motion pictures . h. Instruction is supplemented frequently with colored and black and white slides. i. To reduce the number of short class periods, subjects are alternated by days, weeks, semesters, or years in rooms, where teachers handle several grades j. Others (List) Grades in which practice prevails M. Time allotments: 1. From what source does the school obtain recommendations as to each subject? ----------------------------------------------------2. In what detail are the recommendations on time allotments given in the above source?---------------------------------------------------------3. Does the above source give detailed daily schedules for each grade?-------------------· 4. If there is no par­ ticular source from which you get recommendations on time allotments, how do you go about determining the amount of time to be devoted to each subject?---------------------------------------------------­ 5. Does the principal examine the time allotment feature of each teacher's schedule?_____ _____ If so, at what times?--------------------------------------------6. How does he go about making this check? --------------------------------------------------------------------------------7. Does the principal ever request teachers to change their time allotments to bring them into closer harmony with the judgments of the principal?--------------------· 8. Does the principal make periodic reports on time allotments to the central office?--------------------· If so, how frequently? ----------------------------------9. Do special super­visors check the time allotments in your school?--------------------· 10. Do general supervisors check time allotments in your school?--------------------11. Under what conditions is a school permitted to 270 deviate its time allotments from the general policy for the entire city? ----------------------------0------­---...---------·--------------...-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 12. Under what conditions is an individual teacher permitted to deviate from general policy in the time allotment used in her classroom?-----------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 18. Are time allotments calculated on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis? _______________________________ , N. Departmental instruction: Specialization in teaching, or departmental teaching as it is commonly known, is used in schools in a great variety of ways. In some schools the teachers of two contiguous grades merely exchange certain subjects: teacher A who has a special liking for music may teach music in both grades; while she is teaching music in the next room, teacher B who has geography or reading or art as a favorite subject comes in to teach one of these in A's room. In some cases pupils change rooms whereas in others the teachers move about from room to room. For each of the grades in your school, indicate the nature and the extent of departmentalteaching. Kgn. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ Grade I -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·--------------------­ Grad·e ll ----------------------------------------------------------·------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ Grade m ----------------------·----------------------------_________________________________________________ -------------------__________ _ Grade IV -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.--­ Grade V ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·------· --... Grade VI ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------..­ Grade Vll _______ -----------------------------~----------------------____---------------------------------------------------------------------------­ Grade Vm ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 0. Prosram improvements: List the features of the instructional program with which you are dissatisfied and describe the changes you would like to make __________________________________________,, ___ ·---·--------------------------------------:..-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------· -­ IV. Clauificationa, Promotion, Child-Study, and Adjuabnent Procedures. A. Clauification in First Grade: Do you apply criteria other than chronological age for admission to first grade?--------------If so, what are the other criteria and under what conditions are they applied? --"----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 2. Is your entering first-grade group too large for one teacher to handle? ________________ If so, what 271 procedures are used in selecting those who are to be assigned to Teacher.A, to Teacher B, etc.? --------------..:.__---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ (Note: If several criteria are used in forming class sections, list the criteria, the relative weights given to each, and illustrate your techniques as used in the practical situation.) 3. Some first-grade teachers sub-divide the class into two or more smaller groups. Into how many sub-groups are your first-grade classes divided?------------------------What criteria or bases are used in forming these sub-groups?--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ How soon after the term begins are these groupings made? ________________________________ Once these sub­groups have been formed, are pupils ever shifted from one group to another?----------------If so, approximately what percent of the total class is shifted from one group to another during the term? --------------------------------_ ___________________. B. Classification in Grades Two and above: 1. In what grades (above the first) do you have more pupils than one teacher can handle?------------------------------------------------------------2. In some grades the number of pupils may be too large to be assigned to one teacher and you are re­quired to divide the pupils into two or more classes or sections. How is such a division made? What are the criteria in terms of which certain pupils are assigned to Teacher A and others to Teacher B? Explain fully how this phase of classification is handled in your school. Perhaps you can illustrate your procedure with concrete examples. -------------------------------------------------------------­ -------------------------...l-------------------------------------------------------------------------------·-----------------------------------------------------­ C. Grouping within each clasroom in Grade Two and above: 1. In which grades is the division of classes into sub-groups common practice?----------------------------2. Is the forming of sub­groups limited to selected subjects?----------------· If so, for what subjects?______________________________________ 3. What criteria are most commonly used in forming sub-groups? --------------------------~----------------­ 4. Are pupils shifted from one sub-group to another? ______________ _ , If so, approximately -what percent of the typical class is shifted during the term? ------------------------------------------------· D. Classifying transfer students: By what procedure do you determine grade placement for a pupil who transfers to your school from another district?---------------------------------------------------­----------------·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------·--------------------------------------------------------------­----------------·----------------------------------------------------·----------------------------·-------------------------------------------------------------­ E. Promotion practices: 1. Is retardation (non-promotion) used in the school? ________________, If so, how many pupils failed to be promoted at the end of the last term?--------------------· What percentage is this of the total enrollment?---------------------· 2. Is acceleration (grade skipping or double promotion) used in the school?----------------· If so, how many pupils were accelerated during the last term? . __________ What percentage is this of the total enrollment?-----------------------­ 272 3. In some schools achievement is checked more carefully in Grade III and in the last grade in the elementary school to make sure that pupils are prepared to go on into higher grades. Do you have such a practice in your school?----------------· If so, in what grades are these spe­cial checks made? ------------------------------------------------· Is there more retardation in these grades than in others?----------------· 4. Are trial promotions given in your school?----------------· 5. Does yourschool have any general rules which govern promotions in the various grades-? Examples: School X has a rule that no child shall leave Grade I unless he has attained certain stand­ards in reading; in grades 3-8 no child is promoted if he has marks below passing in more than two of the fundamental subjects. In School Y the average of each pupil's marks must be 75 or over in order for him to be promoted to the next higher grade. In School Z all pupils must receive a certain score on the Stanford Achievement Test before they are promoted to High School. Describe fully whatever rules prevail in your school. If the rules vary for different grades, explain fully. _------------------------------------------------------------------------------------_____________ -----------------______ 6. Which of the following statements, concerning a six-grade elementary school, comes near­est to describing the situation as it now exists in your school? Read both statements before you check the one which best applies. ________a. The elementary school is an institution which takes children of varying physical and intellectual capacities who are about six years of age, and for six years offers them the edu­cational opportunities which seem best suited to their needs. They get what they can, and when they are approximately twelve years of age they are promoted to the junior high schooL Ifthey have shown them~elves to be above average in ability they may even be promoted at an earlier age. ______b. The elementary school is an institution which takes children of varying physical and intellectual capacities who are approximately six years of age, and requires them to reach certain minimum standards of educational accomplishment before they are promoted to the junior high school. Unless they are of average ability or above, this may involve seven, eight or more years of attendance in the elementary school; and promotion to junior high school at the age of thirteen, fourteen, or older. F. C111'&·icular differentiation: 1. Is instruction in your school guided by a printed or mim­eographed course of study?_____________--· . If so, do you follow it carefully?_______________ . Check the type of course of study that you follow: (a) a single-track course which outlines the work for all pupils without any differentiation according to ability________________ , (b) a single course of study with enrichments indicated for superior pupils and easier materials for the less able pupils___________, (c) separate courses of study for the superior groups, for the middle groups, and for the below-average groups____________. 2. Are materials especially designated to per­mit individual pupils to progress at their own rates used in any subject fields? _______________ . If so, name the subjects and the grades in which the practice prevails____________________________________________. 3. Is it common practice for your teachers to give differentiated assignments which make al­lowance for pupils of different levels of ability? ________________. If so, name the subjects and the grades in which the practice prevails. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------__ 4. Are co-curricular activities (such as clubs, athletic events, assembli~s. etc.) used as a de­vice for adapting school experiences to individual differences?________________ If so, describe how this practice is carried out in your schooL------------------------------------------------------------"---------------------------­ 6. Does the school as a whole make any concentrated effort to provide enrichment for superior 273 pupils?----------------· If so, describe your practices ----------------------------------------------------------------­ 6. Are superior pupils permitted to work through the course of study more rapidly than the average pupils?----------------· If so, how does the school manage to administer such accelerated progress ? -------------·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 7. Is it a policy of the school to excuse certain pupils from subjects in which they have shown superior achievement?----------------· If so, in what subjects and in which grades does the practice prevail ? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 8. Does the school permit certain pupils to follow a staggered type of program in which they take some subject in their regular grade and some subject in grades above or below the regu­ lar grade?----------------. If so, describe how the school manages to administer such irregular pro­ grams -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 9. At the time pupils complete the elementary school, is a special type of diploma given those pupils who have not attained the academic achievement standards thought necessary for suc­ cess in the usual high school course?----------------· If so, explain the conditions under which such special diploma is given _________ ---------------------------·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 10. Are there any special classes (for mentally slow, academically retarded, blind, crippled, etc.) in the school or in the city to which your school may send pupils?----------------· If so, list the types accessible to your pupils ---------------------· ----------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 11. Are pupils encouraged and permitted to browse in supplementary books and magazines or to read library books during any period of the day when they have finished their regular assignments?----------------· If so, describe how you manage this free reading___________________________ 12. Is special help given to pupils who are having difficulties in one or more subjects? ____________. If so, at what time of day (before school; at recess, after school, etc.) are teachers able to give this special help?----------------------------------------··--------------· G. Child atudy procedures: 1. Does the school have a definite policy regarding the mak­ing of case studies of individual pupils?----------------· If so, describe the policy______________________________ 2. How many case studies of individual pupils were made during 1941-1942?________________________. 3. Who made these case studies? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 4. What kinds of curricular adjustments were made for the children thus studied? -----------------­ H. Welfare aervicea: 1. Check the kinds of physical needs of pupils which are met by co­operative agency effort in the community: Eye glasses________, crutches_ ______, tonsillectomies________, food________, clothes_______ , housing________, hospitilization_______, school supplies (books, paper, pencil, etc.) ________ , others (list) ----------------------------------------------------------------------·--------------· 2. For which types 274 of aid are Board of Education funds used?----------------------------~---------------------------------· 3. What per­centage of children in need of welfare aid had their needs provided for last year? ----------------· 4. What percentage of the cases receiving aid were nominated by the teachers?--------------------· V. Safety Practices: A. Fire safety: 1. How frequently per year are fire drills held?------------------------· At what times during the year?__________ ____________ __ _____. 2. Does the school have a set of printed or mimeo­graphed instructions for fire drills which are available to teachers and pupils?______________. If so, are teachers thoroughly familiarized with these instructions at the beginning of each school year?-----------· B. Air-raid safety: 1. How frequently per year are aid-raid drills held?------------------------· 2. Does the school have copies of officially published instructions on how to conduct air-raid drills?---------· 3. Have all teachers been thoroughly familiarized with these instructions? -------------· If so, by what methods?__________________ ·------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ C. Traffic safety: 1. Does your school have a student safety-patrol organization?------------· 2. What is the youngest age or grade group eligible for membership?------------------------------------· 3. Are girls eligible for membership?----------------· 4. Check the activities engaged in by your safety-patrol: a. Direct the traffic of vehicles in the street_______, b. Direct the street traffic of school children_ ______, c. Direct pupil traffic within the school building________, d. Direct pupil traffic on the school grounds________, e. Retrieve balls and other toys that may go into streets_______ D. Playground safety: 1. Is the playground divided into areas for different types of games or for use by children of different ages?---------------· If so, what general areas or divisions do you have ?----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 2. Against what kinds of obstructions or hazards (holes, tree stumps, posts, rocks, etc.) on the playground do you warn children?-----------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 3. In what ways, if any, are playground activities curtailed or jeopardized by inadequacy or unsuitability of playground area or equipment? ------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 4. In what ways are you adjusting playground activities to these limitations?______ ______ ___________ ____ --------------------------·-----------------------------------------___________________________________.__________________..;_________________________ ---------------------------------------------------------------___________________________________.____________________________________________ E. Building safety: List the special practices in your school which are intended to protect the safety of the building itself and to protect pupils, teachers, and othi:lrs in the use of the building -----------------------------"-------------"--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ F. First-aid: 1. Does the school possess one or more first-aid kits?----------------· 2. Who ad­ministers first-aid treatment?----------------· 3. Have these persons had qualified instruction in first-aid practices?---------------· 275 VI~ Library Service: 1. Check the types of library facilities which prevail in the school. ________a, A separate specially equipped library room which is used only as a library. ________b, A specially equipped library room which is also used as a classroom. _______ c. Shelves for library books in the principal's office. _______ d, A store room in which l!brary books are housed. _____ __e. Shelves for library books in each classroom. ________f, A reading table in each classroom. --_ ___g. A specially arranged reading nook in each classroom. ________h. Other (describe) ------.-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 2. Check the out-of-school sources from which library materials are borrowed regularly. _______ a, Local public library. ________b. Local privately sponsored library. ________c. County library, ________d, State public library. _______ e. Extension service from nearby college or university ________f. County school library. ________g. Others (describe) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 3. Check the types of materials borrowed regularly from out-of-school sources. Indicate the grades in facilities of the school. 4. Check the procedures whereby children have access to the library ________a, Books. ________d, Film strips. ________f. Exhibits. ________b. Magazines. ________e, Slides. ________g, Music records. ________c, Motion picture films. which practice prevails. ________a. Children may go to the library individually at any hour of the day ... ________b. Classes have regularly scheduled library periods . . . ________c. Children may use classroom library whenever they have free time ________d. Collections of books are placed in classrooms as needed . . ________e. Others (describe) -----------------------------------------------------------------------­ 5. Does your building have a professional library for teachers? _____________ __, If so, where is it housed? --------------------------------------------------How is it financed? --------------------------------------------------------­ 6. Does the school library have reading materials for parents?----------------· VII. Relationships With Other Schools: 1. Do you issue graduation certificates at the completion of your elementary school?--------------· 2. What kinds of data or records do you request from the pupil or the sending school when a pupil transfers to your school from another district? --------------------------------------------------------------­ 3. What kinds of data or records on each child are requested by the high school attended by most of your elementary school graduates? -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 4. List the activities which are carried on to acquaint your upper grade students with the secondary school which they will attend___________________.------------------------------------------­ 276 VIII. Records and Reports: A. Census taking: 1. Do classroom teachers aid in the taking of the school census? ____________, If so, is participation in census taking required of classroom teachers?---------------· 2. How fre­quently is the census taken?-------------· 3. Do classroom teachers check enrollment against the census?--------------· B. Attendance recording and reporting: 1. How frequently each day is an inventory made of the children in attendance?----------------------· 2. Who keeps the attendance register?-----------­ 3. How frequently per day is the attendance reported?------------· 4. To whom? ---------------------------------------------------------5. What procedure is used in reporting the attendance? -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ ----·6. How often per year are summaries of at­tendance made?---------------· 7. By whom?----------------------------------------------------­ C. Periodic giving of teats: Select from the list the types of tests periodically given in your school. For each item selected, give the desired information in the other columns: ~ $ I r! QI ::sI .... Cll 1::11::1 .. i:i.s .. .. s o:; Of"• §... "C:I 0 5.... B,!.,..al ~>. r:: .. "::s~ O":;j !C)o lll ::s QI ";;;::; s ::s s s "C:I QI fl .c:: r:: 0 o.... "'= .... •"'~ "'"' g .. .C:: ... • B~ ;"C:I Q) .... =QI ~ ::s i~ '; .. s .. I>-~'Os :: ~ti~ QI ~= ... "C:l I>-C' QI .. .. _... G> 0 aQ QI :l g ~ g ~ Q)•""" G> l:lo:i u ... i>.0 .,.._ <.c::.....QI <•-18 o~ ~·ro i:Q~ ~:: i:i,f <·· Cll aQ .. i:i.u ... 1. Informal teachers' ---­ 2. Intelligence -------------­ 3. Vision ------------------­ 4. Hearing -----------------­ 5. Speech ---------------­ 6. Medical ---------------­ 7. Dental ----~--------­ 8. Nutritional status ____ 9. Standardized -----------­ 10. Others -----------­ D. Scholastic marking: 1. What marking system do you use?_____________________________________ 2. How frequently per year are marks given?------------------· 8. How frequently are sum­maries made of scholastic marks given by teachers? ----------------------------------------------------------· E. Reporting to parents: 1. How frequently are marks reported to parents?_____________________ 2. Do teachers report directly to parents or are all reports issued by the principal?--------------· 3. What type of report to parents do you use? (a card, letter, oral, etc.) _--------------------------------· 4. Check the items included in your report to parents: a. attendance_______, b. scholastic marks________, c. conduct________, d. health________ , e. character traits__________ , f. citizenship _______, 277 g. habits________, h. attitudes________ , i. test results________ , j. others (list)------------------------~---------­ IX. Textbook, Supplies, oand Equipment Management: A. Check the items provided by the school free to all pupils. ________Basic Textbooks ________Supplementary Books ________work Books ________Composition Books ---~----Arithmetic Drill Books ________ Outline Maps ________Spelling Blanks ________Writing Paper for Ink ________ Test Paper (examination) ________Standardized Tests ________Graph Paper ________Notebook Paper ________ Music Score Paper ________Scratch Tablets ________Theme Paper .________Blotters ________Ink ________Pens ________Pen-holders ________Pencils (lead) ________Rubber erasers ________Twine ________Pins ________Paper Clips ________Thumb-tacks ________Colored Crayon ________Colored Paper ________Construction Paper ________Manilla Drawing Paper ________ Oak-tag Paper ________ White Drawing Paper _______Mounting Paper ________News Print ________Crayolas _______Charcoal Sticks ________Rulers ________Scissors ________ Clay (modeling) ________paste ______ __Water Colors ________Tempera Paints ________ Finger Paints ________Paint Brushes ________Soap (carving) ________Linoleum (block) ________Plaster Paris (modeling) Others: B. Check the items of equipment available in your building. ________ Slide Projector ________ Motion Picture Projector -------·Stereoscope ________ Maps ________G 1 ob es --------Handwriting A 1 p habet Strips ________Paper Punchers -------·Paper Cutters ________Mimeograph ________Hectograp h ________Primary-print Typewriter ________ Printing Set (letters, blocks) ________wood-burning Set Others: _------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ C. Check in the proper columns the management practices which are followed in your school. 1. Securing: a. Principal requisitions from central office b. Teacher requisitions from central office c. Teacher makes direct purchase from venders . d. Principal makes direct purchase from venders e. The requisition of the teacher is made on a spe­cial form . . . f. The requisition of the teacher is sent to the prin­cipal . . . . g. Others (list) --------------------------­------------------------------­-­ Text Books basic and Supplemen­tary Instructional Supplies (crayolas, ink, etc.) Instructional Equipment (Motion Pic­ture Mach., Maps, Globes, etc.) 278 2. Storing: a. Checked into storeroom upon arrival at building b. Distributed directly to classrooms upon arrival at building . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Others (list) ------------------------------------------------____________ --------------------:--------------------------------------------------------­ 3. Distribution to classrooms: a. Teachers check out from storeroom b. Pupils check out from the storage room c. Teacher has an account with the storeroom d. Delivered to classrooms on a specified sched­ule e. Others (list) --------------------------------------------------------­ 4. Distribution to pupils: a. The pupils are issued the materials by the class­room teacher . b. The pupils are issued the materials by the prin­cipal's office staff . . . c. The pupil has an individual account with the classroom teacher . d. Pupil signs for materials received e. Duplicate copy of child's account sent to parents f. At close of year materials are returned to teacher g. Account of pupil with teacher is checked . h. Adjustments for defacement, loss or destruc­tion by pupil to teacher . . . i. Others (list) -------------------------------------------------------­ 5. Return to stockroom: a. The teacher returns materials to stockroom b. The pupils return materials to stockroom . c. The equipment is returned by custodians or oth­en! as per schedule of use d. The teacher reconciles her account or record with the stockroom e. Others (list) -------------------------------------------------------­ 279 I Instructional Text Books, Equipment basic and Instructional (Motion Pic­Supplemen­ Supplies ture Mach., tary (crayolas, I Maps, Globes, ink, etc.) etc.) 6. Inventory: a. Materials are inventoried continuously b. Materials are inspected when returned to stock­room c. Materials inspected when checked out of stock­room d. Materials are purchased by the Board of Educa­tion on a basis of annual requisitions e. Specific title and per pupil quota are specified . f. Principal checks classrooms periodically to note status of supplies g. Teachers are notified periodically as to the amounts used as compared to budgetary allow­ances h. Non-consumable items are listed on a location card checked with respect to where and when they were sent or delivered i. Principal notifies each teacher before making periodic requisitions or annual budget of supplies j. The school operates a school supplies store from which pupils may purchase supplies not furnished by the Board of Education . k. 0thers (list) ---­----------­-------------------­--------­--­---­------­ Text Books, basic and Supplemen­tary Instructional SuppHes (crayolas, ink, etc.) Instructional Equipment (Motion Pic­ture Mach., Maps, Globes, etc.) X. Adminiatration of Service Agencies: A. Check in the appropriate columns for each of the service personnel available to your school. Check agencies which singly or cooperatively sponsor and Are pay for each service. Services Available? School­ City County State I Private board Gov't Gov't Gov't Agency 1. Attendance Officer . 2. Visiting Teacher . 3. Public Health Nurse 1----------- ---­ 4. School Nurse 1 ---------------­ 5. Psychologist 1---------------­ 6. Psychiatrist 7. Dentist 8. Physician, who gives pe­riodic health exams. . 9. Physician who gives pe.­ riodic eye exams. 10. Speech Clinician . 11. Dietitian 280 B. Check the operation practices for each type of service personnel. Attend­ance Officer Visiting Teacher County or City Health Nurse School Nurse Who plans the schedule for Does the agency representative exe­cute duties regularly or only on calls? How much time per week does the representative give to your school? I\) ~ Representative visits classrooms regu­larly to contact pupils needing help and to identify cases. Representative contacts only those pupils sent to the office. I Psy­chol­ogist Den-tist Physi­cian Health Exams. Physi­cian Speech DietitianEye Clinician Exams. XI. Supervision and Staff Education: A. Organization for supervision: 1. Supervisory staff: The desire here is to determine, (a) the types of administrative and supervisory officers available in your school system, (b) the size of each of these person's jobs, and (c) the amount of time and type of service each gives in your building. In the first column, check the types of administrative and supervisory officers available in your district. Give answers in the remaining columns only for those you checked or the titles you added in the first column. 2. The over-all auperviaory machinery and ita operation: The desire here is to determine the nature, personnel organization for administrative, supervisory, and . curriculum improve­ment and the way in'which the machinery really functions in the local situation. Two dif­ferent plans are described to give you a clearer picture of the kind of data desired. Read both descriptions; then describe your own supervisory set-up. 282 Plan A. In setting up the machinery for supervision, the superintendent has developed three committees: a committee on curriculum construction, a committee on the selection of text-books and supplies, and a committee for research. The membership of each of these three committees consists of the two elementary school principals, the junior high school principal, certain supervisors, the senior high school principal, the superintendent as ex-officio member, and one teacher from each school unit (building)-different teachers serving on each com­mittee. The three chairmen form an administrative council. Each committee regularly meets two times a month. The administrative council also meets two times a month. Proposed stud­ies by any of the committees are presented through the administrative council to the superin­tendent. With his approval the council starts the study to moving in the individual commit­tee. The results of the committee's work is presented to the superintendent for approval, re­jection, or alteration. Except for the approval required from the superintendent, the council and the three committees initiate the studies to be made, carry the studies through to comple­tion, and put the results into practice. The superintendent feels that these committees and the council are capable of seeiing the need for studies and alterations, and are capable of put­ting the results of the studies into practice. Rarely does the superintendent direct the course of the committees through his ex-officio membership in them. The teachers and principalsactually have a rather large share in shaping educational plans and policies. Plan B. In setting up the machinery for supervision the superintendent has developed three instructional committees; a committee on curriculum construction, a committee on the selection of textbooks and supplies, and a committee for research. The membership of each of these three committees consists of the two elementary school principals, the junior highschool principal, the senior high school principal, the superintendent as ex-officio member, and one teacher from each school unit (different teachers serving on each committee). The high school principal acts as chairman of each of the three committees. The committees do not meet regularly but only at the call of the high school principal. Proposed studies and alterations originate with the superintendent. He notifies the high school principal of his de­sires. The high school principal calls a meeting of the committee (s) concerned and initiates the new study or alteration. In other words the initiative comes from the office of the super­intendent, and the high school principal puts the committee to work to achieve what is desired. The teachers on the committees have no initiative in policy-making and realize from past ex­perience that they are not expected to suggest certain practices or changes in policy. This is considered the responsibility of the superintendent and school board only. 3. Please describe your supervisory and curriculum improvement set-up: 4. Are definite supervisory objectives set up each year? ----------------· If so, what are they for this year? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------­ 5. What steps are taken to check the results of supervision? ------------------------------------·-------------------· B. Supervisory and staff education procedures:__ Select from the first column the activi­ties taking place in your school. Check the columns across the page only for the items checked in the first column. Supervisory activity Classroom visitation to study work of teacher Classroom visitation to evaluate teacher at work Reporting to central administration the ratings of the teachers Demonstration teaching Requiring or arranging for intervisitation by teachers Directing a testing program (using such in­struments as achievement tests, ir.telligence tests, etc.) Calling teachers' meet­ings for announcements Calling general faculty meetings for stimulating improvement of instruction Calling meeting of teach­ers of certain subjects Calling meeting of teach­ers of certain grades Calling meeting of commit­tees for special studies Giving lectures and. reports Issuing bulletins, graphs of test results, letters, etc. Arranging for professional reading by teachers Organizing a professional reading circle Arranging for teachers to report readings Holding individual confer­ences with teachers Maintaining office hours when teachers can get help ..; i::>. ::s Cl.l I I I I I I I I Activity Activity engaged in by: ..;...! ., i::>. ..; = =ii ·;:::= gj ·­ Q) ::s "'::s p.. ~Cl.l ..;...! Q) i::>. i::>. gj i::>. Q) ... i::>.::S ::s "" E-< Q) V2Cl.l 0 Cl.l <~ I I I Tfl1 I I - I I -~ I I occurs at request or invita­tion of: (mark X) u • I . ... Q) '5 Q) j;l, oS =..; = =;. '5 Q) ::s "'·­ i::>. ::s QI ... "' ... ;E Cl.l 00 E-< Q) ~Cl.l